Zusammenfassung Organizational Behavior
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Questions and Answers

Social psychology focuses on the influence of the social context on human thoughts, feelings, and actions.

True

Allport (1953) defined social psychology as the scientific study of how human thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by the presence of other humans.

True

Social psychology primarily relies on observational studies to test hypotheses.

False

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external causes and others' behavior to inherent personality traits.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the fundamental attribution error, individuals are more likely to attribute their own behavior to external forces.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the fundamental attribution error, individuals are more likely to attribute others' behavior to external forces.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The actor-observer bias refers to the tendency to interpret causes of behavior differently based on whether one is the actor or the observer.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Own behavior is typically attributed to inherent personality traits, according to the actor-observer bias.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Others' behavior is typically attributed to external forces, according to the actor-observer bias.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text suggests that the social situation plays a significant role in driving behavior, while personality is de-emphasized.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Groupthink can be prevented by establishing standards of control, oversight, and challenging group decisions.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pluralistic ignorance may explain the bystander effect and occurs when a majority privately rejects a norm but goes along with it assuming others accept it.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Breaching is the purposeful breaking of social norms used to study how norms and conformity are upheld in a society.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment showed how people quickly enact their roles and experience dissonance when not enacting the role.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social identity theory offers insights into group processes and intergroup conflict, explaining group identification processes and the consequences of group identification.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The minimal group paradigm and information cascade game illustrate the impact of heterogeneity on group decision-making and conformity.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Peer effects can impact productivity, with individuals tending to have high problems with procrastination and groups potentially helping to overcome this.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pairing with a productive partner may yield negative effects due to free-riding.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Teams decide with higher strategic sophistication and potentially inhibit welfare maximization in beauty contests between individuals and teams.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

People have a natural tendency to categorize when they see contrast, which is necessary for group formation.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: The self-concept only involves the content of our self, not the process of self-attention.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Cultural differences do not impact the perception of the self.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: According to the theory of cognitive dissonance, people seek psychological inconsistency between their expectations and the reality of the world.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: People reduce cognitive dissonance by changing behavior or cognition, justifying their actions, adding new cognitions, or ignoring conflicting information.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Sherif and Asch studied group processes and found that individuals establish personal standards, which are unaffected by group influence.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Normative influence and informational influence are two forms of conformity, where normative influence involves using others' behavior as evidence about reality.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Factors affecting normative influence include group size, unanimity, cohesion, and individual identification with the group.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Factors affecting informational influence include perceived intelligence or competence of others, number of others, unanimity, and one's own certainty.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Groupthink is a phenomenon where groups fail to aggregate their views properly and was identified as a cause of the Challenger Disaster.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leader development focuses on developing individual leader attributes, while leadership development concentrates on the leader-follower relationship and developing an environment for cooperation and resource exchange.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Formal leadership involves influencing others to pursue official organizational objectives, while informal leadership involves influencing others to pursue unofficial objectives.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The dispositional theories of leadership suggest that certain traits are essential for great leadership.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The power approach to leadership examines the different types of powers wielded by leaders, including reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The motivation to lead can be based on affective identity, instrumental motives, and social-normative motives.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Transformational leadership theory focuses on inspiring and transforming followers by appealing to nobler motives, while transactional leadership theory focuses on showing followers how to meet personal goals through certain behaviors.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leaders help build and maintain consensus about objectives and priorities, increase the efficacy of the organization, and foster trust, respect, and cooperation.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The dynamics of team effectiveness include psychological safety, dependability, structure and clarity, meaning, and impact.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Behavioral theories of leadership suggest that great leadership is based on what a leader does.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The motivation to lead can be based on instrumental motives, which indicate an interest in leading if it leads to personal benefits.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The power approach to leadership examines the different types of powers wielded by leaders, including reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The motivation to lead can be based on social-normative motives, which involve feeling a sense of duty and standing up for a challenge.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leaders are more concerned with innovating and inspiring, while managers focus on administering and controlling. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tyrannical leaders accept the goals of the organization but humiliate subordinates. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leader emergence focuses on the characteristics of individuals who become leaders, while leadership effectiveness studies the behaviors of designated leaders. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Episodic leadership requires individuals to always exhibit leadership behaviors. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Derailed leaders behave abusively and engage in behavior directed against the organization. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Managers are more likely to challenge the status quo and do the right thing. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Supportive-disloyal leaders are nice to employees but encourage disloyal behavior against the organization. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leader emergence studies the basis on which individuals become leaders. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Negative leadership outcomes only include tyrannical and derailed behaviors. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leadership effectiveness examines the characteristics of individuals who become leaders. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Managers focus on long-term views and inspiring others. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leader emergence is the study of which behaviors on the part of a designated leader led to an outcome valued by the work group or organization. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress can have both positive and negative effects on individuals. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Long-term stress can lead to the development of mental and physical abilities. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the WHO Global Burden of Disease Report, there has been a 46% decrease in health care cost for people reporting high stress levels. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Short-term stress consequences are reversible through recovery. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Long-term stress only has negative effects on individuals. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress is relevant in the economic dimension. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The number of IV-Retirees in CH has decreased by 60% from 2000 to 2016. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress can lead to an increase in 'sick days' in response to mental illness. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Exercise is a positive consequence of long-term stress. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress has no impact on the economic dimension. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mindfulnes-based stress reduction is the ultimate solution to the social problem in general.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress interventions should only focus on changing the individual, not the environment.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Douglas and Walter responded differently to being laid off, with Douglas attributing the situation to external factors.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Martin Seligman is best known for his work in positive psychology and has assisted in designing a resilience program for the army.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Army's 'Teaching Resilience Program' aims to reduce the number of people suffering from PTSD and increase the number of people experiencing post-traumatic growth.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress is a physical reaction triggered by threats to an organism's homeostasis, leading to specific physiological responses.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social support has been found to mitigate stress and individual responses to stressful events may depend on individual differences in anxiety.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress 'management' approaches include mindfulness-based stress reduction, resilience training, and cognitive reappraisals of stressful situations.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text suggests that stressors in the workplace are often social in nature and may lead to chronic stress with adverse effects.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Army's 'Teaching Resilience Program' includes self-improvement courses and master-resilience training for drill sergeants.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress can only lead to physical health issues, not behavioral issues. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hans Selye is known as the founding father of stress research. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Trier Social Stress Test is a laboratory procedure designed to reduce stress in research participants. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Chronic stress can lead to adverse health outcomes. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Biomarkers of stress include increases in salivary and blood serum cortisol, corticotropin, adrenaline, and heart rate. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social stressors in the workplace involve conflicts with colleagues, lack of fairness, social isolation, and dealing with difficult clients. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Recent models of stress research focus on inequity, social recognition crises, illegitimate tasks, and threats to the self by failure. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Acute social stress has been shown to trigger prosocial behavior, serving as a potent stress-buffering strategy in humans. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Understanding stress is not relative and does not depend on socially shared meanings and specific social groups' resilience. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical stressors in the workplace include time pressure, workload, role overload, uncertainty, and regulatory barriers. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the relative deprivation theory, individuals compare their standing with a relevant peer group when making justice judgments?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The equity principle, as per Adams (1965), states that humans evaluate distributions as fair based on the congruence between inputs and outputs?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Kate helped her mother bake 6 cookies, and when the mother gave all the cookies to Kate, Michael called his mother unfair. This scenario illustrates the equity principle?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the equity theory, negative deviations from the equity principle lead to guilt?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The equity theory suggests that humans compare their input/output quotient with others and are motivated to reduce tension caused by deviations from equity?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Most conflicts in organizations can be explained by someone feeling treated unfairly?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The relative deprivation theory argues that individuals who are factually equally off may feel different degrees of deprivation relative to their comparison standard?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The equity theory, as per Adams (1965), states that positive deviations from the equity principle lead to anger?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the scenario with Michael, Kate, and their mother, the distribution of cookies aligns with the equity principle, as Kate contributed more by helping her mother bake the cookies?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Fairness concerns are ubiquitous in organizations and can lead to conflicts?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Procedural justice involves consistency, impartiality, accuracy, correctability, representativeness, and ethicality. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Tyler (2000), one of the four conditions of procedural justice is the opportunity for affected parties to be heard. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Informational justice refers to the quality and quantity of information received by affected parties from decision makers. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social identity theory suggests that people care about justice because it influences their status within a social group. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text mentions that sabotage may occur as a negative consequence of injustice. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Justice as uncertainty avoidance is a concept mentioned in the text. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text states that applying rules of distributional and procedural justice can help maximize joint utility. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text suggests that researchers unanimously agree that justice is an 'ultimate' motive for people. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Procedural justice does not involve compromising on the criteria for conflict resolution. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Leventhal's six rules of procedural justice include accuracy, representativeness, and ethicality. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to equity theory, underprivileged individuals react with reduced effort, while overprivileged individuals react with increased effort. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Positive reciprocity in gift exchange is theoretically supported by equity theory. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The equality principle in achieving justice dictates that every affected person receives an equal share. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The choice of the justice principle depends on the nature of the relationship between the involved parties, with equity dominating in economic relationships and equality in social ones. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Procedural justice is about how decisions are made and is increasingly used to explain fair procedures in the workplace. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Illustrative scenarios showcase the challenges of maintaining fairness in the application of justice principles. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Debates about elements of the welfare state typically center around conflicts about which distributional justice rule to follow. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Overconfidence, representativeness, and partitioning of tasks are reasons underlying wrong perceptions about justice in relationships. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Conflict resolution often involves compromises that mix several criteria of distributional justice, such as equity, equality, and need. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The need principle in achieving justice states that every affected person receives as much as they need. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social psychology is primarily concerned with the study of individual behavior in isolation.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social psychologists conduct experiments in both laboratory and field settings to test their hypotheses.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external causes and others' behavior to inherent personality traits.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social identity theory suggests that people care about justice because it influences their status within a social group.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Procedural justice involves consistency, impartiality, accuracy, correctability, representativeness, and ethicality.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The equity theory suggests that humans compare their input/output quotient with others and are motivated to reduce tension caused by deviations from equity.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The actor-observer bias leads individuals to interpret causes of behavior differently depending on whether they themselves are the actor or the observer.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mindfulness-based stress reduction is the ultimate solution to the social problem in general.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress can have both positive and negative effects on individuals.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Supportive-disloyal leaders are nice to employees but encourage disloyal behavior against the organization.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Conflicting motives of accuracy and positive self-image lead to self-serving bias in social cognition.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cultural differences influence how individuals perceive the self, with varying levels of interconnectedness with others.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sherif's and Asch's conformity studies highlight the impact of group influence on individual behavior, with both normative and informational influences at play.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cognitive dissonance theory explains the stress caused by conflicting beliefs and the methods people use to reduce this dissonance.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Challenger Disaster involved the explosion of the NASA spacecraft, and groupthink was identified as a key factor in the disaster.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Groupthink can lead to flawed decision-making within groups, as seen in the case of the Challenger Disaster.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The self-concept involves the content of our self and our knowledge of who we are, while self-attention is the process of thinking about ourselves.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Group processes such as conformity are influenced by factors like group size, unanimity, cohesion, and individual identification with the group.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Normative influence involves conformity for social approval, while informational influence involves using others' behavior as evidence about reality.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Groupthink, a phenomenon where groups fail to properly aggregate views, was implicated in the Challenger Disaster at NASA.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Groupthink antecedents include insulation from external forces, leadership dynamics, homogenous group membership, and time pressure leading to premature agreements.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pluralistic ignorance is a situation where a majority privately accept a norm but go along with it, explaining the bystander effect.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Breaching is the purposeful breaking of social norms used to study how norms and conformity are upheld in society.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment showcased how people quickly enacted their roles, illustrating the impact of situational factors on behavior.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The minimal group paradigm and information cascade game illustrate how homogenous groups are less likely to conform.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Peer effects impact productivity, with pairing with a high-productivity peer decreasing productivity, as shown in a study by Mas & Moretti.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 'Linda Problem' and the centipede game show how groups may inhibit welfare maximization and lead to earlier decisions.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Strategic sophistication in team decision-making is lower, as shown in the beauty contest example.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social identity theory offers insights into group processes and intergroup conflict, explaining group identification processes and consequences.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Group-level payments and beauty contests between individuals and teams capture the individualistic nature of decision-making.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus is paired with a previously neutral stimulus, leading to a specific behavioral response. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning was an intentional finding by Pavlov in his studies of the dog's digestive system. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning, along with operand conditioning, forms the basis of behavioristic learning theories. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rationalism suggests that knowledge comes from humans 'inside' while empiricism suggests that knowledge comes from empiric studies from outside. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Raffael’s 'School of Athens' is mentioned in the text as a reference to learning theories. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

People learn only through either rationalism or empiricism, not both. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The concept of blank slates or innate capabilities is discussed in the text in relation to learning theories. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning refers to the pairing of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned response. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pavlov's dog studies, published in 1897, are associated with which type of learning theory? True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Learning through classical conditioning involves the co-occurrence of a biologically potent stimulus and a previously neutral stimulus. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Albert Bandura's social learning theory emphasized purely behavioral learning without any cognitive processes involved.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

B.F. Skinner's work focused on classical conditioning rather than operant conditioning.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Edward L. Thorndike's law of effect emphasized the after-effects strengthening actions but did not consider pleasure as a factor.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bandura's Bobo-doll studies illustrated the influence of observational learning on aggressive behavior.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Noam Chomsky's criticism of Skinner's book 'Verbal Behavior' contributed to psychology's cognitive revolution.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Julian B. Rotter's focus on the interaction between the individual and the environment paved the way for cognitive theories of learning.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The historical development of social learning theory involved a shift from purely behaviorist theories to a more holistic approach.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Social learning theory emphasized the reciprocal determinism between cognition, environment, and behavior.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bandura's theory proposed that learning is purely a behavioral process and does not take place in a social context.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses to stimuli, such as salivation, eye blinking, and fear responses.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Behavioristic learning theories neglect psychological mechanisms and focus on pragmatic functionality. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Modern learning theories suggest that babies are born with innate capabilities and possess advanced statistical knowledge at a young age. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Theory theory proposes that babies learn causal knowledge by forming hypotheses and using experimental and statistical expertise. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Evidence-based practices are widely adopted in medicine and management due to reliance on old knowledge and biased beliefs. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Management experts often base their advice on sources like Shakespeare or Santa Claus, but organizations are more diverse than humans. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

There is a challenge in gathering causal knowledge for managers and using the best available evidence as a competitive advantage. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Seasoned practitioners in management often rely on their experience, leading to an excessive reliance on dogma and beliefs, affecting decision-making. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Supportive-disloyal leaders are nice to employees but encourage disloyal behavior against the organization. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The motivation to lead can be based on social-normative motives, which involve feeling a sense of duty and standing up for a challenge. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stress can have both positive and negative effects on individuals. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Descriptive statements show how people actually judge and behave and can be right or wrong in relation to empirical observations.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prescriptive statements describe how people should act, assuming certain goals or values.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The organization as an Information Processing Entity deals with perception, judgment, decision making at individual and group levels.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Descriptive theories focus on how people actually judge and decide in reality.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Normative statements are subjective value statements which cannot be checked for correctness.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rational versus irrational use of information is a consideration in how organizations deal with information.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Time horizon and learning are factors in how organizations deal with information.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Nobel Prize in Economic Science was awarded to Daniel Kahneman in 2002 for integrating insights from psychological research into economic science.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the mental accounting example, a person is more likely to buy a new ticket to a concert when they have lost the ticket they bought in advance compared to when they noticed they lost money on the way.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The endowment effect, as described by R. Thaler, illustrates how people place higher value on items they own than on identical items they do not own.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The combination of overweighting small probabilities and concave/convex value function results in risk-averse behavior in certain situations.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The status-quo bias, loss aversion, and availability/salience are all influences on decision making and strategy mentioned in the text.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Challenger Disaster at NASA was attributed to groupthink, a phenomenon where groups fail to properly aggregate views.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Procedural justice involves how decisions are made and is used to explain fair procedures in the workplace.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Evidence-based procedures and learning are linked to expert knowledge, making expert knowledge less likely to be biased.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to inherent personality traits and others' behavior to external causes.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Tyranny of choice refers to the idea that having more choices can motivate decision-making. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Peak-End Rule influences memories of experiences and can affect decision-making. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Neither remembered utility nor expected utility accurately reflect experienced utility. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Availability heuristics influence risk assessments and perception of alternatives. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Spectacular causes are overestimated, while everyday causes are also overestimated. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The number of choices has been shown to positively correlate with the number of purchases in a jam selection experiment. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text suggests that self-knowledge and understanding preferences are not crucial for making good decisions. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tversky & Kahneman's study showed that the first group of people given more possibilities for car problems had a smaller set of potential reasons than the second group.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Salience refers to the inconspicuousness and dullness of information.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Prospect Theory explains how people perceive gains and losses, with gains looming larger than losses.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The value function in Prospect Theory is convex for gains and concave for losses.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Decision weight function in decision-making directly includes probabilities, impacting how people evaluate certain outcomes versus uncertain ones.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Framing of decisions does not manipulate the reference point, influencing choices in different presentations of the same information.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anchoring effects in decision-making occur when initial information forms a reference point, leading to sufficient subsequent adjustments.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trust is a well-investigated topic in management research. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trusting people is not a good idea as it makes individuals vulnerable to exploitation. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Rosseau et al. (1998), trust involves making oneself vulnerable to exploitation with no prospect of receiving any benefit. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The concept of trust is closely related to the concept of cooperation. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, trust can be defined as making oneself vulnerable to another person's exploitation with the prospect of benefiting from the trust given to them. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text suggests that not trusting people comes with no cost. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: In the Die-under-the-cup experiment, participants were told to report their first number and then continue rolling to verify that the die is fair.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: According to the experiment with bankers, bankers lie more when they are reminded that they are bankers.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: The classical economic analysis views crime as a mere instrumental and financial problem, not a moral or cultural one.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: The experiment found that participants coming from a culture where cooperation pays off behaved differently compared to those coming from a culture where cooperation does not pay.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: Honesty in classical economic theory is based on rational crime, involving a cost and benefit analysis of lying.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

True or false: In the Die-under-the-cup experiment, participants were offered different monetary rewards based on the outcome of rolling a die.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Rational behavior favors 'no trust' and 'no reciprocity,' while irrational behavior can yield higher payoff in the trust game.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Empirical results are at odds with what rational concepts would suggest, as trust behavior versus risk behavior is not well explained by risk-behavior.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

There is an informational asymmetry in feedback depending on trusting and not-trusting, leading to underestimation of trustworthiness, regardless of financial incentives.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Unconditional feedback decreases people’s cynicism, while low-trust environments do not allow people to learn if others can be trusted.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

An alternative explanation of trust in the trust game is people’s potential concern for the common good, as efficiency concerns may underlie decisions to trust.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The trust game shows a larger trust rate than the betting rate in an extended coin flip, indicating potential concern for the common good.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ultimatum game measures second-party punishment and pro-sociality based on how offers are accepted or rejected.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The gift-exchange game measures trust and reciprocity through positive wages and effort levels.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trust correlates with financial honesty, economic growth, and corruption, leading to positive outcomes.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The workplace often involves interactions with strangers, making trust more challenging to establish.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The dictator game measures pro-sociality by observing how much one player gives to another.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trust can be deterrence-based (consistency of behavior), knowledge-based (behavioral predictability), or identification-based (empathy).

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Trust in the trust game is solely driven by efficiency concerns.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Immediate emotions, rather than anticipated emotions, predict trust behavior.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The relationship status of interaction partners does not significantly impact trust behavior in situations where individuals are pessimistic about receiving money back.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Excessive control measures in companies have consistent positive effects on business performance.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lack of trust cannot harm the integrity of individuals.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

As societies grow, cooperation becomes easier to maintain.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cooperation 3 Split or Steal is a game where opponents have to decide whether to split the money or try to take everything for themselves. If both choose to steal, they both get zero.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal, young men below 30 are the most uncooperative, while older men over 30 are more cooperative.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Young people are less cooperative in the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal because they are less fortunate and need the money more.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anonymity and not knowing who the opponent is are factors that could make people more selfish in the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal, the conditions favor a division of labor when different individuals can perform different tasks to maximize the total payoff.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal, investment into two activities, A and B, must be traded off against each other because time and energy spent on A cannot be spent on B.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal illustrates the problem of favoring a division of labor when different individuals can perform different tasks to maximize the total payoff.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal, striking parallels can be drawn between biological and organizational writings in terms of the tasks necessary for survival.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal, supportive-disloyal leaders are nice to employees but encourage disloyal behavior against the organization.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The game Cooperation 3 Split or Steal involves a 14 thousand dollar win that the opponents have to decide how to split.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cooperation is essential for the evolution of new levels of organization.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Kin selection alone can explain how cooperation is sustained in societies primarily living among non-relatives.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The text presents various mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation and their application in creating a cooperative work environment.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Division of labor is favored when the relationship between resource allocation and return is decelerating.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Hunter-gatherer societies show extensive cooperation among members, with band-wide food sharing and allomaternal child-care.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Evidence of cooperation among kin is found only in mammals.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Life is not a one-shot game, and repeated prisoner's dilemma situations occur.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation include direct and indirect reciprocity, spatial selection, and group selection.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Putting an organization into work is not similar to an organism, with specialized division of labor.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Evolution of behavior is not studied in biology, psychology, economics, sociology, and mathematics.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tit-for-tat strategy is considered unstable and fragile in case of errors.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Generous tit-for-tat introduces forgiveness and a probability of cooperation even after the opponent defects.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Group selection theory suggests that a group of cooperators may not be more successful than a group of defectors.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cooperation could have evolved through kin selection, direct reciprocity, indirect reciprocity, spatial selection (Network reciprocity), and group selection, but it's an altruistic act.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Creating stability in the social network is not considered a way to make an organization more cooperative.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Implementing sanctioning and reward systems is not a way to promote cooperation in an organization.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Direct reciprocity and indirect reciprocity do not allow the evolution of cooperation based on repeated interactions and reputation.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

There are only 5 ways to make an organization more cooperative.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anatol Rapoport's Tit-for-tat did not emerge as the winner in Robert Axelrod's prisoner’s dilemma tournament in the 1980s.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Folk Theorem suggests that cooperation may not be an equilibrium strategy if there is a shadow of the future and humans care about future payoffs.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Elton Mayo conducted experiments in the Hawthorne plants of the Western Electric Company.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Hawthorne experiments showed that changes in lighting and work breaks consistently led to higher productivity.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Hawthorne studies established that operational productivity is influenced by both human nature and machines.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Human Relations Movement emphasized the importance of the individual in organizational research.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Hawthorne studies led to a paradigm shift in organizational research, giving greater importance to the individual.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The fundamental assumption of (work) motivation research is that humans are biological beings who have an 'inner life'​.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Hawthorne studies put the issue of work motivation on the organizational research agenda.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Theories of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination primarily focus on external motivators and their impact on behavior.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Deci's approach, extrinsic motivators can enhance motivation.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flow, as described by Csikszentmihalyi, involves shallow involvement and accurate time perception.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

An autotelic person is characterized by setting self-determined and realistic goals.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Volition is the psychological term for the ability to achieve goals.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mental contrasting is not considered central to achieving goals.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Strength Model of Self-Control, self-control is an unlimited reservoir of energy.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Theory of Fantasy Realization does not include strategies for goal commitment.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Goals are cognitive representations of desired states, differing from desires in commitment.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Motivation and emotion are constructs that are difficult to separate

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Abraham Maslow introduced the term 'positive psychology'

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Clark L. Hull's drive theory explained behavior as the interplay of needs and environmental states

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic motivation theory focused on drive reduction and the desire for pleasure

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Early models of motivation were influenced by historical assumptions about human action

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Motivation is the entity of all motives leading to willingness to act and human striving for goals

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Humanistic psychology strongly criticized drive and reinforcement theories

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs only distinguishes between "deficit needs" and "growth motives."

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

McClelland's Theory of Achievement Motives had no significant impact on organizational and HR research.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory focused on work motivation based solely on hygiene factors.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Intrinsic motivation requires external rewards.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Decis's cognitive evaluation theory suggests that people are not motivated to seek challenges and develop themselves.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Evidence for intrinsic motivation was obtained from animal experiments, such as Capuchin monkeys voluntarily working on puzzles without pay.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

McClelland's work on the achievement motive was not influential in personnel research and practice.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Taylorism is based on the principle of the unity of management and the unity of the assignment of tasks (single line system)

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Scientific Management, or Taylorism, emphasizes the separation of manual and mental work with precise planning

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mechanistic organization does not do justice to the calibrated need structure of humans

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Human Relations Movement emphasized the importance of the individual in organizational research

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The term 'Taylorism' has a rather positive connotation due to its focus on the social dimension of work

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Taylorism includes the function master system, which involves the division of master tasks into different function masters for work preparation, execution, and supervision

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Scientific Management, or Taylorism, prioritizes flexibility and innovation in organizational tasks

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The mechanistic view of organization underestimates the complexity of organizational tasks

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Scientific Management, or Taylorism, allows for a high level of flexibility in carrying out work tasks

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mechanistic organization provides safety from arbitrary behavior but lacks focus on innovation

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Organizations reduce risk by centralizing goods and services. True or false?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Efficiency is not a consideration for having organizations. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Division of labor does not contribute to efficiency in an organization. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Exchange and coordination are not important consequences of division of labor. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Within an organization, employees from different departments do not need to exchange ideas and information. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Between organizations, there is no need for exchange and coordination. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The main reason for having organizations historically was to increase risk. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Organizations do not allow for the production of more goods and services. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Specialization does not lead to advantages in an organization. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The possibility to buy just part of a firm does not reduce risks. True or false?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical management theory by Fayol focused on coordinating the entire company and structuring management activities into core tasks like planning and organization.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The industrial revolution led to an increase in operational organizations, with the machine metaphor central to economic theories like Adam Smith's.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Bureaucracy theory by Max Weber focused on systematically describing and understanding state administrative structures, emphasizing the efficiency of rules over case-by-case analysis.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Weber's bureaucracy theory suggests that organizations are command and obedience associations, with belief in the legitimacy of rules leading to obedience.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The organization as an instrument for achieving goals has its origin in the Greek word 'Organon,' meaning tool or instrument.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mechanistic ideas influenced behavioristic psychology and economics, with behaviorism revisiting human ideas as predictable machines.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Classical thoughts about the organization featured the machine prominently in metaphors, influencing the way people think and communicate.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Organization has instrumental and institutional meanings, with an institutional view seeing it as a social construct involving individuals with common interests.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Exchange and coordination require time, effort, and money, with parts of the gains of division of labor lost in the process due to transaction costs.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Mechanistic thinking has shaped organizational and management theories, influencing the way organizations are structured and managed.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Social Psychology: The Self, Cognitive Dissonance, and Group Processes

  • The self-concept involves the content of our self and the process of self-attention.
  • Cultural differences impact the perception of the self, with individuals from Mexico seeing others as part of themselves, while people from the USA and Sweden see themselves as more independent.
  • The theory of cognitive dissonance, proposed by Leon Festinger, explains how people seek psychological consistency between their expectations and the reality of the world.
  • People reduce cognitive dissonance by changing behavior or cognition, justifying their actions, adding new cognitions, or ignoring conflicting information.
  • Group processes, such as conformity, were studied by Sherif and Asch, revealing that individuals establish personal standards, but in uncertain situations, group influence is high.
  • Normative influence and informational influence are two forms of conformity, where normative influence involves seeking social approval, while informational influence involves using others' behavior as evidence about reality.
  • Factors affecting normative influence include group size, unanimity, cohesion, and individual identification with the group, while factors affecting informational influence include perceived intelligence or competence of others, number of others, unanimity, and one's own uncertainty.
  • Groupthink is a phenomenon where groups fail to aggregate their views properly, as seen in the Challenger Disaster, where groupthink was identified as a cause of the disaster.

Understanding Stress and Its Impact on Health and Behavior

  • Stress can lead to various health issues such as back pain, headaches, and heart problems, as well as exhaustion, absenteeism, and early retirement.
  • Classical stressors in the workplace include time pressure, workload, role overload, uncertainty, and regulatory barriers.
  • Social stressors in the workplace involve conflicts with colleagues, lack of fairness, social isolation, and dealing with difficult clients.
  • Stress is relative and depends on socially shared meanings and specific social groups' resilience.
  • Recent models of stress research focus on inequity, social recognition crises, illegitimate tasks, and threats to the self by failure.
  • Reactions to stress involve physical arousal, cognition, emotion, and behavior, as per the transactional stress model.
  • Hans Selye, the founding father of stress research, emphasized the external world's impact on stress and the concept of homeostasis.
  • Biomarkers of stress include increases in salivary and blood serum cortisol, corticotropin, adrenaline, and heart rate.
  • Chronic stress, caused by modern stressors like exams, public speaking, and traffic, can lead to adverse health outcomes.
  • Workplace stressors, as demonstrated in studies like the Baboon and Whitehall studies, can be influenced by factors such as autonomy and control.
  • The Trier Social Stress Test is a laboratory procedure designed to induce stress in research participants and is frequently used in stress studies.
  • Acute social stress has been shown to trigger prosocial behavior, serving as a potent stress-buffering strategy in humans.

Gift Exchange and Justice Principles in Social Relationships

  • Equity theory suggests that underprivileged individuals react with reduced effort, while overprivileged individuals react with increased effort.
  • Positive reciprocity in gift exchange is theoretically supported by equity theory, where high-wage earners respond to equity-rule violations with increased effort to reduce guilt-inducing tension.
  • The equality principle in achieving justice dictates that every affected person receives an equal share.
  • The need principle in achieving justice states that every affected person receives as much as they need.
  • The choice of the justice principle depends on the nature of the relationship between the involved parties, with equity dominating in economic relationships and equality in social ones.
  • Perception about the nature of the relationship leads to conflicts about the appropriate justice principle.
  • Conflict resolution often involves compromises that mix several criteria of distributional justice, such as equity, equality, and need.
  • Procedural justice, which is about how decisions are made, is increasingly used to explain fair procedures in the workplace.
  • Illustrative scenarios showcase the challenges of maintaining fairness in the application of justice principles.
  • Overconfidence, representativeness, and partitioning of tasks are reasons underlying wrong perceptions about justice in relationships.
  • Debates about elements of the welfare state typically center around conflicts about which distributional justice rule to follow.
  • The incongruent perception about the nature of the relationship is an important source of justice conflicts.

Group Processes and Social Identity

  • Groupthink antecedents include cohesion, insulation from external forces, leadership dynamics, homogenous group membership, poor information handling, stress, and time pressure leading to premature agreements.
  • Preventing groupthink involves establishing standards of control, oversight, challenging group decisions, appointing a devil's advocate, encouraging voice, making committee voting anonymous.
  • Pluralistic ignorance is a situation where a majority privately reject a norm but go along with it, explaining the bystander effect.
  • Breaching is the purposeful breaking of social norms used to study how norms and conformity are upheld in society.
  • Roles impact behavior, with Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment showcasing how people quickly enact their roles.
  • Identity includes personal, role, and social identities, influencing behavior and causing role conflicts.
  • Social identity theory offers insights into group processes and intergroup conflict, explaining group identification processes and consequences.
  • The minimal group paradigm and information cascade game illustrate how homogenous groups are more likely to conform.
  • Peer effects impact productivity, with pairing with a high-productivity peer increasing productivity, as shown in a study by Mas & Moretti.
  • Group-level payments and beauty contests between individuals and teams capture the strategic nature of decision-making.
  • The "Linda Problem" and the centipede game show how groups may inhibit welfare maximization and lead to earlier decisions.
  • Strategic sophistication in team decision-making is higher, as shown in the beauty contest example.

Critiques of Behavioristic Learning Theories and Modern Learning Theories

  • Behavioristic learning theories are still influential and utilized in various fields such as behavioral therapy and economics.
  • These theories ignore the "black box" of the mind, neglecting psychological mechanisms and focusing on pragmatic functionality.
  • The process of learning from limited information is compared to learning about heredity from peas or the existence of dinosaurs from bones.
  • Human learners, particularly babies, demonstrate the ability to make accurate predictions with minimal exposure to stimuli, unlike artificial intelligence.
  • Modern learning theories emphasize that babies are born with innate capabilities and possess advanced statistical knowledge at a young age.
  • They also suggest that there is some objective truth in the world, and statistical signals provide evidence about the "real" world.
  • "Theory theory" proposes that babies learn causal knowledge by forming hypotheses and using experimental and statistical expertise.
  • Evidence-based management seeks to derive causal knowledge to guide managerial actions, akin to evidence-based medicine.
  • However, evidence-based practices are not widely adopted in medicine or management due to reliance on old knowledge and biased beliefs.
  • Management experts often base their advice on sources like Shakespeare or Santa Claus, but organizations are more diverse than humans.
  • There is a challenge in gathering causal knowledge for managers and using the best available evidence as a competitive advantage.
  • Seasoned practitioners in management often rely on their experience, leading to an excessive reliance on dogma and beliefs, affecting decision-making.

Cognitive Biases and Decision Making

  • Tversky & Kahneman (1974) studied how the availability of information affects subjective probability assessment
  • Study showed that the first group of people given more possibilities for car problems had a larger set of potential reasons than the second group, supporting the concept of "Out of sight, out of mind"
  • Correct error analysis depends on considering all possibilities, but this is influenced by the availability of those possibilities
  • Salience refers to the conspicuousness and vividness of information
  • Anchoring effects in decision-making occur when initial information forms a reference point, leading to insufficient subsequent adjustments
  • Examples of anchoring effects include consumer behavior and labor decisions
  • Englich et al. (2009) found that anchoring also influences legal decision-making, affecting the sentences given by judges
  • Framing of decisions manipulates the reference point, influencing choices in different presentations of the same information
  • Vignettes about saving lives illustrate how framing affects decision-making, with different methods preferred depending on how the options are presented
  • Prospect Theory explains how people perceive gains and losses, with losses looming larger than gains and a preference for smaller, secure gains over larger, uncertain gains
  • The value function in Prospect Theory is concave for gains and convex for losses, reflecting a greater sensitivity to losses than gains
  • Decision weight function in decision-making does not directly include probabilities, impacting how people evaluate certain outcomes versus uncertain ones. For example, people tend to prefer a certain amount of money over a gamble with a higher potential payoff.

Expressive Trust and the Hidden Cost of Control

  • Trust in the trust game is not solely driven by efficiency concerns; relational concerns, such as emotional correlates, play a significant role.
  • Trust may not be solely about the prospect of receiving money, but also about the expressive act of trusting itself, reflecting a relational concern and a social norm.
  • Emotional correlates research suggests that immediate emotions, rather than anticipated emotions, predict trust behavior.
  • The relationship status of interaction partners significantly impacts trust behavior in situations where individuals are pessimistic about receiving money back.
  • Minimal relationship effect shows that mere exposure to a relationship triggers expressive concerns, similar to the minimal group effect in group processes.
  • People hold a norm to "be nice," which is related to the identifiable victim effect and the phenomenon of avoiding relationships, as seen in donation campaigns and dictator games.
  • As societies grow, cooperation becomes harder to maintain, and social norms, such as the norm to be nice, can act as a "social glue."
  • Giving in dictator games differs based on the degree of specialization of labor or market integration, as seen in the differences between Americans and Hazda in Tanzania.
  • Evidence for expressive trust suggests that trust rates are lower in hypothetical trust games than in actual trust games, and that the relationship relevance in trust rates is minimal.
  • Excessive control measures in companies, such as time monitoring and performance measurements, have varying effects on business performance.
  • The hidden cost of control is evident in experiments showing that control leads to low trust and low work motivation, as it is perceived as a relational violation and a harsh social signal.
  • Lack of trust can harm the integrity of individuals and lead to questions about why they are not trusted and what is wrong with their firm.

Evolution of Cooperation: Strategies and Mechanisms

  • The Folk Theorem suggests that cooperation may be an equilibrium strategy if there is a shadow of the future and humans care about future payoffs.
  • Robert Axelrod organized a prisoner’s dilemma tournament in the 1980s, where scientists submitted strategies, and Anatol Rapoport's Tit-for-tat emerged as the winner.
  • Tit-for-tat strategy is nice, lenient, and aims for equal payoffs, but it has weaknesses such as instability and fragility in case of errors.
  • An alternative strategy, Generous tit-for-tat, introduces forgiveness and a probability of cooperation even after the opponent defects.
  • Direct reciprocity and indirect reciprocity allow the evolution of cooperation based on repeated interactions and reputation.
  • Group selection theory suggests that a group of cooperators may be more successful than a group of defectors, sparking a strong debate about the role of group selection.
  • Cooperation could have evolved through kin selection, direct reciprocity, indirect reciprocity, spatial selection (Network reciprocity), and group selection, but it's not an altruistic act.
  • There are 10 ways to make an organization more cooperative, including increasing the benefits of cooperation, decreasing the cost of cooperation, creating a sense of identity, allowing reputation to spread, and creating stability in the social network.
  • Other ways to promote cooperation in an organization include not undermining human ability to cooperate, creating institutions that foster a cooperative work environment, implementing sanctioning and reward systems, and using the threat of ostracism.

Theories of Motivation and Existentialism in Psychological Knowledge

  • Content theories of motivation were the first attempts to explain human needs, such as Maslow's Need Hierarchy, Murray's Theory of Person-Environment References, and Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory.
  • Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs distinguishes between "deficit needs" and "growth motives," while Alderfer refined the model into existence, social attachment, and growth.
  • Critiques of Maslow's hierarchy include uncertainty of hierarchical levels and its basis in Western individualistic societies.
  • Murray's Theory of Person-Environment References explored a complex list of human aspirations, and his work on achievement motives had a significant impact on organizational and HR research.
  • McClelland's Theory of Achievement Motives emphasized the enjoyment of achievement and self-evaluating emotions, leading to the development of a measurement method for psychogenic needs.
  • Achievement-motivated behavior is defined as behavior aimed at achieving a standard of quality, and it is influenced by the enjoyment of accomplishment and self-evaluating emotions.
  • McClelland's work on the achievement motive was influential in personnel research and practice, with correlations between individual motives and economic development.
  • Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory focused on work motivation based on motivators (work content, recognition) and hygiene factors (remuneration, management style).
  • Herzberg's theory established "job design" and the importance of standard hygiene factors in personnel policy.
  • Intrinsic motivation drives people to pursue activities that they find interesting and derive satisfaction from, while extrinsic motivation requires external rewards.
  • Evidence for intrinsic motivation was obtained from animal experiments, such as Capuchin monkeys voluntarily working on puzzles without pay.
  • Decis's cognitive evaluation theory suggests that people are motivated to seek challenges and develop themselves, driven by an innate tendency for organismic growth.

The Influence of Mechanistic Thinking on Organization and Management

  • Exchange and coordination require time, effort, and money, with parts of the gains of division of labor lost in the process due to transaction costs.
  • Organization has instrumental and institutional meanings, with an institutional view seeing it as a social construct involving individuals with common interests.
  • Classical thoughts about the organization featured the machine prominently in metaphors, influencing the way people think and communicate.
  • Mechanistic thinking has a long history, with influences from ancient Greek atomists to 20th-century scientists and philosophers like Descartes and René Descartes.
  • Mechanistic ideas influenced behavioristic psychology and economics, with behaviorism revisiting human ideas as predictable machines.
  • Many organization theories, including classical management, scientific management, and bureaucratic organizations, were influenced by mechanistic thinking.
  • The organization as an instrument for achieving goals has its origin in the Greek word "Organon," meaning tool or instrument.
  • The industrial revolution led to an increase in operational organizations, with the machine metaphor central to economic theories like Adam Smith's.
  • Bureaucracy theory by Max Weber focused on systematically describing and understanding state administrative structures, emphasizing the efficiency of rules over case-by-case analysis.
  • Weber's bureaucracy theory suggests that organizations are command and obedience associations, with belief in the legitimacy of rules leading to obedience.
  • Classical management theory by Fayol focused on coordinating the entire company and structuring management activities into core tasks like planning and organization.
  • Mechanistic thinking has shaped organizational and management theories, influencing the way organizations are structured and managed.

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Test your knowledge of social psychology topics such as self-concept, cognitive dissonance, group processes, conformity, and groupthink. Explore how cultural differences shape the perception of the self and how individuals seek psychological consistency in their beliefs and actions.

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