PSH Exam Mock Scope PDF

**PSH EXAM MOCK SCOPE** **THEME 1** **LEGAL DEFINITION OF A CHILD:** -A child is a person under the age of 18 -The legal definition of a child is used for children of all ages, from infancy to adolescence **5 DEVELOPEMENTAL STAGES:** -Prenatal: germinal, embryonic, foetal stages -Neonatal & I...

**PSH EXAM MOCK SCOPE** **THEME 1** **LEGAL DEFINITION OF A CHILD:** -A child is a person under the age of 18 -The legal definition of a child is used for children of all ages, from infancy to adolescence **5 DEVELOPEMENTAL STAGES:** -Prenatal: germinal, embryonic, foetal stages -Neonatal & Infancy: first 2 -- 4 weeks, subsequent 2 years -Early childhood: ages 2 -- 6 -Middle childhood: ages 6 to puberty (approximately 12 years) -Adolescence: ages 12 to adulthood (approximately 18 years) **4 DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES:** **1. Nature vs. Nurture** -nature: refers to the biological determinants such as genetic, neurological, and hormonal factors -nurture: refers to environmental factors (parenting styles) such as the physical and social environment (poverty). **2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity** -whether human development is continuous (gradual & smooth) or discontinuous (abrupt & occurring in distinct steps) process. -both these viewpoints are correct, depending on the type of behaviour **3. Passive vs. Active** -whether children have no part in their environment, and therefore are at mercy with their environment, or whether they can play an active role in their own development **4. Universality vs. Cultural Context** Universality -existing worldwide (characteristics shared by everyone) Cultural context -culture: refers to the beliefs, norms, customs, and general way of life of a specific group of people -context: refers to the setting or specific environment in which behaviour and development occur **5 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT** 1. **Biological perspective** - Behaviour is primarily predicted by biological factors - Imprinting - Emphasises the role of: -Heredity -Nervous system -Endocrine system 2. **Psychodynamic perspective** - Explores unconscious psychological motives - Sigmund Freud - Psychosexual Theory -Psychoanalysis: argued personality has 3 primary components= id, ego, superego -Psychosexual stages 1\. Oral 2\. Anal 3\. Phallic 4\. Latent 5\. Genital - Erickson's Psychosocial Theory -Highlight's the psychological and social aspects of conflict rather than biological and sexual aspects 3. **Learning Theory perspective** - Support the view that an infant's mind is a blank slate - Early Learning Theory -John Watson -B.F Skinner - Behaviourism: behaviour is primarily learnt through one's environment -Operant conditioning -Classical conditioning - Social Cognitive Theory: sometimes children learn without reinforcement or punishment. They learn through watching those around them -imitation, modelling-, observational learning 4. **Contextual perspective** -Important to investigate ways in which culture influences development - Vygotsky's Social Cultural Theory: focused on how adults convey their culture to children's beliefs, customs, and skills of culture. **-**Zone of proximal development - Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory -View developing child in series of interactive systems 1\. Micro 2\. Meso 3\. Exo 4\. Macro 5\. Chrono - Nsamenang's African perspective -Traditional African Worldview- holistic perspective on humans and the universe - Social ontogenesis -Ontogenesis- development from conception to death -Three phases of Self hood =Spiritual =Social =Ancestral **5. Cognitive Developmental perspective** Focuses on how children think & how their thinking changes over time - Jean Piaget -Theory of Cognitive Development -Children naturally try to make sense of their world - Information- Processing Theorists -Mental software & mental hardware -Brain works like a computer- input, storage, and output **MOTOR DEVELOPMENT** - Gross motor skills \- are responsible for the coordinated movement of large muscle groups. -it is used for crawling, walking, standing, running, and balance. -the goal of gross motor skills is to gain independent and voluntary movements - Fine motor skills -involves the use of upper extremities, the arms, hands, and fingers -they are used to engage and manipulate the environment, and are used to perform self-help tasks, to play, write, and carry out work -fine motor skills are used when one needs to make smaller, more precise movements with one's muscles **COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT** **COGNITIVE SKILLS (SENSORY)** - Object permanence= refers to the understanding that objects continue to exist when they cannot be seen anymore - A-not B error/Perseverating search= babies regard the object under container A as an inherent effect of the search response - Imitation= the ability to copy someone else's behaviour - Deferred imitation= refers to an infant's ability to imitate behaviour sometime after they had been exposed to it - Pretend play= where children enact daily activities, for example, feeding a doll - Symbolic representations= language, categorising, and numbering skills **7 PHASES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT** - Undifferentiated crying - Differentiated crying - Cooing/ Babbling - Lallation - Echolalia - Single-word sentences - Full sentences **TYPES OF ATTACHMENT** **HOW BABIES REACT TO STRANGE SITUATIONS** - Secure attachment -babies use their mothers as a security base from which they explore their world -they welcome physical contact with her -distressed when separated from her, but happy when she returns -they react positive towards strangers when the mother is present - Avoidant attachment -babies are not upset when the mother leaves -they avoid her when she returns -they do not attempt to explore their environment -they are not upset with the presence of strangers, but do avoid them - Ambivalent (resistant) attachment -babies become anxious and extremely upset even before the mother leaves -when she returns they act ambivalently -they try to make contact with her, but also tries to avoid her by crying or hitting - Disorganised (disorientated) attachment -characterised by confusion, contradictory behaviour, and fear to connect with parents or caregivers **THEME 4** **IMMATURE ASPECTS OF PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT** - Perceptual centration= refers to the tendency to attend to only one attribute of what one observes and ignores the rest - Irreversibility= refers to the inability to reverse an operation - Egocentrism= refers to the tendency of young children to view the world from their own perspective - Animistic thinking= refers to the tendency of young children to assume that non-living things such as the sun, moon, rocks, and dolls have thoughts, feelings, and motives. - Transductive reasoning= refers to the preoperational thinkers' tendency to reason from one particular instance to another, linking two events that occur close together in a cause-and-effect fashion, whether it is logical or not **PARENTING STYLES (TYPES)** - Authoritative -parents meet the standards of all 4 dimensions: \*consistent control, warmth and nurturance, expectations, communication -involves high acceptance and involvement -parents are warm and sensitive to their children's needs but set clear limits -include a positive mood, self-control, and cooperativeness - Authoritarian -high in control and expectations, low in nurturance and communication -to exert control parents shout, command, and criticise. -if children disobeys, parents resort to punishment and force -outcomes for these children are negative, they tend to be unhappy and anxious, show high rates of anger - Permissive -parents show: warmth and nurturance, but fail as far as communication, control, and expectations -parents are warm and accepting, but tend to be overindulgent and inattentive -children have to make their own decisions at the age where they're not capable of doing so -children tend to be impulsive, disobedient, and rebellious - Uninvolved -parents do not meet requirements of any parenting dimension -parents tend to be emotionally detached, attracted to more exciting activities -have little time and energy left to cater to their children's needs -often maltreating children by neglecting them **PARENTING STYLES (DIMENSIONS)** - Warmth & nurturance= children with warm and nurturing parents are more securely attached and show positive development in most areas - Consistent control= parents who set clear rules and apply them constantly have children who are more defiant and non-compliant - Expectations= children with parents who have high expectations of them tend to fare better, specifically regarding their self-esteem and altruistic behaviours - Communication= open and clear communication between the parent and the child have positive outcomes. Children tend to be emotionally and socially more mature **THEME 5** **WHEN SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN CHILDREN IS PROBLEMATIC** -occurs frequently -involves threats, pressure, force, or aggression -child does not stop behaviour when redirected by an adult -causes strong emotional responses -causes changes in typical behaviours, interests, or activities -inappropriate or unsafe use of sexual body parts **INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY** Diagnosed in persons with an IQ lower than 70. Occurs along dimensions of mild, moderate, severe, and profound. 3 KEY CHARACTERISTICS: -limitations in intellectual functioning -limitations in adaptive behaviour -age of onset deficits is during childhood CAUSES OF INTELECTUAL DISABILITIES: -genetic factors -problems during pregnancy -problems during childbirth -Infections -unknown causes **LEARNING DISABILITY** A term used to describe various conditions marked by persistent deficits in acquiring certain scholastic or academic skills, particularly reading, writing and mathematics. - Reading disorder (dyslexia) = occurs when a person has trouble reading words or understanding what they read - Writing disorder (dysgraphia) = affects writing abilities. Difficulties with spelling and punctuation, poor hand writing, and trouble putting thoughts on paper. Weak fine motor skills. - Mathematics disorder (dyscalculia) = the severe or complete inability to acquire mathematical skills despite appropriate teaching **PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP (CO-REGULATION)** Parents are still the main controllers and supervisors but permit children to be in charge of moment-by-moment decision-making. Co-regulation develops from a co-operative relationship between a parent and a child- one based on give-and-take and mutual respect **4 TYPES OF BULLYING** - Physical bullying - Hitting, pushing, shoving, or otherwise physically hurting another person. - Verbal/written bullying - Name calling, intimidation, or insulting someone about an attribute, quality, or personal characteristic. - Social bullying - Excluding someone, spreading rumours, sharing information that will have a harmful effect on the person. - Cyberbullying - Refers to intentional and repeated harm inflicted using computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices. Can include prank phone calls and texts, nasty gossip, cat fishing or hacking CONCERNS OF CYBERBULLYING -Persistent -Permanent -Hard to notice **THEME 6** **ADOLESCENT GROWTH SPURT** - Growth spurt= refers to rapid and intense physical changes - Growth hormone-Somatotrophin= hormone stimulates the growth essentially all tissues of the body, including bones, and has significant effects on weight and height - Dwarfism= short stature- Somatotrophin helps them grow in cases of growth deficiency - Growth spurt in girls= begins at 10-13 years, ends at 16 years or later - Growth spurt in boys= begins at 12-15 years, ends at 18 years or later - Asynchrony= disproportionate growth tempo of the different body parts **SEXUAL MATURATION** **Sexual maturation in girls** Puberty begins when the sex organs such as ovaries, uterus, vagina, labia and clitoris begin to enlarge -Menarche/ First menstruation= onset of menstruation can be accompanied by mixed emotions -Female circumcision called Female Genital Mutilation= involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons **Sexual maturation in boys** Puberty begins when the primary sex characteristics begin to develop -Seminal emission= the discharge of semen -Nocturnal emission/masturbation= the first ejaculation of seminal fluids -Traditional male circumcision (non-medical circumcision) = entails the partial or complete removal of the foreskin of the penis. **ANOREXIA** Anorexia nervosa is the refusal or inability to maintain a normal body weight. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS - Body weight is significantly below the average body max index= BMI- a measure of using a person's height or weight to calculate their body fat BMI between 18.5 and 24.9= healthy, below 18.5= underweight, 17= mild anorexia, 16-17= moderate anorexia, 15= extreme anorexia - Purging to remove food= occur through self-induced vomiting, self-induced diarrhoea, excessive exercise, or the use of stimulant drugs - A severely distorted body image= where the patients may genuinely view themselves as obese despite having skeletal frames - Other mental health conditions= depression, anxiety, and Bulimia nervosa are often present - Physical symptoms= excessive growth of fine hair on the body may occur - Menstrual problems= especially amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), are common **SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS & SELF-FOCUSING** - Egocentrism= adolescent's ability to reflect on their own thoughts, beliefs, combined with the physical and psychological changes that they are undergoing, means that they begin to think more about themselves - Imaginary audience= adolescent's belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention - Personal fable= intense investment in one's own thoughts and feelings and a belief that these thoughts and feelings are unique - Optimistic bias= people's tendency to overestimate their likelihood of experiencing positive events and underestimate their likelihood of experiencing negative events in the future **ACTUAL SELF, POSSIBLE SELF, FALSE SELF** - Actual-self= the person the adolescent actually is - Possible-self -Ideal-self= the person the adolescent would like to be -Feared-self= the person the adolescent imagines it is possible to become, but dreads becoming - False-self= this is the self they present to others **CONFORMITY** Conformity refers to the degree to which a person is willing to change his/her behaviour, attitudes, and beliefs to fit in with a group. **[3 Main types:]** - Compliance (shallowest form) (Short-term change) -Persons change their public behaviour, the way they act, but not their private beliefs. - Identification (middle level) (Short-term change) Persons change their public behaviour and their private beliefs, but only in the presence of the group. - Internalisation (deepest level) (Long-term change) Refers to the non-conscious mental process by which the characteristics, beliefs, feelings, or attitudes of other individuals or groups are assimilated into the self and adopted as one's own. **[Factors that influence a person to conform:]** - The difficulty of the task -Difficult tasks can lead to both increased and decreased conformity - Individual differences \- Personal characteristics are linked with a decreased tendency to conform - The size of the group -Conform in situations that involve between 3 and 5 other people - Characteristics of the situation More likely to conform in confusing situations where they are unclear about how to respond - Cultural differences People from collective cultures are more likely to conform - Gender differences Female adolescents act more in accordance with school norms then male adolescents **THEME 7** **NEGLECT** Neglect refers to the failure to provide for the basic needs of a person in one's care - Physical neglect- involves inadequate supervision and failing to provide adequate housing, nutrition, and medical care. - Emotional neglect- occurs when the basic needs for psychological care are not met -Such as refusing or neglecting to provide emotional affection or exposing the child to conflict between the parents - Educational neglect- involves failing to enrol a child in school and allowing truancy **ABUSE** - Physical abuse-refers to physical acts of aggression such as punching, slapping, biting - Sexual abuse- refers to any illegal sexual act committed against a child. - Emotional abuse- described as the persistent and continual emotional maltreatment of a child, causing severe and persistent adverse effects on the child's emotional development. **RIGHTS OF A CHILD & CORE PRINCIPLES ACCORDING THE UN** **The Basic human rights of a child:** - The right to survival - The right to develop to the fullest - The right to be protected from harmful influences, abuse, and exploitations. - The right to participate fully in family, cultural, and social life. **The Core principles of the convention:** - Non-discrimination - Devotion to the best interests of the child - The right to life, survival, and development - Respect for the views of the child **RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHILDREN** **Children have the right:** **Responsibility:** -------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- To be protected from conflict, exploitation and neglect Not to bully or harm each other To a clean environment at home, school, or wherever they are To do what they can to look after their environment To be educated To learn as much as they can and help others to learn To freedom of thought and religion To respect other people's thoughts and religion