World Literature E-Book PDF

OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY WORLD LITERATURE WORLD LITERATURE World Literature Page 2 Copyright, 2019 by: PEREZ, HANSEL HOPE ALARCON., Ph.D. BUENAVENTURA, MA. VICTORIA LORNA SOMBILLA, Ed.D. (C) ARNAN, BERNADETTE, M.A. Ed (C) Disclaimer: All literary works that appear on the book are copyrighted by their respective owners. We claim no credit for them unless otherwise noted. If you own the rights to any of the works and do not wish them to appear on the book, please contact us and they will be promptly removed. Any copy of this book without the signatures of the editors on this page proceeds from an illegal source or is possessed by one who has no authority to hold or dispose of the same. World Literature Page 3 PREFACE This book WORLD LITERATURE has been produced by the English Department of Our Lady of Fatima University in consonance with the course map required by Commission on Higher Education. The course is a survey in the first half of Western and non-Western literatures spanning the periods from the first written literature through 1650. World Literure is a three-unit course. In any given semester, one or more of the following Core Curriculum Objectives for the English Foundational Component Area in Language, Philosophy, and Culture may be assessed. These objectives are: 1. Critical Thinking: Creative thinking, innovation, inquiry, and analysis, evaluation and synthesis of information. 2. Communication Skills: Effective development, interpretation and expression of ideas through written, oral and visual communication. 3. Social Responsibility: Intercultural competence, knowledge of civic responsibility, and the ability to engage effectively in regional, national, and global communities. 4. Personal Responsibility: The ability to connect choices, actions and consequences to ethical decision making. The following additional Program Objectives are also assessed: 1. The student will demonstrate the ability to read complex texts, closely and accurately (this correlates to the Core objective of Critical Thinking). 2. The student will demonstrate the ability to comprehend both traditional and contemporary schools/methods of critical theory and apply them to literary texts to generate relevant interpretations. (Demonstration includes the student’s ability to add to meaningful discourse, in oral communication and written communication; this correlates to the Core’s Communication objective). 3. The student will demonstrate knowledge of literary history in regard to particular periods of world literature; the student will further understand how human interactions, decisions, and actions carry with them consequences. (Knowledge of literary history entails competence in cultural considerations as well as understanding of how social and civic responsibilities impact diverse communications; this correlates to the Core objectives of Social and Personal Responsibilities). 4. The student will demonstrate the ability to effectively conduct literary research. (This objective correlates to the Core objectives of Communication and Critical Thinking). 5. The student will demonstrate the ability to write clear, grammatically correct prose for a variety of purposes in regards to literary analysis. World Literature Page 4 By the end of the course, students should be able to: 1. Exhibit an understanding of and appreciation for key works in world literature, as evidenced in daily work and quizzes, course discussions, written assignments, and/or examinations (this outcome aligns to the Core objective of Critical Thinking and Communication); 2. Students will demonstrate an understanding of periodization in world literature, as evidenced in daily work and quizzes, course discussions, written assignments, and/or examinations. Periodization is not merely an historical consideration, as defined by events, persons, or dates; students will demonstrate an understanding that historical, cultural, spiritual, and ethical issues, among others, shape human experiences and impact motivations (this outcome aligns to the Core objective of Critical Thinking and Communication as well as Personal Responsibility and Social Responsibility); 3. Students will read literature with increased critical acumen, as evidenced in daily discussions of readings and in responsive essays (this outcome aligns to the Core objective of Critical Thinking and Communication); and 4. Students will be able to respond to literature with facility, both orally and on paper, on important thematic considerations having to do with literary and historical milieu, culture, human responsibility, morality, ethics, and the manner and causes by which humans interact with one another (this outcome aligns to the Core objective of Social Responsibility and Personal Responsibility). It is the authors’ hope that this book will offer the students a valuable, significant, pleasurable, and enriching experience through a number of different purposeful activities. The Authors PEREZ, HANSEL HOPE ALARCON., Ph.D. BUENAVENTURA, MA. VICTORIA LORNA SOMBILLA, Ed.D. (C) ARNAN, BERNADETTE, M.A.Ed English (C) World Literature Page 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE LESSON 1: The Enuma Elish and the Epic of Gilgamesh LESSON 2: Bible: Old Testament (Genesis, Job, Psalms) LESSON 3: Homer, The Iliad, books I, VI, VIII, IX LESSON 4: The Iliad, books XVI, XVIII, XXII, XXIV LESSON 5: Homer, The Odyssey, books I-IV LESSON 6: The Odyssey, books V-XII LESSON 7: The Odyssey, books XVI, XXI-XXIV LESSON 8: Sophocles, Oedipus the King; Euripides, Medea LESSON 9: Aeneid, books I-II LESSON 10: Aeneid, books IV, VIII, XII LESSON 11: Personal Position Essay due. Ovid, Metamorphoses LESSON 12: Bible: New Testament; Augustine, Confessions (switch to vol. B) LESSON 13: The Qur’an; Ibn Ishaq, The Biography of the Prophet LESSON 14: Beowulf LESSON 15: The Song of Roland LESSON 16: Dante, Inferno, cantos I-V LESSON 17: Inferno, cantos XXVI-XXXIV LESSON 18: Dante, Purgatorio and Paradiso LESSON 19: The Scholar’s Guide; The Thousand and One Nights LESSON 20: Boccaccio, The Decameron LESSON 21: Chaucer, Pardoner’s Prologue LESSON 22: Machiavelli, The Prince; World Literature Page 6 LESSON 23: Marguerite de Navarre, The Heptameron Lazarillo de Tormes LESSON 24: Critical Response Essay due. Montaigne LESSON 25 Don Quixote REFERENCES World Literature Page 7 The chapter focuses on Literary Standards Literary Genre Literary Approaches & Criticisms. The students will learn the different technique in analyzing and criticizing literary pieces of both prose and poetry using the different literary lenses. LESSON OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Appreciate the importance of literature to the society. 2. Distinguish the different literary genres 3. Apply various Literary Approaches and Criticism to analyze literary text. 4. Develop their ability to read and react to literature to an emotional, spiritual and intellectual level. LESSON 1: Introduction to Literature Literature comes from the Latin word “LITERA” which literally means an acquaintance, with letters, the root definition of literature. It is a body of literary productions, either oral, written or visual, containing imaginative language that realistically portrays thoughts, emotions, and experiences of the human conditions. Literature appeals to man’s higher nature and its needs – emotional, spiritual, intellectual, and creative. Like all other forms of art, literature entertains and gives pleasure; it fires the imagination and arouses noble emotions and it enriches man by enabling him to reflect on life and by filling him with new ideas. DIVISION OF LITERATURE All literature falls under two main divisions: Prose Poetry Form Written in paragraph form Written in stanza or verse form Language Expressed in ordinary Language Expressed in metrical rhythmical and World Literature Page 8 figurative language Appeal To the intellect To the emotion Aim To convince, inform, instruct, Stir the imagination and set an ideal imitate and reflect of how life should be. However it is classified differently according to its usage. Some classifications include: Structure Form Genre Fiction – is a literary work of Prose – is a literary work that Fiction – is a narrative in prose imaginative narration, either is spoken or written within that shows an imaginative oral or written. the common flow of language recreation and reconstruction in sentences or paragraph. of life and presents human life. Non- fiction – is a literary Poetry – is a literary work Poetry – is patterned form of work of “real life” narration expressed in verse, measure verbal or written expression of or exposition based on and rhythm, sound and ideas and concentrated history and facts. imaginative language. imaginative, and rhythmical terms that contain the elements of sense sound and structure. Essay – is a prose composition in moderate length that presents a tentative exploration or evaluation of a subject and explain viewpoint that can be said on a particular subject or topic. Drama – is a composition in prose form that presents story told entirely in dialogue and action and written with an intention of its eventual performance before an audience. World Literature Page 9 KINDS OF PROSE Prose Drama- meant to be acted on stage Essay – it is expository in nature, the author shares some of his thoughts, feelings experiences or observations on aspects of life that have interested in him. Prose Fiction- something invented or imagined or feigned to be true. a. novel – a long fictitious narrative with a complicated plot. b. short story- a fictitious narrative compressed into one unit of time, place and action Biography – a story of a certain person’s life written by another who knows him (the former) well Autobiography – a written account of man’s life written by himself. Letter – a written message which displays aspects of an author’s psychological make-up not immediately apparent in his more public writings. It is a prose form which by the force of its style and the importance of its statement becomes an object of interest or observations. Diary – a daily written record or account on the writer’s own experience. Journal- a magazine or periodical especially of a serious or learned nature. Other prose forms: Historical form Scientific Prose Satirical prose Current publications Literary criticism Book Review Philosophy Travel Parody Anecdote Character Sketch Parable Pamphlet Eulogy World Literature Page 10 Speech – the general word for a discourse delivered to an audience whether prepared or impromptu. Address Oration Sermon Lecture Talk Kinds of Poetry Lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state. Elegy is a formal lament for the death of a particular person (for example Tennyson’s In Memoriam A.H.H.). Ode is a long lyric poem with a serious subject written in an elevated style. Famous examples are Wordsworth’s Hymn to Duty or Keats’ Ode to a Grecian Urn. Sonnet was originally a love poem which dealt with the lover’s sufferings and hopes. Sub-categories of narrative poetry: Epics usually operate on a large scale, both in length and topic, such as the founding of a nation (Virgil’s Aeneid) or the beginning of world history (Milton's Paradise Lost), they tend to use an elevated style of language and supernatural beings take part in the action. A ballad is a song, originally transmitted orally, which tells a story. It is an important form of folk poetry which was adapted for literary uses from the sixteenth century onwards. The ballad stanza is usually a four- line stanza, alternating tetrameter and trimeter. Elements of Fiction 1. Characters- are the representation of a human being; persons involved in a conflict.  Fictional characters are classified into: 1. Protagonist – the principal character in the story. He usually an admirable character with whom we usually sympathize or identify. 2. Antihero – an inept or otherwise ridiculous character 3. Antagonist – the villain or a character in conflict with the hero and is usually less admirable than the hero; he creates the conflict. World Literature Page 11 4. Fringe- one who is destroyed by his inner conflict. 5. Typical or minor characters  Ways on how characters are portrayed : 1. Dynamic or round character – a fully developed character that recognizes changes with or adjust to the circumstances. He carries with him the reality of human growth and decline.  the protagonists and antagonists are individuals who express a range of emotion and change throughout the narrative, usually toward greater maturity 2. Flat character – a character who does not grow and remains the same or a stereo type character of conventional traits. Because he exhibits only one side or aspect of him, he has no depth and no changes.  Most supporting characters are portrayed in this way: a strict teacher, a helpful policeman. And an evil step mother. 3. Foil character – a character who points the qualities or characteristics of another character.  For example, a foolish character sets a wise character’s wisdom in a stronger light. 2. Setting - The locale (place) or period (time) in which the action of a short story, play, novel or the motion picture takes place (also known as the background of the story. 3. Conflict - The struggle or complication involving the characters, the opposition of persons or forces upon which the action depends in drama or fiction. Types of Conflict Internal Conflict Interpersonal Conflict External Conflict -occurs when the protagonist -pits the protagonist against - happens when the struggles within himself someone else protagonist is in the battle of an uncontrolled situation, conflict with the values of his or her society and conflict with natural calamities. MAN VS. HIMSELF MAN VS.MAN MAN VS.FATE MAN VS.SOCIETY MAN VS. NATURE World Literature Page 12 4. Plot - a casually related sequence of events which involves the character in conflict. (Beginning, Middle, Ending)  the sequence of events is called narrative order - chronological order the most common type of narrative order - flashback occurs when the author narrates an even that took place before the current time of the story - time lapse occurs when the story skips a period of time that seems unusual compared to the rest of the plot. Parts of the Plot  Exposition (beginning) introduces the time, place, setting and the main characters  Complication (rising action) unfolds the problems and struggles that would be encountered by the main characters leading to the crisis.  Climax (result of the crisis) part where the problem or the conflict is the highest peak of interest and greatest emotion.  Denouement is the untying of knots or the part that shows a conflict or a problem is solved.  Resolution (end) contains the last statement of the story World Literature Page 13 Plot Devices  Flashback – something out of the chronological order: to reveal information to understand character’s nature.  Foreshadowing – a device to give a sign of something to come its purpose is to create suspense, to keep the readers guessing what will happen when.  Suspense- this is the feeling of excitement or tension in the reader’s experiences as the action of the plot unfolds.  Surprise Ending- this is an ending that catches the reader off guard with an unexpected events.  In Medias Res – the technique of beginning a story in the middle of the action, with background information given later in flashbacks. 5. Point of view- the writer’s feeling and attitude toward his subject; determines who tells the story; it identifies the narrator of the story (the form of narration also affects the story itself.) Classification (POINT OF VIEW)  First person is used when the main character is telling the story. This is the kind that uses the "I" narrator. As a reader, you can only experience the story through this person's eyes. So you won't know anything about the people or events that this character hasn't personally experienced.  Second person point of view is generally only used in instructional writing. It is told from the perspective of "you".  Third person POV is used when your narrator is not a character in the story. Third person uses the "he/she/it" narrator and it is the most commonly used POV in writing. There are 3 main types of Third Person POV: Third Person Limited: Limited means that the POV is limited to only one character. Which means that the narrator only knows what that character knows. With third person limited you can choose to view the action from right inside the character's head, or from further away, where the narrator has more access to information outside the protagonist's viewpoint. World Literature Page 14 Third Person Multiple: This type is still in the "he/she/it" category, but now the narrator can follow multiple characters in the story. The challenge is making sure that the reader knows when you are switching from one character to another. Make the switch obvious with chapter or section breaks. Third Person Omniscient: This point of view still uses the "he/she/it" narration but now the narrator knows EVERYTHING. The narrator isn't limited by what one character knows, sort of like the narrator is God. The narrator can know things that others don't, can make comments about what's happening, and can see inside the minds of other characters. 6. Mood - is the general feeling or atmosphere that a piece of writing creates within the reader. 7. Tone - in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Every written piece comprises a central theme or subject matter. 8. Symbolism - can take many forms including: A figure of speech where an object, person, or situation has another meaning other than its literal meaning the actions of a character, word, action, or event that have a deeper meaning in the context of the whole story. 9. Sensory Images (IMAGERY) is a strategy readers use to think more deeply about a text. It is when a reader combines their schema and the information in the text to create an image in their mind. This image can represent all of the five senses (visual, smell, taste, sound, touch or feeling). 10. Theme - is the central topic a text treats. It can be divided into two categories: a work's thematic concept is what readers "think the work is about" and its thematic statement being "what the work says about the subject". Elements of Poetry 1. Sense is revealed through the meaning of words, images and symbols. a. diction- denotative and connotative meanings/symbols. b. images and sense impression – sight, sound smell, taste, touch, motion, and emotion. World Literature Page 15 c. figures of speech- simile, metaphor, personification, apostrophe, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole irony etc. 2. Sound- is the result of a combination of elements. a. tone color- alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, repetition anaphora b. rhythm – orders recurrent alteration of strong and weak elements in the flow of the sound and silence: duple, triple, running or common rhyme. c. meter- stress, duration, or number of syllables per line, fixed metrical pattern, or a verse form: quantitative, syllabic accentual and accentual syllabic. d. rhyme scheme – formal arrangement of rhymes in stanza or the whole poem. 3. Structure – refers to arrangement of words and lines to fit together and organization of the parts of the whole. a. word order – natural and unnatural arrangement of words b. ellipsis – omitting some words for economy and effect c. punctuation –abundance or lack of punctuation marks. d. shape – contextual and visual designs, jumps, omission of spaces, capitalization, lower case. Poetry Devices Figures of Speech a. Simile – consists of comparing two things using the words like or as. e.g. “The very mystery of him excited her curiosity like a door that had neither lock nor key.” — Gone with the Wind, by Margaret Mitchell b. Metaphor – uses direct comparison of two unlike things and ideas. e. g. Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference. —“The Road Not Taken,” Robert Frost c. Personification – gives human traits to inanimate objects or ideas. e.g. “When well-appareled April on the heel Of limping winter treads.” —“Romeo and Juliet,” W. Shakespeare World Literature Page 16 d. Metonymy – substitutes a word that closely relates to a person or a thing. e.g. “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” —“Julius Caesar,” W. Shakespeare e. Synecdoche – uses a part to represent a whole. e.g “O no! It is an ever-fixed mark. That looks on tempests and is never shaken.” —“Sonnet 116,” W. Shakespeare f. Hyperbole – makes use of exaggeration. e.g “ I had to wait in the station in ten days – an eternity —“The Heart of Darkness”, Joseph Conrad g. Irony – says the opposite of what is meant. e.g “Go ask his name: if he be married. My grave is like to be my wedding bed.” —“Romeo and Juliet,” W. Shakespeare h. Allusion – refers to any literary, biblical, historical, mythological, scientific event, character or place e.g “The two knitting women increase his anxiety by gazing at him and all the other sailors with knowing unconcern. Their eerie looks suggest that they know what will happen (the men dying), yet don’t care” —Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness” i. Antithesis – involves contrast of words or ideas e.g “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heav’n.” — “Paradise Lost ” John Milton World Literature Page 17 j. Paradox – uses a phrase or statement that on surface seems contradictor but makes some kind of emotional sense. e.g CECILY: To be natural is such a very difficult pose to keep up. — “The Importance of Being Earnest” Oscar Wilde k. Litotes – makes a deliberate understatement used to affirm by negating its opposite. e.g I lived at West Egg, the — well, the less fashionable of the two, though this is a most superficial tag to express the bizarre and not a little sinister contrast between them. —The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald l. Oxymoron – puts together in one statement two contradictory terms e.g I find no peace, and all my war is done I fear and hope, I burn and freeze like ice, I flee above the wind, yet can I not arise; — Petrarch’s 134th sonnet (By Sir Thomas Wyatt) m. Onomatopoeia – the formation or use of words which imitate sounds, but the term is generally expanded to refer to any word whose sound is suggestive of its meaning whether by imitation or through cultural inference. e.g I heard a Fly buzz – when I died – The Stillness in the Room – “I heard a Fly buzz – when I died –” by Emily Dickinson n. Alliteration - is the repetition of initial identical consonant sounds or any vowel sounds in successive or closely associated syllables especially stressed syllables. e.g They click upon themselves As the breeze rises, and turn many-colored As the stir cracks and crazes their enamel. – “Birches” by Robert Frost World Literature Page 18 LESSON 2: Literary Approaches Lenses used to analyze Literary Pieces  Literary Criticism – a systematic study and evaluation of literary works.  Biographical Criticism – begins with simple but central insight that Literature is written by actual people and that understanding an author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work.  Cultural Criticism- an approach to literature that focuses on the historical as well as social political and economic contexts of a work.  Deconstructionism- critical dismantling of tradition and traditional modes of thought.  Feminist Criticism- an approach to literature that that seeks to correct and supplement what may be regarded as a predominantly made dominated critical perspective with a feminist consciousness.  Formalist Criticism- an approach to literature that focuses on the formal elements of a work such as its language, structure and tone.  Gay and Lesbian- an approach to literature that focuses on how homosexuals are represented in literature.  Gender Criticism- an approach to literature that explore how ideas about men and women- what is masculine and feminine- can be regarded as socially constructed by particular cultures.  Historical Criticism – an approach to literature that uses history as means of understanding literary work more clearly.  Marxist Criticism- an approach to literature that focuses on the ideological content of work of Karl Marx  Mythological Criticism- an approach to literature that seeks to identify what in work creates deep universal response in readers, by paying close attention to the hopes, fears and expectations of the entire cultures.  New Criticism- an approach to literature that focuses in explication- extremely close textual analysis.  Psychological Criticism – an approach to literature that draws upon psychoanalytic theories.  Sociological Criticism – an approach to literature that examines social groups, relationship and values as they are manifested in literature.  Reader Response Criticism- an approach to literature that focuses on the reader rather than the work itself.  Structuralism – an approach to literature that examines how literary texts arrive at their meanings rather than the meaning itself. World Literature Page 19  Queer Criticism – focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behavior with respect to homosexual behavior, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories.  Moral- Philosophical Criticism – evaluates a work in terms of the ideas and values it contains – in relation to particular ethical, philosophical or religious system. THE THREE THEORIES USED IN DIGESTING LITERARY PIECES AUTHOR DEPENDENT THEORY Focuses on the perspective and the background of the author. TEXT DEPENDENT THEORY Focuses on the form, style and structure of the literary text itself. READER’S DEPENDENT THEORY Focuses on the perspective and own interpretation towards the literary text of the reader himself. World Literature Page 20  Introducti  I The chapter focuses on Mesopotamian Literature. The students will familiarized themselves to Ancient Babylonian Culture and Theology and its connection and its significance to the modern world. LESSON OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: 1. To differentiate Enumah Elish from Epic of Gilgamesh 2. Correlate the two Mesopotamian texts (Enumah Elish & Epic of Gilgamesh) to the Book of Genesis in the Bible. 3. Express opinions about the main literary characters of the texts (Enumah Elish & Epic of Gilgamesh) signifying to modern characters of the new literary texts. LESSON 1: Enumah Elish The Enuma Elish is the name given the collected myths passed down through the oral tradition that describe the creation myth of the ancient Babylonian civilization. The overriding intent of the Enuma Elish was to serve a similar purpose for Babylon within the context of the larger expanse of Mesopotamian religious beliefs. The Enuma Elish is essentially one of the earliest examples of political propaganda. The primary purpose of its writing was to exalt Marduk as not just a god, but the creation myth of the state of Babylon. Thus, Marduk becomes situated in a position of primacy over all other existing deities in the myths of other societies which comprised Mesopotamia in the second millennium BCE. World Literature Page 21 The Summary of Enumah Elish Enuma Elish begins with the universe unformed and containing only water. Only two beings exist in this unformed creation: Apsu, the fresh waters, and his wife, Tiamat, who is the salt water and the chaotic oceans. Tiamat is depicted as a monstrous dragon. From their union, silt forms, as it does when a freshwater river runs into the salty sea; from that, the gods arise, and the universe begins to take form. The gods begin to have children of their own, and soon there are many of them ruling the cosmos. This new order of things is too much for Apsu, who is bothered by the noise and commotion caused by the gods. He decides to destroy them, despite the fact that they are his progeny. Tiamat is horrified by her husband's plan to attack her children and opposes Apsu, but cannot defeat him. Apsu is eventually conquered by the god Ea, his own great-grandson, who uses a spell to subdue Apsu and keep him imprisoned in a deathlike state of sleep. All seems well, and Ea and his wife have a son, the god Marduk, who as a child is the favorite of the other gods. They give him the winds as a toy to play with, but the winds stir up trouble on the salty seas, enraging Tiamat. Tiamat, her new husband, the god Kingu, and a group of gods to which she has given birth swear revenge for this and for Ea's treatment of Apsu - although, breaks in the text leave her reasons for this change of allegiance somewhat vague. The gods are frightened at the prospect of facing this army, with Kingu at its head. They don't know how they could possibly defeat it. Marduk speaks up, offering to fight for the gods and defeat Tiamat and Kingu on one condition: that he be made absolute king of the gods, having even the power of life and death over his fellow divinities. The rest of the gods decide to test Marduk's power by setting up a new constellation in the heavens. They challenge Marduk first to destroy it, and then to restore it just as it was. Marduk passes the test, and the gods agree to his conditions. Marduk is armed with a mace, a bow and arrows, and a net, and sent off to do battle. Marduk faces the dragon Tiamat in single combat; he catches her in his net and dispatches her with an arrow. Marduk then cuts up Tiamat's body and uses it to construct the dome of the sky, as well as various natural phenomena. He buries her head under a mountain and pierces her eyes, which become the sources for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In this way, Marduk demonstrates his absolute mastery over the natural world. Marduk pardons the gods who fought with Tiamat (except for Kingu) but demands that as penance they construct for him a royal city, Babylon, and a temple in it from which to rule, Esagilla. Marduk also convenes a council of the gods, at which Kingu is tried and executed. In order to free the gods from any further toil or manual labor, Marduk commands that the gods use Kingu's corpse to construct the first humans, who are to serve the gods by keeping the land worked and by giving the gods appropriate worship and sacrifices. World Literature Page 22 Sources: https://study.com/academy/lesson/enuma-elish-summary-text-quiz.html https://www.gradesaver.com/the-enuma-elish/study-guide/summary LESSON 2: EPIC OF GILGAMESH “The Epic of Gilgamesh” is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia and among the earliest known literary writings in the world. It originated as a series of Sumerian legends and poems in cuneiform script dating back to the early 3rd or late 2nd millennium BCE, which were later gathered into a longer Akkadian poem (the most complete version existing today, preserved on 12 clay tablets, dates from the 12th to 10th Century BCE). It follows the story of Gilgamesh, the mythological hero-king of Uruk, and his half-wild friend, Enkidu, as they undertake a series of dangerous quests and adventures, and then Gilgamesh’s search for the secret of immortality after the death of his friend. It also includes the story of a great flood very similar to the story of Noah in “The Bible” and elsewhere. “The Epic of Gilgamesh” was one of the most beloved stories of Mesopotamia. According to the tale, Gilgamesh is a handsome, athletic young king of Uruk city. His mother was the goddess Ninsun and his father the priest-king Lugalbanda, making Gilgamesh semi-divine. Gilgamesh is rambunctious and energetic, but also cruel and arrogant. He challenges all other young men to physical contests and combat. He also proclaims his right to have sexual intercourse with all new brides. Gilgamesh’s behavior upsets Uruk’s citizens and they cry out to the great god of heaven Anu for help with their young king. SUMMARY OF EPIC OF GILGAMESH Gilgamesh is the Priest-King of the city of Uruk. He is a tyrannical king who works his people to death and takes what he wants from them. He kills the young men at will and uses the women as he pleases. The people of Uruk cry out to the gods for help so that they can have peace. The gods hear them and instruct Anu, the goddess of creation, to make a twin for Gilgamesh, someone who is strong enough to stand up to him and who will ultimately save him. Anu makes Enkidu, a hairy wild man who lives in the wilderness with the animals. One day a trapper sees Enkidu by a water hole and is frightened. He tells his father of the wild man he saw. His father tells the trapper to go to see Gilgamesh. He tells his son to ask the king for a temple prostitute to bring back with him to seduce Enkidu. The trapper returns with Shamhat, a temple prostitute from the temple of Ishtar, the goddess of love and war. They wait for Enkidu to reappear by the watering hole. Enkidu returns and Shamhat reveals herself to him. They copulate for six days and seven nights. When Enkidu is satisfied, he finds that the animals no longer accept him. Shamhat tells him to come back with her to Uruk. Upon hearing of Gilgamesh, Enkidu decides he wishes to meet him. The two set out for Uruk, making a stop at a shepherd's camp. There Enkidu learns that World Literature Page 23 Gilgamesh will sleep with a newly married bride on her wedding night, before her husband sleeps with her. He is outraged and decides he must stop Gilgamesh. Meanwhile, Gilgamesh has several dreams foretelling the arrival of Enkidu. The two meet in the streets of Uruk and a great fight breaks out between them. Gilgamesh is triumphant but his encounter with Enkidu changes him. They become companions. Enkidu tells Gilgamesh of Humbaba, a terrible monster who guards the Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh decides the two of them should journey there and defeat the monster. They make preparations and head to the Cedar Forest. They encounter Humbaba and with the help of Shamash, the sun god, defeat him. They return to Uruk carrying his head. After a celebration, Gilgamesh bathes himself and catches the eye of Ishtar. She tells him to become her lover, promising great riches and rewards in return. Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar, telling her he is aware of her reputation as a scornful lover. Ishtar is outraged and convinces her father, Anu, to release the Bull of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh. The Bull of Heaven descends on Uruk, killing hundreds of men. Enkidu seizes the animal and Gilgamesh kills it with a sword. Ishtar appears and threatens the heroes. Enkidu tears off one of the Bull's haunches and throws it at Ishtar. Later that night, Enkidu has a dream that the gods are meeting in council. The dream proves true. The gods decide that one of the heroes must die for their behavior. They choose Enkidu. Enkidu falls ill and suffers for twelve days before finally dying. Gilgamesh is shattered. He mourns for days and tears his hair and clothes. He adorns filthy animal skins and journeys into the forest and mountains. He has witnessed death and is now terrified of his own mortality. He seeks to escape it. Gilgamesh decides to seek out Utnapishtim, the one being granted immortality by the gods. He travels to Mount Mashu, a twin-peaked mountain that marks an entrance to a world in which mortals cannot venture. He convinces the guards of the mountain, two Scorpion-man beings, to allow him to enter a long passage under the mountain. He endures this terrible darkness for a full day. When he emerges on the other side, he is in a wondrous paradise. He sees a tavern by the sea and approaches it, frightening its owner, Siduri, with his appearance. Siduri allows him to enter the tavern after he explains his story and his intention to find Utnapishtim. Siduri tells Gilgamesh of Urshanabi, the boatman, who can ferry Gilgamesh across the Waters of Death to where Utnapishtim resides. Gilgamesh finds Urshanabi and the two set out to find Utnapishtim. They reach a shore and Gilgamesh meets an old man. Gilgamesh explains that he wishes to attain immortality. The old man is Utnapishtim, who tells Gilgamesh that immortality is for the gods alone. Mortals must learn to accept death. He tells Gilgamesh the story of how he was granted immortality by the gods. He asks Gilgamesh what he has done to deserve this same gift. Gilgamesh finally leaves with Urshanabi to return to Uruk. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a magical plant at the bottom of the sea that can restore one's youth. Gilgamesh descends into the waters and retrieves the plant. World Literature Page 24 On his way back to Uruk, Gilgamesh stops to bathe in a spring, leaving the plant by the water. A serpent appears and steals the plant, leaving Gilgamesh weeping by the water's edge. He returns to Uruk with Urshanabi. Upon seeing the great city, Gilgamesh understands that it is his legacy, and that if he rules well, it will be his greatest legacy. Gilgamesh comes to understand that the most important thing in life is to have lived and loved well. Sources: https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-epic-of-gilgamesh https://www.gradesaver.com/the-enuma-elish/study-guide/summary https://ancient-literature.com/other_gilgamesh.htm World Literature Page 25 This chapter focuses on the understanding of the messages of the Old Testament particularly the Book of Job, Genesis, and Psalms. The students will be exposed to Hebrew Culture and Theology and be able to exchange point of view regarding religious beliefs. LESSON OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Value eternal, ethical and religious messages. 2. Bring the message of the Bible to life. 3. Involve good deal in exchanging point of view about faith. LESSON 1: The Book of Genesis THE SUMMARY OF THE BOOK OF GENESIS Gen1: God created the heavens, the earth and everything that lives. He made humankind in his image, and gave them charge over the earth. Gen2: God formed a man and gave him the garden in Eden, except the tree of good and evil. Adam was alone so God made a woman as his partner. Gen3: The serpent deceived the woman. She and Adam ate from the tree. The ground was cursed, and God sent Adam and Eve out of the garden. Gen4: Eve's sons made offerings to the LORD. Only Abel's was acceptable, so Cain killed him. Abel's blood cried out and God sent Cain away. Gen5: Adam's line was: Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, Jared, Enoch, Methuselah, Lamech and Noah. Noah's sons were Shem, Ham and Japheth. World Literature Page 26 Gen6: Humankind corrupted the earth with evil. God decided to destroy them. He told Noah to build an ark to be saved from the flood. Gen7: Noah and his family went into the ark with two of each creature. It rained for forty days and forty nights and the earth was covered. Gen8: The flood abated. Noah sent out a raven and two doves. When the earth was dry God called them all out of the ark. Noah built an altar. Gen9: God blessed Noah and set the rainbow as a sign that he would never flood the earth again. Noah got drunk and cursed Ham's son Canaan. Gen10: Japheth's line lived in the coastlands; Ham's included Nimrod and the Canaanites; Shem's lived in the East. These formed the nations. Gen11: They began building a great tower for themselves, but the Lord confused their language. Shem's line included Abram who married Sarai. Gen12: God told Abram, "Go, I will make you a great nation. You will be a blessing." In Egypt Abram lied about Sarai and Pharaoh was cursed. Gen13: Abram journeyed with his nephew Lot. Their servants argued, so Lot went to Sodom, Abram to Canaan. The LORD promised Abram the land. Gen14: The kings went to war and took Lot captive. Abram rescued Lot. Melchizedek blessed Abram and Abram gave him a tenth of everything. Gen15: The Lord promised Abram an heir and many descendants. Abram believed. He was told that they would be enslaved but would then return. Gen16: Sarai told Abram to have children with Hagar. Hagar conceived, then ran away, but an angel sent her back. Hagar's son was Ishmael. Gen17: God made a covenant with Abram and renamed him Abraham. He renamed Sarai Sarah and promised them a son. The men were circumcised. World Literature Page 27 Gen18: Three visitors came and said that Sarah would have a son next year. Sodom was very evil; Abraham pleaded with the LORD for the city. Gen19: Angels took Lot out of Sodom. The city was destroyed by fire and Lot's wife was turned to salt. His daughters had children for him. Gen20: In Gerar Abraham said, "Sarah is my sister." King Abimelech took her but God warned him in a dream. He restored Sarah to Abraham. Gen21: As promised, Sarah had a son: Isaac. She had Hagar and Ishmael sent away but God preserved them. Abraham and Abimelech made a treaty. Gen22: God told Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. As Abraham obeyed, an angel stopped him. The LORD provided a ram instead and blessed Abraham. Gen23: Sarah died in Kiriath-arba. Abraham asked the Hittites for a burial site. He bought a cave from Ephron and buried Sarah there. Gen24: Abraham's servant went to Nahor to find a wife for Isaac. He met Rebekah by the well. She went back with him and married Isaac. Gen25: Abraham died and was buried with Sarah. Isaac and Rebekah had twins: Esau and Jacob. Esau sold his birthright to Jacob for a meal. Gen26: In Gerar Isaac lied about Rebekah. He grew so rich that Abimelech sent him away. He dug wells, and at Beersheba the LORD blessed him. Gen27: Rebekah and Jacob tricked Isaac into giving Jacob his blessing. Esau vowed revenge so Rebekah told Jacob to go to her brother Laban. Gen28: Isaac sent Jacob to marry one of Laban's daughters. On the way Jacob dreamed of a ladder reaching to heaven and the LORD blessed him. Gen29: Jacob worked for Laban seven years to marry Rachel, but Laban gave him Leah and made him work seven more for Rachel. Leah had sons. Gen30: Rachel's maid had sons for Jacob, then Leah's maid, then Leah. Finally Rachel had a son. Laban allowed Jacob flocks as wages to stay. Gen31: The Lord told Jacob to return home. Jacob left in secret and Rachel took Laban's idols. Laban chased Jacob but they made a treaty. World Literature Page 28 Gen32: Jacob heard that Esau was coming to meet him. He was afraid and sent gifts. That night he wrestled with a man who renamed him Israel. Gen33: Esau and his men arrived. Jacob bowed down but Esau ran to embrace him. Jacob settled near Shechem and built an altar. Gen34: Shechem raped Jacob's daughter and asked to marry her. Jacob's sons told him to circumcise his men, then Simeon and Levi killed them. Gen35: Jacob went to Bethel and God renamed him Israel. They journeyed on. Rachel died having Israel's twelfth son. Isaac died in Hebron. Gen36: Esau's sons were Eliphaz, Reuel, Jeush, Jalam and Korah. Esau and his family moved away to Seir. They became the Edomites. Gen37: Joseph was Israel's favourite son. He had dreams and his brothers were jealous so they sold him. He was bought by Potiphar in Egypt. Gen38: Judah's sons Er and Onan died, leaving Tamar a widow. Judah sent her away but she put on a veil and he slept with her. She had twins. Gen39: Potiphar put Joseph in charge of his house. His wife tried to seduce Joseph, then lied about it, so Potiphar put Joseph in prison. Gen40: Pharaoh put his cupbearer and baker in prison. Joseph interpreted their dreams. The cupbearer was restored but the baker was hanged. Gen41: Pharaoh had a dream and called for Joseph to interpret it. The dream predicted a famine. Pharaoh put Joseph in charge of all Egypt. Gen42: Joseph's brothers went to Egypt to buy grain but didn't recognize him. He kept Simeon in prison and sent the rest to fetch Benjamin. Gen43: When the grain ran out, Joseph's brothers went back to Egypt with Benjamin. Joseph invited them to his house and gave them a feast. World Literature Page 29 Gen44: Joseph hid his cup in Benjamin's sack, then sent a steward after his brothers. Judah offered himself as a slave instead of Benjamin. Gen45: Joseph told his brothers who he was. They were afraid, but he told them, "God sent me here." His brothers went to fetch their father. Gen46: So Israel set out with all his household. God told him not to be afraid. Israel and all his family came to Egypt and Joseph met him. Gen47: Pharaoh allowed Joseph's family to settle in Goshen. The famine continued and the Egyptians sold all they had to Pharaoh for food. Gen48: Jacob became ill, so Joseph took his sons to see him. Jacob blessed Joseph's sons as his own, putting Ephraim ahead of Manasseh. Gen49: Jacob gathered his sons and blessed each of them. He charged them to bury him with Abraham in the cave in Canaan, and then he died. Gen50: Pharaoh allowed Joseph to go and bury Jacob. Before Joseph died, he said that God would lead his people back to the Promised Land. Source: https://biblesummary.info/genesis LESSON 2: The Book of Psalms THE SUMMARY OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS The book of Psalms is the longest book in the Bible. The 119th Psalm is a longest chapter in the whole Bible. The 117th Psalm is the shortest chapter in the Bible and located in the middle. When the Old Testament is quoted in the New Testament by someone, over one third of all the quotes are from the Psalms. Psalms 1-41– Book 1) – – (Psalms 42-72 – Book 2) – – (Psalms 73-89 – Book 3) – – (Psalms 90- 106 – – Book 4) – – (Psalms 107-150 – – Book 5). The title of the Book of Psalms in the Hebrew is sepher tehillim, meaning "book of praises", and indeed it is a fitting title. Every chapter is devoted to praise and thanksgiving from the author to Yahweh. This book clearly provides hope and confidence in the Lord as the maker of all things, the ultimate ruler of everything including the universe. He sees everything, knows everything, he has no limits, his presence is everywhere even in darkness there is no hiding and he is to be praised. World Literature Page 30 The Psalms are full of religious poetry and this was not uncommon in the ancient Near Eastern nation and peoples, and it was not surprising for the Hebrews to have produced such a powerful work. David was the recognized writer of the Psalms and they are many times referred to as the Psalms of David, although some of the chapters are not attributed to him in the notes. The Psalms of David included Psalms 2-41 (except Psalms 33), Psalms 51-72, Psalms 108-110, and Psalms 138-145. David was no doubt a very skillful musician, the Bible mentions that he played the lyre for King Saul (1 Samuel 16:23), and the prophet Amos mentions that David invented instruments of music for worship of the Lord (Amos 6:5). There is also mention in the book of Samuel about David lamenting over Saul and Jonathan in a poetic fashion revealing his natural ability. David went to many experiences in his life that he wrote about, especially when he was hunted down by King Saul from place to place like a "Partridge" in the wilderness. David was a young shepherd, he knew what it was like to tend his flock and to guard them from predators, this gave him a beautiful imagery for the Lord the great Shepherd. David was also a musician, a man of war, a king, a father, a husband, a friend, and many more. He repented over his sin in Psalm 51, acknowledging himself to be a sinner before God and God alone. God called David "a man after my own heart" and these experiences allowed him to share with the reader, a man who knew the heart of God. David was a master at finding different ways to praise God in life experiences and the book of Psalms is a wonder book for those who want to know how to please God. He was filled with the Holy Spirit (1 Samuel 16:13). There is no doubt the David wrote most of the Psalms, and the ones that he did not write are in his style as well. Among the Psalms are two collections of Levitical Psalms, one is ascribed to the "sons of Korah" (Psalms 42-49), the other is ascribed to Asaph (Psalms 73-83 and Psalms 50). These exalt the tribes of Joseph. There are Psalms mentioning Moses, Haman, Ethan, and Solomon, some are anonymous (Psalm 33, 84-89). Some of the Psalms reveal a strong liturgical emphasis which might've been used in worship services, or on special days and do not mention the author (Psalms 91-100). It is impossible to determine exactly how the Psalms were compiled and collected, and dating them is also difficult for most of the Psalms. Some of the Psalms are commemorating victories, while others are historical, remembering the Lord and God's people in past events. Other Psalms are prophetic and look to the future and the coming of the Messiah, as well as the heavenly kingdom. There are Psalms of affliction, lamentation and remorse over sin, as well as songs of Thanksgiving and trusting the Lord. Some of the songs were chosen to be good for reciting on certain Jewish holy days, like the Sabbath, or Passover, the feast of Tabernacles, etc. There are titles on about 100 of the Psalms, the titles are so old that they cannot be understood even in the second century BC. Some of the World Literature Page 31 titles point to the source of the Psalm, while others point to a certain purpose, or a certain melody, or something related to music. Source: https://www.bible-history.com/old-testament/bookofpsalms.html LESSON 3: The Book of Job THE SUMMARY OF THE BOOK OF JOB The book of Job is Narrative History. Its author is unknown yet it is possible that Job himself wrote it. It is possible that Job is the oldest of any book of the Bible written approximately 2100-1800 B.C. Key personalities of this book include Job, Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad the Shuhite, Zophar the Naamathite, and Elihu the Buzite. In Job, we see a man who God allows to be directly attacked by Satan. He is an example of faithfulness as he loses everything important to him yet remains faithful to God. Its purpose is to illustrate God’s sovereignty and faithfulness during a time of great suffering. In chapters 1-3, God tests Job’s faithfulness through allowing Satan to attack him. God told Satan, “Behold, all that he has is in your power, only do not put forth your hand on him” (1:12). Through Job’s trials, all is lost including his health, his wife even tells him to curse God and commit suicide, but he remains strong and faithful, “Through all this Job did not sin nor did he blame God.” (1:22). From chapters 4-37, Job’s friends give him plenty of bad advice, in rounds of discussion. They mistakenly blame his sufferings on his personal sins rather than God testing and growing Job. One of them was half-correct in that God wanted to humble him, but this was only a part of God’s test. In chapters 38-42, God speaks to Job and restores him. God knows that Job has received incorrect guidance from his friends, “Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge?” God fittingly declares that humans do not know everything. Then He humbles Job by asking a series of questions that could never be answered by anyone other than Almighty God; for example, “Have you understood the expanse of the earth? Tell Me, if you know all this”. God then brings him to an understanding that believers don’t always know what God is doing in their lives. In the end, Job answers God by saying, “I have declared that which I did not understand”. God then blessed Job with twice as much as he had before his trials began. Sources: https://biblehub.com/summary/job/1.html World Literature Page 32 This chapter focuses on the work of Homer particularly the Iliad books as a foundation block of western literature. The aim of this chapter is to help the students to have an in-depth understanding of Hector’s and Achilles’s choices with respect to battle. LESSON OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Gain an understanding of the nature of epic poetry and the art of story-telling. 2. Become familiar with the events and characters of the Iliad, a foundation block of western literature, and explore the idea of the hero. 3. Examine the effects of war on individuals and gain insight into the strengths and weaknesses of the human heart. Through his epic poems, Homer has played a hugely influential role in Western Literature. His classics of the Iliad and the Odyssey, stand at the forefront of the Western Canon of literature. Details about the life of Homer are scarce and different sources quote different variations about his life. The historian Herodotus places Homer as living around 850BC. However, other sources suggest Homer was born around the time of the Trojan War in the early 12 Century BC. Homer (c. 850 BC) Classical Greek poet. Author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. World Literature Page 33 The name Homer has been interpreted as meaning ‘he who accompanies, he who is forced to follow.’ or in some dialects ‘blind’. This has led to the opinion that Homer may have been blind. Homer is said to have been born on the Greek island of Chios or perhaps Ionia. Homer was likely to have been a fairly aristocratic member of court – perhaps working as a court minstrel or storyteller. Source: https://www.biographyonline.net/poets/homer.html ILIAD BOOK I In the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles, the greatest fighter for the Achaeans (the Greeks and their allies), is enraged. King Agamemnon, who leads the Achaeans, has brought an illness upon the army by refusing to give up a woman, Chryseis, whom he seized as a prize in a recent battle. Chryseis is the daughter of a priest of the god Apollo. When Agamemnon refuses to give her back in exchange for a ransom, her father calls on the god, and Apollo sends a plague. When Achilles calls on Agamemnon to give up Chryseis in return for future compensation, Agamemnon seems to view the idea of future compensation as unlikely for a warrior who lives moment by moment and demands immediate restoration of his pride by claiming Briseis, the woman Achilles has taken as a prize. Only the intervention of Athena stops Achilles from killing Agamemnon at that moment, and he vows Agamemnon will beg for his skills one day. Achilles refuses to fight and appeals to his mother, the goddess Thetis, to avenge his pride. Thetis secures the pledge of Zeus, king of the gods, that the Achaeans will lose the war until the insult to Achilles's honor has been repaired. ILIAD BOOK IV On Olympus, the gods argue over the war. Zeus suggests that the peace hold and Helen go home with Menelaus, both because Troy is his favorite city and to mock Hera's and Athena's passion for the death of Trojans. Hera protests she wouldn't object if Zeus destroyed all her favorite cities, so he shouldn't protest the destruction of Troy. Zeus yields and sends Athena to provoke Troy to break the truce. Disguised as a soldier, Athena urges Pandarus, a Trojan archer, to kill Menelaus. His arrow hits Menelaus in the belt and draws blood, but Athena doesn't actually want Menelaus dead and prevents a mortal wound. However, the truce is broken. Agamemnon uses praise and scorn to rouse his troops, and the Achaean army surges in violent waves to the attack. As gods drive them on, warriors on both sides die in droves. Source: https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-Iliad/book-1-summary/ ILIAD BOOK VIII In the morning, the Trojan forces come out of the city and the armies clash again. Zeus watches over the fighting from nearby Mount Ida and decides to give the day's victory to Troy. A furious battle ensues, and soon the Achaians are driven from the field in complete disorder. Most of the commanders flee also, and old Nestor is saved from Hektor's spear only by the courage of Diomedes. Hera, who has always been a fanatical hater of the Trojans, tries to convince Poseidon to join her in helping the Achaians. The sea god, however refuses. Hektor is everywhere, fighting bravely and cheering on his men. Hera and Athena prepare to intervene, but Zeus notices their approach. He repeats his earlier warning through his messenger, Iris, and the goddesses return to Olympos. Meanwhile, the Achaian forces are driven back behind the fortifications protecting their ships. Hektor orders his army to camp on the plain for the night to prevent the Achaians from sailing off to safety in the darkness and to retain the advantage for the morning's assault. Supplies are brought from Troy, and the Trojan fires burn in front of the Achaian wall. ILIAD BOOK IX The routed Achaian army is completely demoralized. At an assembly of troops that night, even proud King Agamemnon bursts into tears. He says that the war is lost, and he suggests sailing home. His dejected soldiers receive this speech in silence, but Diomedes leaps to his feet, reminding the king of his responsibilities and reminding the troops of their heroic heritage. They can all return home, he says, but he, Diomedes, will remain alone, if necessary, to continue fighting, for it is fated that Troy will eventually fall. This brave declaration restores the confidence of the army and, on the recommendation of Nestor, guards are posted at the wall and the troops disperse to their tents for dinner and sleep. At a meeting of the council, old Nestor takes the floor and reminds Agamemnon that the absence of Achilles is causing the present distress of the army. The king admits that he was unwise to have insulted the great warrior. He decides to offer many valuable gifts, as well as the return of Briseis, if Achilles will rejoin the army. Emissaries are therefore sent to the tent of the sulking hero with this message. Achilles welcomes Telamonian Aias (Ajax) and Odysseus with great honor, but he refuses to accept the terms offered by Agamemnon. He cannot be bought or sold, he says, and nothing, even if it were all the wealth of Egypt, could erase Agamemnon's public insult. Therefore, he will not join in the battle, and in the morning, he and his men will sail for home. He is adamant in his decision. World Literature Page 35 Back in the Achaian camp, Agamemnon listens with great sorrow to the report of what happened in Achilles' tent. Finally, Diomedes rises and tells the assembled warriors that it was an error to try to appeal to someone as conceited and headstrong as Achilles. He advises them to make whatever preparations are possible to defend the ships against the Trojans the next morning. All agree, and after making libations to the gods, they retire to their quarters. Source: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/i/the-iliad/summary-and-analysis/book-ix World Literature Page 36 This chapter focuses on. The encounter between Achilles and Priam. This text will help the students view the values and culture as seen in some of the scenarios in the text and relate them to the modern society. Learning Outcomes: The students are expected to: 1. Realize the consequences of narcissism and solipsism worldview as seen in the character of Achilles. 2. Grasp the value of humility that signifies courage as seen in the character of King Priam 3. Relate the some scenarios in the text to the modern society. ILIAD BOOK XVI While the battle around the ships continues, Patroklos pleads with Achilles to be allowed to wear Achilles' armor and to lead the Myrmidons, his troops, into battle. While Achilles is considering this request, flames are seen rising from among the ships, indicating great success for the Trojans. Achilles consents, and Patroklos and the Myrmidons arm themselves with great enthusiasm. After Achilles has addressed them and offered a libation to Zeus, he warns Patroklos to do no more than rescue the ships, for if he attacks Troy, he may be killed. The Trojans are panicked by the belief that Achilles has decided to unleash his fury against them, and in a short time, the addition of Achilles' fresh and well equipped regiment of Myrmidons to the Achaian army destroys the Trojan advantage. Hektor and his men flee toward Troy. Patroklos pursues Hektor and his men all the way to the walls of Troy, doing many heroic deeds on the way. However, Apollo decides to enter the fighting as an ally of Hektor, and while Patroklos, in an almost god-like manner, slaughters nine Trojans in a single charge, Apollo slips up behind him and strikes him so fiercely on the back that Patroklos' vizored helmet flies off. His spear is shattered and his armor falls to the ground. Then, while Patroklos is standing in a daze, a Trojan soldier pierces him midway between the shoulders with a javelin. Patroklos tries to hide, but Hektor sees him and rams a spear through the lower part of his belly. Patroklos falls with a thud, and the entire Achaian army is stunned. His voice failing, Patroklos tells Hektor that it was not he who conquered him. It was the gods, he says, the gods and "deadly Destiny." ILIAD BOOK XVIII When Achilles learns of the death of Patroklos, he bursts into tears, tearing his hair and throwing himself on the ground. His sorrowful lament is heard by his mother, Thetis, and she comes to comfort him. She points out that if Achilles avenges Patroklos, he himself will be killed. Despite his mother's warning, however, Achilles chooses to undertake this risk, so great is his love for Patroklos. Thetis therefore promises to procure new armor for her son from the god Hephaistos to replace the armor that was captured by Hektor. Meanwhile, the Achaians, who are bearing away the body of Patroklos, are given close pursuit by the Trojans; so Achilles (at the suggestion of Hera) appears at the Achaian trench and shouts his ferocious and furious war cry. The sound of this mighty war cry strikes terror into the hearts of the Trojans, and they retreat in panic. Achilles' sorrow is intensified by the sight of his dead comrade's body, and all of the Achaians join Achilles in mourning. Achilles vows to kill Hektor and to slaughter twelve Trojan warriors on the funeral pyre of Patroklos. Meanwhile, Patroklos' dead body is washed clean and laid out in state in Achilles' tent. At a Trojan council of war that night, Poulydamas suggests that the Trojan army remain in the city and fight off any Achaian assault from the protection of the battlements. The return of Achilles to the Achaian force makes it too dangerous to fight in the open, he says. Hektor refuses to heed this advice, however, and he insists that the Trojan army stay in the field. His opinion prevails. On Olympos, Thetis calls upon Hephaistos. She tells the god about all that has taken place on the battlefield that day, and she asks him to provide new armor for her son. Hephaistos assents and makes a marvelous and beautiful set of new armor for Achilles. The new shield alone is a masterpiece, being built up of five layers and having on it a representation of the signs of the zodiac and of two cities engaged in all the peaceful and warlike activities of mankind. When the armor is finished, Thetis takes it in her arms, and, thanking Hephaistos, she goes to find her son. Readers see, then, that Achilles is given his final chance to decide his fate, for Thetis tells him that he will die if he avenges Patroklos. Despite this knowledge, Achilles chooses to continue his plan for revenge. Patroklos was his closest friend, a lesser reflection of his own glory, and, in an emotional sense, part of himself; so in every way, the killing of Patroklos was a direct blow to Achilles himself. His determination to avenge his friend is so intense because he realizes that he is responsible for Patroklos' death, and he is angry with himself as well as with the Trojans. He hopes that by punishing the Trojans and, in particular, by venting his fury on Hektor, their leader and the human symbol of Trojan resistance, he will be able to assuage his sense of guilt and grief. In all things, Achilles has a greater capacity for feeling than other men do. His wrath, his grief, and his exploits in the battle to come will now begin to take on a superhuman quality, World Literature Page 38 symbolized in part by the divine armor made for him by the god Hephaistos, as the climax of the tragedy draws near. ILIAD BOOK XXII With the Trojans now secure in their city, Hektor — as their sole representative — stands outside the city gates and prepares to meet Achilles. His mother and father appeal to him to seek safety behind the city walls, but their pleas are in vain. While waiting, Hektor considers the various courses of action open to him and decides that the only real possibility is to fight Achilles. Yet, when Achilles arrives, Hektor is overcome by fear and he flees. Achilles pursues him around the city walls three times, and, as they run, Hektor tries unsuccessfully to draw Achilles within range of the Trojan archers on the battlements. Finally, Athena deludes Hektor into believing that he will have assistance against Achilles. He turns and stands his ground. But before the two heroes fight, Hektor attempts to make Achilles promise to treat his body with respect if he is killed, but Achilles is so full of fury that he refuses. The two warriors engage in a decisive duel. Achilles casts his spear first and misses the mark, but it is returned to him by Athena. Next, Hektor throws his spear and hits the center of Achilles' shield, but the divine armor cannot be penetrated. The two men circle each other, slowly closing in. Hektor is armed with only a sword, while Achilles still has his spear. After several feints, Achilles lunges and stabs Hektor in the throat. As the Trojan dies, he begs that his body be returned to his family for a proper funeral, but Achilles again refuses Hektor's request. Hektor dies reminding Achilles that his own death is imminent. All the Achaians run up to see the corpse of the almost-mythic, now-dead Trojan leader. Many of them jest and stab Hektor's corpse. Achilles strips off Hektor's armor and fastens his naked body to his chariot by the heels. Then he gallops off, dragging the corpse behind him in disgrace. When Priam and Hekuba, Hektor's parents, witness the vicious treatment of their dead son, they begin to wail and bemoan their fate, and all of the citizens of Troy join in the piteous lamentations. The sound of this weeping is heard by Andromache, and when she learns of her husband's death, she collapses. World Literature Page 39 ILIAD BOOK XXIV Nine days pass after the funeral, and on each of these days, Achilles ties the body of Hektor to his chariot and drags it around the barrow of Patroklos. The gods, however, continue to preserve the corpse so that it does not deteriorate or rot. Zeus then holds a meeting of the gods where it is decided that Hektor's body will be redeemed and given a suitable burial. To make this possible, the gods order Thetis to explain to her son, Achilles, that it is the will of Zeus that he restore Hektor's body to Priam, Hektor's father. Escorted by the god Hermes, Priam and an old servant enter the Achaian camp that night, unseen. Priam appeals to Achilles as a suppliant, reminding Achilles of the feelings that he has for his own dead father. Achilles is so moved by these reawakened memories of home and parents that he agrees to accept Priam's offer of ransom for Hektor's body. The two men, Achilles and Priam, each having his own sorrow, weep together. Then Achilles has dinner prepared and provides Priam with a bed for the night. He even oversees the preparations of Hektor's body and also grants the Trojans a 12-day truce so that they have sufficient time to conduct Hektor's funeral rites. All the people of Troy come out to mourn Hektor's body. Andromache, Hekuba, and Helen, all of whom praise Hektor and describe their own reasons for regretting his death, lead the lamentations. During the period of the truce, the Trojans gather wood in the mountains and burn Hektor's body on a large funeral pyre. His bones are then placed in a golden chest, which is buried in a shallow grave. Over this, a barrow is erected. Afterward, a great funeral banquet is served in Priam's palace. Source: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/i/the-iliad/summary-and-analysis/book-xxiv World Literature Page 40 This chapter focuses on the understanding of genre of the Greek tragedy, specifically the works of Sophocles and Euripides. These will help the students to analyze and distinguish the central ideas of the the texts using the literary lenses. LESSON OUTCOMES: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: 1. Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text. 2. Discuss the history and significance of the genre of Greek tragedy. 3. Explain the types of literature in which tragedies are found. BCE, include such classics as Oedipus the King, Antigone, and Women of Trachis. As with other Greek plays, Sophocles’ work is not only a record of Greek theatre but also provides an invaluable insight into many of the political and social aspects of ancient Greece, from family relations to details of Greek religion. In addition, Sophocles’ innovations in theatrepresentation would provide the foundations for all future western dramatic performance, and his plays continue to be performed today in theatres around the world. The Greek world had three great Sophocles of Kolōnos (c. 496 - c. 406 BCE) was tragedians: Aeschylus (c. 525 - c. 456 one of the most famous and celebrated writers BCE), Euripides (c. 484 - 407 BCE), and of tragedy plays in ancient Greece and his Sophocles. Their works were usually first surviving works, written throughout the 5th century performed in groups of threes (not necessarily trilogies) in such religious World Literature Page 41 festivals as the competitions of Dionysos Eleuthereus, notably the City Dionysia in Athens. The plays were often performed again in lesser theatres around Greece, and the best were even distributed in written form for public reading, kept as official state documents for posterity, and studied as part of the standard Greek education. Sophocles had an exceptionally long career. His first competition entry was in 468 BCE and his last (whilst still alive) was in 406 BCE when he was 90. Clearly a great admirer of his fellow playwrights, Sophocles even dressed the actors and chorus of his final play in mourning to mark the death of Euripides in 407 BCE. Sophocles won at least 20 festival competitions, including 18 at the City Dionysia. He also came second many times and never had the ignominy of being voted third and last in competitions. Sophocles was, therefore, at least in terms of victories, the most successful of the three great tragedians. Source: https://www.ancient.eu/sophocles/ LESSON 1: Oedipus Rex (Brief Summary) Oedipus the Kingunfolds as a murder mystery, a political thriller, and a psychological whodunit. Throughout this mythic story of patricide and incest, Sophocles emphasizes the irony of a man determined to track down, expose, and punish an assassin, who turns out to be himself. As the play opens, the citizens of Thebes beg their king, Oedipus, to lift the plague that threatens to destroy the city. Oedipus has already sent his brother-in-law, Creon, to the oracle to learn what to do. On his return, Creon announces that the oracle instructs them to find the murderer of Laius, the king who ruled Thebes before Oedipus. The discovery and punishment of the murderer will end the plague. At once, Oedipus sets about to solve the murder. Summoned by the king, the blind prophet Tiresias at first refuses to speak, but finally accuses Oedipus himself of killing Laius. Oedipus mocks and rejects the prophet angrily, ordering him to leave, but not before Tiresias hints darkly of an incestuous marriage and a future of blindness, infamy, and wandering. Oedipus attempts to gain advice from Jocasta, the queen; she encourages him to ignore prophecies, explaining that a prophet once told her that Laius, her husband, would die at the hands of their son. According to Jocasta, the prophecy did not come true because the baby died, abandoned, and Laius himself was killed by a band of robbers at a crossroads. Oedipus becomes distressed by Jocasta's remarks because just before he came to Thebes he killed a man who resembled Laius at a crossroads. To learn the truth, Oedipus sends for the only living witness to the murder, a shepherd. Another worry haunts Oedipus. As a young man, he learned from an oracle that he was fated to kill his father and marry his mother. Fear of the prophecy drove him from his home in Corinth and brought him ultimately to Thebes. Again, Jocasta advises him not to worry about prophecies. Oedipus finds out from a messenger that Polybus, king of Corinth, Oedipus' father, has died of old age. Jocasta rejoices — surely this is proof that the prophecy Oedipus heard is worthless. Still, Oedipus worries about fulfilling the prophecy with his mother, Merope, a concern Jocasta dismisses. Overhearing, the messenger offers what he believes will be cheering news. Polybus and Merope are not Oedipus' real parents. In fact, the messenger himself gave Oedipus to the royal couple when a shepherd offered him an abandoned baby from the house of Laius. Oedipus becomes determined to track down the shepherd and learn the truth of his birth. Suddenly terrified, Jocasta begs him to stop, and then runs off to the palace, wild with grief. Confident that the worst he can hear is a tale of his lowly birth, Oedipus eagerly awaits the shepherd. At first the shepherd refuses to speak, but under threat of death he tells what he knows — Oedipus is actually the son of Laius and Jocasta. And so, despite his precautions, the prophecy that Oedipus dreaded has actually come true. Realizing that he has killed his father and married his mother, Oedipus is agonized by his fate. Rushing into the palace, Oedipus finds that the queen has killed herself. Tortured, frenzied, Oedipus takes the pins from her gown and rakes out his eyes, so that he can no longer look upon the misery he has caused. Now blinded and disgraced, Oedipus begs Creon to kill him, but as the play concludes, he quietly submits to Creon's leadership, and humbly awaits the oracle that will determine whether he will stay in Thebes or be cast out forever. Source: https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/o/the-oedipus-trilogy/play-summary/oedipus-the-king World Literature Page 43 the play. Nevertheless, despite these restrictions, Euripides managed to appeal through the presentation of universal themes of relevance to his audience, themes such as justice versus revenge, the rule of law against the will of the gods, and the struggle between reason and passion. The characters in Greek tragedy were usually society's elite and the story often dealt with matters of state, however, Euripides gave prominent roles to intelligent female characters and included significant parts for more ordinary citizens in his works. This is reflected in a comment Euripides (c. 484-407 BCE) was one of the attributed to him by Aristophanes in his greatest authors of Greek tragedy. In 5th comedy play Frogs: " I made tragedy more century BCE Athens his classic works such democratic". Euripides also removed the as Medeia cemented his reputation for previously prominent roles of Greek gods clever dialogues, fine choral lyrics and a and generally restricted their appearance to gritty realism in both his text and stage only the beginning or end of his plays. presentations. The writer of some 90 plays, Euripides was also famous for posing Source: awkward questions, unsettling his audience https://www.ancient.eu/image/3761/euripides/ with a thought-provoking treatment of common themes, and spicing up the story with thoroughly immoral characters. This is probably why Euripides won only a few festival competitions compared to his great tragedian rivals Aeschylus and Sophocles, although he was tremendously popular with the public. The popularity of Euripides' work has never diminished and his plays continue to be performed in theatres today. Born in Athens c. 484 BCE to a well-to-do family, Euripides was the youngest of the city's other great tragedy playwrights; Aeschylus and Sophocles. In his youth, Euripides also performed as an actor but as his voice was not strong enough to carry to the back of a typical 14,000-seat Greek theatre, he concentrated on his role as a playwright. In ancient Greek tragedy, this meant also being producer and director of Lesson 2: Medea (Brief Summary) Euripides' Medea opens in a state of conflict. Jason has abandoned his wife, Medea, along with their two children. He hopes to advance his station by remarrying with Glace, the daughter of Creon, king of Corinth, the Greek city where the play is set. All the events of play proceed out of this initial dilemma, and the involved parties become its central characters. Outside the royal palace, a nurse laments the events that have led to the present crisis. After a long series of trials and adventures, which ultimately forced Jason and Medea to seek exile in Corinth, the pair had settled down and established their family, achieving a degree of fame and respectability. Jason's recent abandonment of that family has crushed Medea emotionally, to the degree that she curses her own existence, as well as that of her two children. Fearing a possible plot of revenge, Creon banishes Medea and her children from the city. After pleading for mercy, Medea is granted one day before she must leave, during which she plans to complete her quest for "justice"--at this stage in her thinking, the murder of Creon, Glauce, and Jason. Jason accuses Medea of overreacting. By voicing her grievances so publicly, she has endangered her life and that of their children. He claims that his decision to remarry was in everyone's best interest. Medea finds him spineless, and she refuses to accept his token offers of help. Appearing by chance in Corinth, Aegeus, King of Athens, offers Medea sanctuary in his home city in exchange for her knowledge of certain drugs that can cure his sterility. Now guaranteed an eventual haven in Athens, Medea has cleared all obstacles to completing her revenge, a plan which grows to include the murder of her own children; the pain their loss will cause her does not outweigh the satisfaction she will feel in making Jason suffer. For the balance of the play, Medea engages in a ruse; she pretends to sympathize with Jason (bringing him into her confidence) and offers his wife "gifts," a coronet and dress. Ostensibly, the gifts are meant to convince Glauce to ask her father to allow the children to stay in Corinth. The coronet and dress are actually poisoned, however, and their delivery causes Glauce's death. Seeing his daughter ravaged by the poison, Creon chooses to die by her side by dramatically embracing her and absorbing the poison himself. A messenger recounts the gruesome details of these deaths, which Medea absorbs with cool attentiveness. Her earlier state of anxiety, which intensified as she struggled with the decision to commit infanticide, has now given way to an assured determination to fulfill her plans. Against the protests of the chorus, Medea murders her children and flees the scene in a dragon-pulled chariot provided by her grandfather, the Sun-God. Jason is left cursing his lot; his hope of advancing his station by abandoning Medea and marrying Glauce, the conflict which opened the play, has been annihilated, and everything he values has been lost through the deaths that conclude the tragedy. Source: https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/medea/summary/ AENEID (BOOKS IV, VIII AND XII) 10 Virgil LESSON This lesson focuses on Aenea’s acceptance of his duty-bound position with respect to leaving Dido and founding Rome for his progeny. CORE OBJECTIVE: Personal Responsibility Aeneid (Book IV) The flame of love for Aeneas that Cupid has lit in Dido’s heart only grows while she listens to his sorrowful tale. She hesitates, though, because after the death of her husband, Sychaeus, she swore that she would never marry again. On the other hand, as her sister Anna counsels her, by marrying Aeneas she would increase the might of Carthage, because many Trojan warriors follow Aeneas. For the moment, consumed by love, Dido allows the work of city building to fall by the wayside. Juno sees Dido’s love for Aeneas as a way to keep Aeneas from going to Italy. Pretending to make a peace offering, Juno suggests to Venus that they find a way to get Dido and Aeneas alone together. If they marry, Juno suggests, the Trojans and the Tyrians would be at peace, and she and Venus would end their feud. Venus knows Juno is just trying to keep the Trojans from Italy but allows Juno to go ahead anyway. One day when Dido, her court , and Aeneas are out hunting, Juno brings a storm down upon them to send the group scrambling for shelter and arranges for Aeneas and Dido to wind up in a cave by themselves. They make love in the cave and live openly as lovers when they return to Carthage. Dido considers them to be married though the union has yet to be consecrated in ceremony. Anxious rumors spread that Dido and Aeneas have surrendered themselves entirely to lust and have begun to neglect their responsibilities as rulers. When Jupiter learns of Dido and Aeneas’s affair, he dispatches Mercury to Carthage to remind Aeneas that his destiny lies elsewhere and that he must leave for Italy. This message shocks Aeneas—he must obey, but he does not know how to tell Dido of his departure. He tries to prepare his fleet to set sail in secret, but the queen suspects his ploy and confronts him. In a rage, she insults him and accuses him of stealing her honor. While Aeneas pities her, he maintains that he has no choice but to follow the will of the gods: “I sail for Italy not of my own free will” (IV.499). As a last effort, Dido sends Anna to try to persuade the Trojan hero to stay, but to no avail. Dido writhes between fierce love and bitter anger. Suddenly, she appears calm and instructs Anna to build a great fire in the courtyard. There, Dido says, she can rid Aeneas from her mind by burning all the clothes and weapons he has left behind and even the bed they slept on. Anna obeys, not realizing that Dido is in fact planning her own death—by making the fire her own funeral pyre. As night falls, Dido’s grief leaves her sleepless. Aeneas does sleep, but in his dreams, Mercury visits him again to tell him that he has delayed too long already and must leave at once. Aeneas awakens and calls his men to the ships, and they set sail. Dido sees the fleet leaving and falls into her final despair. She can no longer bear to live. Running out to the courtyard, she climbs upon the pyre and unsheathes a sword Aeneas has left behind. She throws herself upon the blade and with her last words curses her absent lover. As Anna and the servants run up to the dying queen, Juno takes pity on Dido and ends her suffering and her life. Aeneid (Book VIII) While Turnus gathers his forces, Aeneas prepares the Trojan troops and solicits support from nearby cities in Latium. Still, he is troubled at his prospects in battle. That night, the river god Tiberinus speaks to him and tells him to approach and form an alliance with the Arcadians, who are also at war with the Latins. Aeneas takes two galleys and rows several days up the Tiber to the forest of the Arcadians. There, the Trojans address the Arcadian king, Evander, who gladly offers aid against their common enemy and invites Aeneas to a feast. After the feast, holy rites are performed in honor of Hercules, the patron of the Arcadians, who killed the monster Cacus near where Arcadia now stands. Evander also explains how Saturn descended to Italy long ago and formed a nation from the wild savages who inhabited the land, calling it Latium. The Arcadians still dwell in relative simplicity. Even Evander boasts only a small house but offers everything at his disposal to Aeneas in hospitality. Meanwhile, Venus frets over Aeneas’s upcoming war. She speaks to her husband, Vulcan, the god of fire and forging, and persuades him to make Aeneas new weapons and armor that will give him an added advantage. Vulcan commands his workers—Cyclopes inside the great volcano Etna—to begin forging the items. The next morning, back in Arcadia, King Evander assigns what troops he can spare to Aeneas’s command. He also bids neighboring kingdoms to send their aid. All told, several thousand soldiers are rallied to accompany the Trojans back to the front, but due to their increased numbers, they must march rather than row, which causes a delay. Finally, Evander dispatches Pallas, his own son, and requests that Aeneas teach Pallas the arts of war and return him home in safety. The new army marches all day. At the camp that night, Venus suddenly appears to Aeneas and presents him with the arms that Vulcan has completed: helmet, corselet, sword, spear, and shield, all of them beautifully crafted and stronger than metal forged by humans. The face of the shield is particularly notable, for on it Vulcan has depicted the story of the Roman glory that awaits Italy. Aeneas sees Romulus being nursed by the she-wolf, the defeat of the Gauls, Caesar Augustus as he defeats Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium, and much else. Aeneid (Book XII) Just so Trojan Aeneas and the hero Son of Daunus, battering shield on shield, fought with a din that filled the air of heaven. Turnus decides to go and fight Aeneas alone for both the kingdom and Lavinia’s hand. King Latinus and Queen Amata protest, wanting Turnus to surrender and protect his life, but Turnus ignores their pleas, valuing his honor over his life. Latinus draws up the appropriate treaty, with Aeneas’s consent. The next day, the armies gather as spectators on either side of a field in front of the city. Juno worries about Turnus because she suspects that Aeneas outmatches him. She calls Juturna, Turnus’s sister, and tells her to watch out for her brother’s safety. Latinus and Aeneas both come out onto the battlefield, and each vows to uphold his side of the pact. But Juturna, not wanting her brother to risk the duel, appears to the Latin army disguised as a noble officer named Camers and goads the Latins to break the treaty and fight now that the Trojans are off their guard. Turnus’s troops begin to agree, and suddenly one of them hurls a spear at the Trojans’ ranks, killing a young soldier. This unprovoked shot ignites both armies. They fly at each other with sword and lance. Aeneas calls for his men to stop, but as he yells, a stray arrow wounds him in the leg, forcing him to retreat. Watching Aeneas leave the field gives Turnus new hope. He enters the battle and lays waste to a slew of soldiers on the Trojan side. Meanwhile, Aeneas is helped back to camp, but the physician cannot remove the arrow from his leg. Venus pities her suffering son and sends down a healing balm. The physician uses the balm, dislodging the arrow and closing the wound. Aeneas takes up his arms again and returns to the battle, where the Latin troops before him scatter in terror. Both he and Turnus kill many men, turning the tide of the battle back and forth. Suddenly, Aeneas realizes that Latinus’s city has been left unguarded. He gathers a group of soldiers and attacks the city, panicking its citizens. Queen Amata, seeing the Trojans within the city walls, loses all hope and hangs herself. Turnus hears cries of suffering from the city and rushes back to the rescue. Not wanting his people to suffer further, he calls for the siege to end and for Aeneas to emerge and fight him hand-to-hand, as they had agreed that morning. Aeneas meets him in the city’s main courtyard, and at last, with all the troops circled round, the duel begins. First, Aeneas and Turnus toss their spears. They then exchange fierce blows with their swords. At Turnus’s first strike, his sword suddenly breaks off at the hilt—in his haste, he had grabbed some other soldier’s weaker sword. Turnus flees from Aeneas, calling for his real sword, which Juturna finally furnishes for him. Juno obser

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