COMM 227 Final Exam PDF

si ng hm an m ee t8 02 @ gm ai COMM 227 FINAL EXAM l.c om  wizeprep.co...

si ng hm an m ee t8 02 @ gm ai COMM 227 FINAL EXAM l.c om  wizeprep.co Table of Contents om Topic 1: Claims.............................................................................................. Pg. 3 Topic 2: Evidence.......................................................................................... Pg. 7 l.c Topic 3: Chapter 12 – Teams (Baldwin)...................................................... Pg. 13 ai gm Topic 4: Chapter 10 – Power & Influence (Baldwin).................................. Pg. 16 @ Topic 5: Chapter 11 – Leadership (Baldwin)............................................... Pg. 20 02 Topic 6: Chapter 5 – Problem Solving (Baldwin)........................................ Pg. 23 t8 Topic 7: Underlying Assumptions................................................................ Pg. 29 ee Topic 8: Causal Claims................................................................................ Pg. 32 m an Topic 9: Techniques of Persuasion............................................................... Pg. 35 hm Topic 10: Writing an Effective Essay........................................................... Pg. 39 ng Topic 11: Chapter 9 – Conflict & Negotiation (Baldwin)............................ Pg. 41 si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 2 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 1 CLAIMS On the exam, you will not be able to evaluate an author’s argument if you do not first identify the claim. om Claim l.c The major conclusion or argument that the author is trying to persuade you to accept It is the main idea of the article ai It defines the paper’s goals, direction and scope gm It may be placed at the beginning or end of the article Sometimes it is implicit in the author’s statements (not as easy to find) Use the following keywords to help you identify the claim: o Thus @ 02 o In summary o I believe, t8 o Clearly o As a result, ee o Consequently, o The data shows that m o In fact o In short, an o Ultimately, o Therefore, hm A text could have a central claim and then many secondary claims ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 3 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Uncontested Claim Claims that we usually accept without challenge or question There does not have to be any evidence to support it When we hear or read them, they are thought of as unproblematic om Examples: i) Claims that are in line with our own experiences and observations Example: It’s colder in Montreal than in Florida l.c ii) Facts that are independent of interpretation Example: Canada was founded in 1867 by the BNA Act ai iii) Experts have agreed on a specific item gm Example: Physics theorists have proven that the waves of the ocean are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon iv) General claims that are common sense Example: Students do not attend high school on Saturdays. v) Technical or mathematical claims @ 02 Example: The radius of a circle is equal to half its diameter. t8 Contestable Claim When a claim does not fall into one of the above categories, we must question whether it is ee valid or false. These claims can be challenged m So authors must provide evidence to justify their position and support their argument an Authors will try to fool you by saying “in fact” or “there is no doubt”, but this does not mean that the claim is uncontested. hm The quality of the reasoning and evidence they provide is what will lead us to accept or reject a contestable claim. ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 4 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co EXERCISE 1) Read the following excerpts and identify the main claim. 2) State if the claim is contestable or uncontested. Excerpt 1 om From “Today’s Lesson: Hip-Hop” By Anita Perry1 Year after year, most literature classes cover the same authors and genres. It’s time that educators l.c made a change. For teachers to keep current and engage students, we must allow students to read diverse texts from their own generation. As a first step, hip-hop should be included in the literature curriculum. ai This suggestion is not as odd as it may seem. After all, hip-hop is simply another form of poetry, gm as are all song lyrics. It contains rhyme scheme, rhythm, and meter. In addition, hip-hop lyrics deal with the same timeless themes as other forms of poetry, including heartache and the challenges of growing up. In many ways, today’s hip-hop artists are contemporary versions of Shakespeare and Emily Dickinson, only with a modern, fresh perspective. @ Examining hip-hop songs in class can help teachers identify more closely with their students’ 02 interests, cultures, and life experiences. The subject matter or lyrics of some hip-hop songs may be objectionable, but teachers can find plenty of acceptable options to explore. In turn, teachers can also help students think critically about the lyrics and messages of their favourite songs. t8 Exploring hip-hop in class will strengthen students’ critical thinking skills and help them make connections between old and new forms of literature. Our students will therefore become more engaged, challenged, and informed. ee Author’s claim: m Type of claim: an hm ng si 1 Ready: Common Core Reading Instruction. 2014. Lesson 18 - Today`s Lesson: Hip-Hop by Perry, Anita. Curriculum Associates, LLC. http://casamples.com/downloads/Ready_CC_Read_Instr_Gr6.pdf. Retrieved on February 1st, 2016. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 5 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Excerpt 2 From “Reality vs. Actuality: A Construction of the Truth” By Carly Cannell2 Rapid technological advancements and an influx of media in today's society have connected us in om more ways than ever thought possible. Television, movies, newspapers, magazines, the internet, and other forms of the media all contribute to the highly connected global society. This intricate network of communication has vastly expanded our sphere of knowledge and understanding in the cultural context. Through television and the internet, we can access news and events in other l.c countries minutes after they happen. Through pictures and stories, we can learn about the various cultures and practices all the way across the world. However, with this expanded access also come certain limitations. Often overlooked is the fact that the information has been filtered through ai numerous entities, only allowing us to see through the eyes of the creator, greatly limiting our perceptions of the world. Sometimes subtle and unintentional, other times blatantly obvious and highly structured, the influences of the media present society with a constructed reality, as each gm article, be it a news story, photograph, or even voice, is strategically selected and presented to convey a certain message. This process becomes destructive when it begins to shape our opinions, perceptions, and ideologies, especially concerning other cultures. Author’s claim: @ 02 Type of claim: t8 ee m an hm ng si 2 Cannell, Carly. Reality vs. Actuality: A Construction of the Truth. September 15th, 2005. https://depts.washington.edu/egonline/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/05.CannellC.pdf. Retrieved on February 1st, 2016. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 6 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 2 EVIDENCE The examples and reasoning being used to support the claim om It includes statistics, details of past events, research studies from established sources, previously accounted claims. Cue words that help identify the evidence include: l.c o Because o As a result ai o In the first place o For example gm o In addition o Given that o First @ o Second o Studies show 02 o For the following reasons It responds to the question, “Why is the claim true?”. t8 We must analyze the quality of the data and the reasons that are available to support the author’s claims; each type of evidence needs to be explained. ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 7 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co SOLUTIONS TO IN-TOPIC EXERCISES (TOPICS 1 & 2) Excerpt 1 Claim: om Hip hop should be taught as literature. Type of claim: l.c Contestable claim ai Evidence: gm Hip hop is a form of poetry. It contains rhyme scheme, rhythm, and meter. Teachers can better relate to their students’ experiences. @ It will keep students more engaged, will strengthen their critical thinking skills and help them make connections between old and new forms of literature. 02 t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 8 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Excerpt 2 Claim: There seem to be two major arguments that the author is trying to bring forth; the first is that the influx of media and technological advancements make us a highly connected global society. om The second is that the information we are provided is filtered and constructed in such a way to convey a certain message. l.c Type of claim: The first claim can be argued as uncontested because it is in line with our own experiences ai and observations. It also appears to be becoming common sense. The second is considered a contestable claim gm Evidence: @ Through television and the internet, we can access news and events in other countries minutes after they happen. 02 Through pictures and stories, we can learn about the various cultures and practices all the way across the world. Is there really evidence to support the second claim? t8 The influences of the media present society with a constructed reality, ee as each article, be it a news story, photograph, or even voice, is strategically selected and presented to convey a certain message. m Is this evidence or just opinion being restated in another way? an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 9 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Quality of Evidence We must evaluate whether the supporting evidence is of a high quality or not If evidence = High Quality à The claim is probable and believable If evidence = Low Quality à The claim is doubtful and dubious om SCRAAP SCRAAP is used to test the quality of evidence. l.c This acronym is used to recall the criteria of 6 components. 1. Sufficiency ai o Is there sufficient evidence to support the author’s claim, i.e. did he/she give enough sources? gm o How many pieces of evidence did the author provide? o The amount of evidence you need depends on the importance of the claim. o Fallacy of hasty generalization occurs when: @ - When the author does not present sufficient evidence to support a claim 2. Clarity of expression 02 o How was the claim presented? It is easy to identify? o Was the evidence clearly presented? t8 o Does the author simply include tables and numbers but it is difficult to assess their relevancy within the article? ee o Why is the evidence there? What is its significance? 3. Representative m o If a study is conducted, it is important to determine the people that have been sampled. Examples: an § Are they all from within the company being discussed? § Are they all from the same department? hm o If several studies are being presented within the author’s argument, we must determine whether it is the same types of organizations performing the study. Example: An author trying to make an argument about the harmful effects of carbon ng monoxide in cars that uses only studies from environmental source. o In other words, we cannot use quotes all from the same person or from people within a si specific organization as this is not representative of an entire population. o The sample used must be fair and represent the population being spoken about in the claim. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 10 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co o The variety in the sources of evidence should match the variety in the population that the claim is discussing. o Fallacy of hasty generalization - Also relevant here (when evidence is unrepresentative); we should not be persuaded by evidence that does not come from a fair sample of information. om 4. Authority o This looks at the source of where the information is received. o If quotes or studies are being thrown in the article (i.e. a recent study), there is no authority; l.c we cannot determine if it comes from a credible source. o When a source is mentioned (i.e. a quote or a study), is it being made by an expert in the topic being discussed? ai o If the person has special training, credentials or considerable experience in this area, they are gm considered authorities. o If the article cites business scholars and experienced business people, this lends authority to their arguments. o Fallacy of false appeal to authority: - @ This occurs when the author is providing evidence that is outside his/her area of 02 expertise Example: putting a testimony from someone who has no experience in this area According to an employee at Shopify, the company will fail in the next 5 years. t8 o Fallacy of argumentation ad populum: ee - Presuming that something is true simply because “others are doing it” or “others believe it to be true” – just because others accept a belief is not evidence that the belief is correct m 5. Accuracy an o Accuracy is difficult to judge if do not have an independent source of information. o We can do research of our own (not possible on an exam). hm o We can relate it to information we know to be factual (i.e. our own work environment). o Other cues we can use: has the author made obvious errors (grammar, spelling mistakes, inaccurate quotations, etc.)? o Our judgment about the source of the information ng o Then, the precision of the evidence helps us argue whether it is accurate or not. si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 11 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co 6. Precision o Evidence that is supported by percentages, by numbers or by independent quotes is said to be more precise o Decimals (9.2) carry more weight than if the text says “about 9 %” o Use of ambiguous and abstract words lowers the precision of the evidence. om Example: Rather low, quite well, approximately, a great deal, many, often, few, usually, a high likelihood, etc. o If quotes are used, they should be direct quotes rather than simply paraphrased and the l.c source should be cited. o On the exam, it is a good idea to say what the author could have done to increase precision. o Precision creates the impression of accuracy. ai gm Hint Box For the Exam Identify the claim and then use SCRAAP @ 02 Example: Level of sufficiency, level of accuracy, level of precision, etc. Therefore the author demonstrates a high level of precision… t8 Do not forget to conclude at the end regarding the overall evidence that the author provided to support his/her claim ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 12 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 3 Chapter 12 – Teams Group : Three or more people working together towards a common goal. Team : A group of people who are collectively accountable for an outcome. om Key difference between a team and group is that the actions of a group don’t depend on one another l.c Task interdependence: The extent to which team members have to interact with one another in order to complete their task. ai Stages of Team Development: gm Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning @ 02 Effective Teams: t8 Or, ‘high-performing teams; tend to have these 5 characteristics : ee m an hm ng Size : Rarely consist of more than 10 members and are ideally between 5 to 8 si Skills : Teams must have functional, technical, task management and interpersonal skills. Shared purpose : Clear understanding on the team’s goal (a shared belief) o Outcome-goals (describes specific results) vs. Activity-based goals (describes the activities to be completed) © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 13 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Mutual accountability : Member’s are mutually accountable for the team’s success. Productive team norms : Collective expectations that members have about the behaviour of one another. Threats to Effective Team Performance om People in teams tend to make riskier decisions together as it reduces their own person risk. l.c Creates a diffusion of responsibility leading to the innocent bystander effect. o Innocent bystander effect : When a person sees others are present, he or she will ai be more likely not to get involved, assuming that others will take care of the problem; caused by a diffusion of responsibility. gm Escalation of commitment :When teams persist in a losing course of action even when faced with evidence of their error. Conformity and obedience : When a team member has low ability or expertise, they will trust others with the decision making. o Milgram experiments @ 02 o Group think : Pattern of faulty decision making that occurs in groups when members seek agreement at the expense of decision quality. t8 Practical Interventions for Teams : 1. Holding effective meetings ee Major issue in many organizations is the frequency of meetings that are viewed as not productive. The following is therefore recommended : m an hm ng si 2. Conducting after action reviews and process checks The ability to learn from our experiences (or failures) can contribute to higher performance in the future © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 14 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co 3. Dealing with free-riders Free rider effect: Withholding physical or intellectual contribution to work because you’re being carried by the group. Before approaching a teammate that appears to be ‘free riding’ it is suggested to : i. Correctly frame the issue ii. Ask yourself if the behaviour is affecting other teammates om iii. Collect a balanced set of facts l.c ai gm @ 02 t8 ee m Topic 4 Chapter 10 – Power & Influence an Power : The capacity to exert influence to control others or events, as well as the capacity to defend against the influence of others. hm Authority : A type of power that stems from a position (rights inherent in a managerial position). ng Influence : The use of power or power in action. Bases of Power si Reward Power Coercive Power Based on the perception that Stems from the expectation that the the manager has the ability person will be punished if he/she does to provide rewards if the not comply with the order. person complies with the The ability of a manager to force an leader’s request. © Wizedemy employee Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any to formfollow or by anyan order means, or by 15 Powersorted of in a amanager database or toretrieval give system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1 threatening him/her with a some type of reward as a punishment  wizeprep.co om Legitimate Power Based on one’s perception that the person has a l.c legitimate right to influence or prescribe behaviour on the follower. ai Based on a position at work, in society. gm The person has an obligation to accept this influence. Example: The elderly are to Expert Power be respected because of their Based on one’s perception that the other has some special @ wisdom knowledge or expertise Referent Power Example: Seek legal advice 02 The ability of a leader to influence from a lawyer (share someone because of how much the experience/skills) person identifies with him/her. Example: Head engineer is the t8 Based on the follower’s loyalty, only one who has the admiration, affection or desire to be knowledge of how to produce like them and to gain their specific blueprints. ee approval. Generally has the broadest range of power. m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 16 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Norms & Conformity Norms : Informal rules and expectations that groups establish to regulate the behavior of their members. Conformity : Change in behavior to match the responses or behaviors of others. om Weak ties : Indirect personal connections between people—for example, a “friend of a friend” l.c Strong ties : Direct personal connections between people. ai o People often get jobs from weak ties rather than their strong ties. gm Influencing without Authority We reviewed sources of power (or bases); however, the most critical skill with respect to power is how to get positive things accomplished through others when you don’t have legitimate power in your position. @ 02 In other words, it is useful to learn how to influence others without having direct authority. t8 The three reactions when individuals are being influenced : 1. Resistance : It may not be immediate or obvious, but the target does not get ee influenced. 2. Compliance : The target gets influenced – not enthusiastic. m 3. Commitment : The target gets influenced and is enthusiastic an Political skills: Skills associated with the effective influence of others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal and/or organizational objectives. hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 17 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co om l.c ai Social Influence Weapons gm These principles, based on research, can help influence others in the absence of formal authority. Principle 1: Friendship/Liking @ We like others that like us and once others like us, we are able to influence them (recall referent power) 02 Principle 2: Commitment & Consistency Once we make a choice, we are more likely to act consistently with that choice Example : Creating frequent flyers clubs t8 Principle 3: Scarcity ee Based on the idea that important and desirable things are short in supply. People are more sensitive when they perceive loss (rather than gain). For example, asking employees to verify a report that is not yet available to everyone. m Principle 4: Reciprocity an People have a tendency to give what they receive. Principle 5: Social Proof hm Actions are viewed as socially acceptable when others are doing the same in a similar situation. For example, when trying to convince someone to donate and telling them how many donations were made on their street. ng Principle 6: Appeals to Authority When you are believed to be an expert, people will tend to be influenced – this comes si from an early age in socialization. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 18 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Influencing Up The employee-manager relationship is one of the most important work relationship; it needs to be built on trust and reciprocity. In almost all situations, you will have information your supervisor will need to do their om job effectively (or, make them look good). It is said that once you know your manager, you can take actions to influence them. l.c Key questions when getting to know your boss : ai gm @ 02 Power Etiquette and Professional Influence: t8 Make a good first impression and introduce others. Learn and use names Arrive early to work meetings ee Actively build your network Be authentic and don’t fake it Show appreciation m Be smart about social media an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 19 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 5 Chapter 11 – Leadership Leadership: The ability to influence people to set aside their personal concerns and support a larger agent. om Trait Theory of Leadership Certain traits exist that people are born with predisposing them to leadership roles l.c Trait: Individual characteristics of the person (physical, mental, personality) ai Physical Mental Personality gm We would traditionally look at demographics (gender, age, education), competence, and interpersonal attributes (Five Factors of Personality) @ Traits are good predictors of leadership emergence, rather than leadership effectiveness Leadership emergence: The process by which an individual acquires a formal or informal leadership role and is recognized as a leader by others based on various factors 02 such as age, experience, and context. Traits of leadership emergence: t8 o Intelligence o Dominance ee o Sociability o Self-monitoring o High energy or drive m o Self-confidence o Tolerance for ambiguity an Contemporary Approaches hm Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory: Leadership theory focussing on quality of relationship between leader and employee o High LMX = positive ng o Low LMX = negative si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 20 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Transactional and Transformational Leadership Theories è ** What are the makings of an optimal leader? ** Transactional Leadership om Hire employees and put people in their jobs. Does the day-to-day management to achieve organization's goals Usually employs: Contingent Reward Behaviour l.c Management by Exception: Leadership correcting actions as needed based on the results of the employee (Example: You only get reprimanded if you file the report incorrectly) ai Transformation Leadership gm Creates long-term vision for the organization. Inspires and motivates employees to commit to these goals Consistently found to be the most consistent predictor of good leaders Employees under them tend to be more committed and effective during change @ 02 Charisma - The ability to command loyalty Individualized Intellectual Stimulation Inspirational Motvation and devotion to an Consideration t8 idea; influence - the emotional piece ee **Transformational leaders are also great transactional leaders** Evaluating the New Forms of Positive Leadership m 1. Ethical Leadership: The demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to an followers through two-way communication, reinforcement and decision-making. Leaders that are considered ethical leaders display integrity, trustworthiness, fairness; They seek to do the right thing; hm Conduct their lives and leadership roles in an unimpeachable manner; Influence people to be ethical. 2. Servant Leadership: Focus on the needs of others before you consider your own. ng Number one priority is to serve Traits associated to servant leadership include: Listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the si growth of others, building community. Rather than being the focal point, a servant leader views the leadership role as one of supporting and enabling employees © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 21 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co 3. Authentic Leadership: Deeply aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as beingaware of their own and other’s values/moral perspectives, knowledge and strengths Traits associated to this leadership style include, confidence, optimism, being hopeful and resilient Actions are guided by the leaders’ true self as reflected by core values, beliefs, thoughts and feelings, as opposed to environmental contingencies or pressures from om others l.c ai gm @ 02 t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 22 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 6 Chapter 5 – Problem Solving Solving Problems Effectively om There is a difference between the process of solving problems and achieving desired outcomes. There is no such thing as a perfect decision, why? Because human beings are subject to l.c bounded rationality. Bounded rationality: Limited decision making to simplified solutions that do not ai represent the full complexity of a problem. gm o Bounded rationality leads to satisficing, which is settling for the first alternative that meets some minimum level of acceptability. Characteristics of Rationalities @ Perfect Rationality Bounded Rationality Decision is completely informed Limited information is available 02 Decision is perfectly logical Limited time is available Decision maximizes economic gain Limited political considerations exist t8 Although perfect rationality is rarely achieved, rational-decision making models can help us with solving problems. ee A Problem-Solving Framework: PADIL m Five key steps in the problem-solving process: problem, alternatives, decide, implement, and learn. an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 23 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Step 1: Define and structure the problem Framing the problem: The way a problem is stated or constructed can have an impact, positive or negative, on the solutions generated. For example, the government is preparing to combat a rare disease expected to take 600 lives. om Problem A Problem B A government program which will A government program that has one- save 200 people if adopted third chance of saving 600 people but l.c a two-third chance of saving none Both scenarios are the same. Problem A is framed in terms of lives saved and Problem B is ai framed in terms of lives lost. People tend to place preference in the framing of Problem A. gm Thinking systematically is part of solving a problem effectively. System: Perceived whole whose elements hang together because they continually affect each other over time and operate toward a common purpose. @ o For example, a clock, the human body and organizations are all considered systems. 02 o All systems have systemic structure which is a pattern of interrelationships among system components that sustains behavior. o Critical to having a systems approach will be to ask, How will this change affect t8 other things? Mental Models: Broad worldviews (assumptions, beliefs, values) that people rely on to ee guide their perceptions and behaviors. o They can enable us to ignore valid data. m Some problems are well-defined in terms of their scope whereas others are quite broad. an Tools for understanding a problems scope: o Affinity diagram: Idea-generation method that helps sort aspects of the problem hm into themes or categories; the categories guide data gathering about the problem and help inform the researching of alternatives. o Is/Is not: Heps identify a problem’s boundaries by describing aspects that are part ng of the problem and those that are not. o Graphic displays: A picture is worth a thousand words; use simple plots and si graphs to depict data. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 24 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Step 2: Generate many alternatives Research evidence suggests that unique solutions require generating as many alternatives as possible. Brainstorming is a common way of generating solutions. om Brainwriting (or, nominal group technique): Technique used to generate solutions to a problem; it allows participants time to generate ideas on their own, record them, and then share them with the group. o Note that brainwriting is a variant of brainstorming. l.c o Studies suggest that electronic nominal group brainstorming leads to more satisfaction than groups using face-to-face techniques. ai Step 3: Decide on a solution gm Before deciding, it is recommended to establish a decision-making criteria. Some of the most common business-related criteria include costs, benefits, time, feasibility, resources, risk, and ethics. Tools for evaluating alternatives: @ 02 o Alternatives Tables: A method that allows for comparison between options by listing criteria and potential alternatives on a table. For example: t8 ee m an o Weighted Ranking: A method that allows for quick elimination of alternatives by hm acknowledging that some criteria may be more important than others. ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 25 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co When being paralyzed by choices, equifinality is something that may occur. Equifinality: A condition in which different initial conditions lead to similar effects. Devil’s Advocate: Person who advocates an opposing or unpopular cause to expose it to a thorough examination. om Step 4: Make the decision Once a decision has been made, it is important to present the solution in a way that others (and yourself) may understand by: l.c o Stating the problem o Stating the assumed reason or cause of the problem o Stating the proposed solution and lastly ai o Describing what the solution will accomplish and who it will impact gm All decisions have trade-offs involving certain levels of risk that will attract different judgements or perceptions of the decision. Step 5: Implement the solution Step 6: Learn and seek feedback @ 02 Why Smart People Make Bad Decisions t8 Professional, highly experienced, well-intentioned professionals can make bad decisions due to judgement traps. ee Intuition: A sense of something not evident or deducible; an impression or a gut feeling. o A survey on Fortune 1,000 firms found that 45% of executives make decisions based on their ‘gut-feeling’ or intuition. m Perception & Attribution Errors: an o Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behaviour instead of situations § In other words, a tendency of a decision maker to underestimate or largely hm ignore external factors and overestimate internal factors. o Self-Serving Bias: Tendency of an individual to attribute favorable outcomes to ng his or her internal factors and failures to his or her external factors. si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 26 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Errors of Judgment Judgement Error 1: The Availability Bias Tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available or easy to bring to mind. Judgement Error 2: The Representative Bias om Tendency to classify something or someone according to how similar it is to a typical case or to previous situations in the past. Hasty generalization fallacy: Tendency to draw an inappropriate general conclusion from a single specific case. l.c Judgement Error 3: The Anchoring and Adjustment Bias Tendency to use a number or value as a starting point and then adjusting future ai judgments based on the initial value. gm Judgement Error 4: The Confirmation Bias Tendency to collect evidence that supports rather than disproves one’s intuition. Judgement Error 5: The Overconfidence Bias @ Tendency to be overly optimistic about or confident in one’s decisions. 02 Judgement Error 6: Escalation of Commitment Phenomenon whereby people increase their investment in a decision despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong; such investment may include t8 money (known informally as “throwing good money after bad”), time, or other resources. ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 27 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Overcoming Judgment Biases Confidence Estimates o Attach an estimate of confidence to our beliefs. § For example, if you are trying to improve time delivery for your pizza delivery drivers, ask one employee, how many on-time deliveries can be made by on driver per night. And then, ask others. om o Relying on single-point estimates can be dangerous. o Use ranges and add a goal on top of it. l.c Calibration o In order to improve success and failures for the future, learn about your successes and failures of today. ai Healthy Skepticism gm o Be prepared to challenge yourself and experts. @ 02 t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 28 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 7 UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS Underlying Assumptions The links that fill the gap between the evidence and the claim om Within the article, the author will make a claim (main argument) and support it with evidence Pre-midterm: We have already looked at how to analyze this evidence (sufficiency, l.c accuracy, representativeness, authoritative, clarity of expression, preciseness) Now we are trying to identify the underlying assumptions ai o These are the implicit/explicit principles that form the basis for our beliefs and reasoning o Help us determine what evidence we think is relevant to support a claim (what must we gm believe if we are to see the evidence as relevant to the claim being made) o These are the suppositions upon which the argument is based How to identify underlying assumptions @ 02 What must be true if the claim is to follow from this evidence? What general principal would link a claim to a piece of evidence? t8 Think about the beliefs that you would expect from the author (What does the author believe for him/her to have written that?) ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 29 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co There are two types of underlying assumptions Reality Assumptions o Our beliefs about what events have taken place, what exists and how things work in the world o They are our beliefs about reality and the way things really are (based on our first-hand experiences, our conversations with others, the things we read or see on television) om Example: Education helps facilitate the process of finding a job Value Assumptions l.c o Our ideals, our standards of right and wrong, the way things ought to be o They are learned early in childhood from family members, classmates, religion ai o Often accompanied by the words “ought, should, desirable, unacceptable” Examples: Adolescents should be respectful to the elderly. gm Competition is desirable in the marketplace because it helps companies develop new products and continuously innovate in an effort to distinguish themselves. o Sometimes we have value conflicts, because we are torn between two values that we may have @ Example: Beggar on the street – on the one hand we feel compassion, but on the other hand believe that people should work for their money. 02 t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 30 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Challenging assumptions To challenge reality assumptions, we must present information showing that the author’s notions of reality and how the world works are debatable or just plain wrong. Challenging value assumptions are difficult, as values develop early in life and are quite om resistant to change. Because people have different, but equally valid set of values, a particular argument may not be universally acceptable. l.c Ask the following questions: a. Is this assumption always true? ai b. Are there any circumstances in which the reality assumptions may not hold? gm c. Are there people whose values may be in conflict with my own? EXAMPLE Claim Evidence Abortion should not be legalized @ This is murder because we are killing an unborn child 02 GAP t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 31 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 8 CAUSAL CLAIMS Certain events and factors (causes) lead to outcomes (effects) An outcome may have multiple causes om Example: A student did poorly on her accounting exam. This is the effect, but what caused it? l.c o She didn’t study enough o The exam was unfair and difficult ai o She was sick during the exam, which caused her to lose concentration o The exam did not cover material she had studied gm We must carefully examine the authors` causal claims (are the cause-effect relationships genuine or are there rival causal explanations that are causing the same event to occur ?) @ If we are able to come up with other causes that led to the observed effect then the author`s claim becomes less convincing. 02 There are three types of Rival Causes t8 1. Differences between groups o A specific outcome is caused by specific differences between groups ee Example: Law students stemming from McGill have an easier time finding a stage than students graduating from Université de Montréal. The reason for this success is that McGill has a superior program (stronger teachers, better curriculum, common and civil m law options, renowned as an Ivy league school, etc.). o Whenever an author says that an outcome is caused by specific differences between an groups, we must think about whether there are any other differences between these groups that may be relevant? o McGill has a harder admission process (therefore, students being accepted into the hm program already have higher qualifications, causing them to perform better and distinguish themselves from other students applying for the same stage). ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 32 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co 2. Correlation between Characteristics o The observation that two factors seem to be closely related. This does not necessarily mean that a cause and effect relationship actually exists between them o Correlations may actually create a Reverse Causation (the linkage works in reverse à Instead of A causing B, it is possible that B is causing A). Example: Requiring board of directors to purchase company stock options has led to om increases in share price. § One argues that because board members are directly invested in the company, they are more focused on making it succeed, which in turn increases profits and share price. l.c § A rival explanation for this = also a reverse causation : The rise in share prices may be enticing board members to purchase shares and have a stock option plan. ai o Effect of a Third Variable : § The two items may only have a high correlation because there is a third factor that is gm linked to both of them. Example: Lower family income leads to higher crime rates amongst their children. § Because of the lower income, these families tend to live in impoverished @ neighborhoods. They are more likely to be surrounded by gangs who engage in criminal activities and aggressive behavior. Growing up in such an environment and 02 being surrounded by peers who engage in these types of activities could have a negative influence on the child. § The third factor here is growing up in bad neighborhoods that are inflicted with crime. t8 The child becomes accustomed to this lifestyle (it is what he/she knows). o In conclusion, a correlation between two factors might be explained by one of three ee causal links : § There may be a direct causal relationship m § A Reverse Causal Relationship § No relationship, except through the presence of a third factor an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 33 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co 3. The Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy o X comes after Y so IT HAS TO BE caused by Y o Post hoc (after this) ergo (therefore) propter hoc (because of this) o It is an error in our reasoning. We think that just because an event was followed by another event, that the first caused the second. This is not always true! Example: After I dyed my hair, I started to get white hair and therefore, we assume that om the process of getting grey hair is expedited because of colouring. o What are some rival causes that can be used to disprove this argument? l.c Examples: Causal Explanation: Lower monthly fees at Econo Fitness (cause) have resulted in a rise in ai gym members (effect) gm Reverse Causation: The rise in members at Econo Fitness (cause) have led to economies of scale that allow the gym to lower its monthly fees per customer (effect) Rival Cause: Other gyms’ rising fees (cause) have led to people seeking cheaper @ alternatives, such as Econo Fitness, which results in a rise in gym members (effect). 02 Rival Cause: The need for change compared to the way traditional gyms are organized (cause) has resulted in a rise in Econo Fitness’ gym members (effect) – people want something new. t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 34 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 9 TECHNIQUES OF PERSUASION Critical thinking involves analyzing the validity of an argument by deconstructing the use of persuasive language. om What makes your argument persuasive? Whether the quality of evidence presented for the claims (if evidence meets the SCRAAP l.c criteria: sufficient, clear, representative, authoritative, accurate and precise) The soundness of the causal argument. ai o When alternative causal explanations exist, this undermines confidence in the author’s conclusion. gm The extent to which readers agree with the writer’s underlying assumptions. The language and writing style also has an impact. @ o Rhetoric which is the use of language to convince the reader. As critical thinkers, we must ask ourselves: what evidence is left out because it is incompatible 02 with the argument? Think about your audience t8 How much do your readers already know about the issue under discussion? ee How familiar might they be with the evidence you are about to present? Have they already formed their own ideas about the issue, and are they likely to agree or disagree with your claim? m What might be the values that underlie their beliefs? How diverse your audience is will make it more difficult to persuade. an The more you think about your potential readers, the stronger you will be at building your argument. hm How Do You Approach This? Initiate a brainstorming, trouble-shooting process Put yourself in the shoes of the audience ng Perform destructive testing of your ideas by asking, what objections could possibly be made to your argument? o If you want to be persuasive, you must address these objections si o Convince your audience that you have considered alternatives. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 35 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Techniques of Persuasion Anticipate and counter readers’ objections Anticipate objections based on the evidence provided (whether it is negative, provides an om alternative cause or has a conflicting assumptions) Brainstorm: A trouble-shooting process in which you should put yourself in the shoes of your audience and perform destructive testing on your ideas. l.c If your readers are fully engaged critical thinkers, they will continually be consulting their own knowledge and beliefs and will undoubtedly raise questions as they watch your ai reasoning develop gm If you want to be persuasive, your job is to answer these expected questions as they arise Present the question or objection explicitly and then provide a convincing answer or rebuttal in your text @ Mention and refute objections to show that you have considered the issue fully 02 Negative Evidence When researching topics, it is common to come across information that is contrary to t8 supporting your claim. ee A sensible response is to present this evidence in order to show that you have given consideration to it. m Rival Causes an If the claim you are proposing is a causal claim, it is likely that there are rival causal explanations of your evidence. hm Plausible rival causes may be located in differences among groups, reverse causation, the effect of a third variable, or the post hoc fallacy. In brainstorming process, you must discipline yourself to find and propose alternative ng causes and then rebut them, showing the reader why they are unlikely to be the real explanation. Debatable assumptions si Critical thinkers can challenge underlying reality assumptions and values. o They make the author’s assumptions explicit. o They present counterarguments to show that the assumptions are incorrect © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 36 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co To write persuasively, you must anticipate these challenges to your assumptions. o If you know that there are reality assumptions that your audience might feel are debatable or wrong, you must provide explicit data to back up your assumptions. When your readers’ values differ from your own, your job is to show them that your values are worth serious consideration. om If your writing poses a strong and logical challenge to their value assumptions, they may discover that they are not all that strongly committed to certain values. l.c Limit your claims when you have no rebuttal Limit the claims that you cannot rebut; however, acknowledging the limitations in your ai writing makes you more persuasive. gm For example, ‘Although this may go beyond the scope of the paper…’ Or @ ‘Although these factors are not being addressed here…’ Rhetoric 02 Rhetoric refers to the art of using language to persuade. t8 Empty rhetoric is the use of language that is artificial, elaborate, and showy, with little real substance to support the arguments. ee o Usually involves a deliberate intent to mislead. o This language can be used to manipulate readers and conceal insincerity, but it should be equally obvious that not all people who use words effectively are m hypocrites. an Be complete Full and clear detail must be provided since much of the evidence you present will be hm new to the reader (first rule) It is important to present your writing with sufficient points to allow potential readers to make the connection to their own experience. ng Use your evidence thoroughly – to its maximum potential. si Give enough detail to allow your audience to appreciate fully the import of your data and logic. Underdeveloped ideas and the assumption that your audience will fill in the blanks are not persuasive. © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 37 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Use appropriate tone Tone refers to the quality of the writer and readers relationship that is inherent in your writing. o Scholarly writing calls for formal tone; whereas narratives call for less formal om tones To determine tone, you must think of your audience. l.c Be vivid By using vivid language, you bring your evidence to life, attracting attention to your ai points and making them memorable for your readers. gm Avoid vague words, use concrete details, and avoid cliches. The use of precise, vivid language convinces the reader of the importance of the meaning and clearly conveys the message. @ 02 t8 ee m an hm ng si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 38 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 10 WRITING AN EFFECTIVE ESSAY Step 1: Research and Organize om Determine the issue and your position or stance. Ensure that you have good evidence (SCRAAP) l.c Primary Research Secondary Research § Depends on first-hand sources § Retrieval of existing information based on what other have observed and experience. ai § Go get it yourself and generate the data you need § Research online, database or in a library gm § Based on your own observations and experience § Interviews, carry out surveys, make own observation, etc § SURVEYS, INTERVIEWS, OBSERVATION, @ 02 EXPERIMENTATION Evaluate Data Quality t8 As you collect secondary research, carefully evaluate it in terms of data quality. Concern yourself with the following issues: o Reliability relates to how dependable the data is—how current and ee representative. o Relevance of the data relates to how well they apply to your specific business m problem. o Adaptability relates to how well the research can be altered or revised to meet your specific business problem. an o Expertise relates to the skill and background of the researchers to address your business problem. o Biases are tendencies to see issues from particular perspectives. hm Step 2: Writing Writing and Revising ng o Write the first draft § Rough, inelegant, ungrammatical § Necessary first step si § Don’t edit while doing it § Collect citations in a list of references at end of paper © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 39 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co o Revise Your Text § Ensure that it is focused, and argument flows logically § Add subheadings, paragraph transitions, write opening paragraph, closing paragraph Step 3: Revise om Check for Accuracy o Spelling and grammatical errors, double check references l.c Step 4: Add Visual Aids ai Use only to enhance clarity gm Type Description @ Rows and columns that organizes mostly numeric data Table Should fit to one page 02 Apply headings so each row and column is clear Use N/A for rows missing data Matrix Word table that represents qualitative information t8 Pie Chart Circular chart divided into sections that make up a part of the whole ee Bar Charts Horizontal or vertical bars each representing a specific item that is compared to all the others m Segmented: Single bars are divided into sections Deviation: Positive and negative values are shown an Line Graphs Visual line on a grid to show a trend according to the relationship between the two variables, each depicted on an axis Grouped Line Graph: Multiple lines compare different hm items Flow Charts Maps out procedures, processes, sequences, steps Organizational Chart Shows the different levels or departments in and organization and ng how they are interrelated si © Wizedemy Inc. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, or 40 sorted in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Wizedemy Inc. 1  wizeprep.co Topic 11 Chapter 9 – Conflict & Negotiation Types of Organizational Conflicts Task conflict: Conflict that arises from disagreements over ideas or project content. om Relationship conflict: Conflict that arises from incompatible or strained personal interactions. l.c When conflict revolves around the task rather than the people (relationships), it can be useful in promoting group performance. ai Diagnosing Conflict Sources gm Informational factors: People in organizations hold different pieces of information o For example, the analogy of the blind men and the elephant. @ Perce