Communicat Skills - Writing Procedures PDF

Writing As A Process Department of English Faculty of Social Sciences College of Humanities and Social Sciences Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Some Approaches to Writing Product approach Genre approach Process approach  The Process Approach...

Writing As A Process Department of English Faculty of Social Sciences College of Humanities and Social Sciences Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Some Approaches to Writing Product approach Genre approach Process approach  The Process Approach The Process Approach aims to reflect what real writers do in real situations. It considers writing as non-linear 3 Views on Process Approach to Writing 1 Views on Process Approach to Writing 2 Writing is messy, recursive, convoluted, and uneven. Writers write, plan, revise, anticipate, and review throughout the writing process, moving back and forth. The process approach appeals to ‘common sense’ and many life activities such as cooking, sweeping, dressing, and even vocations sewing, carpentry, painting, etc. The motto of the Process Approach is: Writing is rewriting. The process approach focuses on the steps involved in creating a piece of work. Views on Process Approach to Writing 3 Good writers organize, plan, and re-write throughout the writing process, changing things lots of times if necessary, and writing multiple drafts Good writers may rehearse or discuss what they want to write before they actually do it Good writers read their writing carefully, trying to imagine how clear their ideas are to a reader. If something isn’t clear, they change it. Writing is a process which requires several identifiable steps. What the Process Approach emphasizes 1. the importance of writing multiple drafts 2. the importance of revision 3. the importance of planning throughout 4. the importance of making your writing reader- friendly 5. the importance of writing in different styles for different audiences Stages/Steps in Process Approach 1 Prewriting Writing Stage Post-writing Stage (Provide Stage (select a drafts, revise and keeping (edit and topic and proofread the plan what making changes. work, publish) to write) Stages/Steps in Process Approach 2 THE PRE-WRITING STAGE  Sub-steps in the pre-writing: Define your audience (audience analysis) 1 Know the audience you are writing to: Gender Age Status Religion Educational background Nationality Belief systems/ideology Sub-steps in the pre-writing: Topic selection 2 Factors to Consider in Selecting a topic. Relevance Availability of resources Availability of information Accessibility of information Personal interest Strength or competence Duration (time assigned) Length of the work NB: The topic should not be too narrow nor broad. After selecting the topic, what next? The Vice Chancellor, as part of her “Motivating- Students-to-Excel Agenda” has donated GhS20, 000.00 to this class. What must we use the money for? Students’ Activity: Let’s Generate Ideas 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Etc.  Sub-steps in the pre-writing: Brainstorming 3 It is a creativity technique by which efforts are made to gather a list of ideas spontaneously. People are able to think more freely and they suggest as many spontaneous new ideas as possible. All the ideas are noted down without criticism and after the brainstorming session the ideas are evaluated.  Rules Underpinning Brainstorming Go for quantity: This rule is a means of enhancing divergent production, aiming at facilitation of problem solution through the maxim quantity breeds quality. Withhold criticism: Criticism of ideas generated should be put 'on hold'. Focus on extending or adding to ideas. Reserve criticism for a later 'critical stage' of the process. Welcome wild ideas: To get a good long list of suggestions, wild ideas are encouraged. They can be generated by looking at new perspectives and suspending assumptions. Combine and improve ideas: Build ideas by a process of association/clustering.  Sub-steps in the pre-writing: Clustering 4 It is a way of narrowing your thoughts by classifying related ideas. Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping ideas such that those in the same group are more similar to each other than to those in other groups. See the next slide  Sub-steps in the pre-writing: Outlining 5 An outline is a way of organizing key ideas An outline helps to set up an essay or a research paper An outline is a tool to help revise an essay or research paper. An outline can be a study tool to help you summarize key ideas in reading  Outlining It is the skeleton of the main points or ideas of an already written essay, or a yet-to-be-written essay Types: formal and informal  THE FORMAL OUTLINE A formal outline shows, in logical order, what you will be writing about. A formal outline helps you separate main ideas and supporting ideas A formal outline gives you a foundation from which to build an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. A formal outline often changes after you write your first draft. It will show you where you need to add more research or make other changes.  Principles of Outlining Heading Labeling (numbering) NB: Ideas of the same rank are given the same label. Structuring (topic or sentence forms)  Addressing Immigration Challenges I Introduction * Criteria for immigration A. Political refugees B. Relatives of citizens C. Other applications II. Screening Criteria 1. Medical Screening 2. Interview 3. Psychological screening 4. Background check III. Students 1. Purpose of study 2. Commitment to study A. How long will they stay? B. How will they finance their education and support themselves? 3. Value to our educational system IV.. Government oversight 1. Obligation to have periodic checks on immigrants and students 2. Reporting any legal violations or suspicious behavior 3. The government needs to limit the number of immigrants V.. Conclusion  THE WRITING STAGE 1. Freewriting on the developed outline (No focus on grammar and language) 2.Produce a draft 3.Revise the drafts severally  Post-writing Stage: Editing & Proofreading TYPES OF EDITING Self-editing Peer-editing Group-editing The State Protocol Department has denied claims by the founder of the Ghana Freedom Party (GFP), Madam Akua Donkor that they have been given express instructions not to invite her and Dr Hassan Ayariga to state functions. Madam Akua Donkor disclosed that she does not receive invites as she used to and in an attempt to find out from the State Protocol Department (SPD), she was told by one Mensah that her name is not among persons to be invited for such events as directed by the presidency. Akua Donkor believes the current President, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo despises not only her but Dr Hassan Ayariga of the All Peoples Congress (NDC) for which reason they have both been relegated to the background. “Nana Addo does not like me and Hassan Ayariga. I am sure that is why he has directed them not invite me for state functions but I don’t care”, he revealed on Kumasi-based Abusua Fm. But Deputy Chief Protocol Officer at the State protocol department Nana Mensah refuted claims that he refused to give her invite adding that the President had no hand in the protocol list. According to him, the GFP leader knows the processes involved in extending such invitations denying the claim that they showed her a list which did not contain her name. ‘Prior to the Independence Day for example, I told her to hang around for a while because the one in charge of invitation cards had stepped out, the time I realised, she had left unannounced. She knows how we have been assisting her even when she wants to travel outside the country. I am just wondering why she has decided to go to the media with such an issue. If it is also about the State of the Nation  FOCUS OF EDITING: CONTENT 1 Relevance Adequacy Consistency Accuracy  FOCUS OF EDITING: STRUCTURE 2 Generic requirements (letter, memo, abstract, etc.) Well-organized (introduction, developing paragraphs, and concluding paragraphs) Logical sequencing Transitional markers FOCUS OF EDITING: CLARITY 3 At word, phrase, clausal, and sentence levels Ambiguity and vagueness Dangling or misrelated constructions Sentence fragments and run-on sentences Awkward sentences Inappropriate lexical choices  FOCUS OF EDITING: STYLE 4 Level of formality Appropriate tone Sentence beginning, length, variety, and complexity Paragraph length Gender-sensitive language Nominalized Verbalized N.B. Many factors affect style: aim, audience, and topic  FOCUS OF EDITING: FORMATTING 5 Lecturer’s/department’s/institution’s guidelines Spacing, font size, font type, Margins Bold, italics, underlining Pagination Table, figure, and chart References/Bibliography Word limit  FOCUS OF EDITING: CONCISENESS 6 Replace several vague words with specific words Adopt effective sentence combining practices Replace a phrase with a word Dispense with words that have very little utility value: ‘actually’, ‘basically’, ‘practically’ Avoid redundancies: ‘basic fundamentals’, ‘free gift’, ‘large in size’, ‘round in shape’  PROOFREADING This may be termed surface revision. It largely focuses on the mechanics of the language use. FOCUS OF PROOREADING 1.Concord 2.Spelling 3.Punctuation 4.Tense 5.Repetition of words (e.g. Africans must be be patriotic)  SOME GUIDELINES FOR EDITING/PROOFREADING Maintain some distance from the text in terms of time Decide what medium allows you to edit most carefully Find a quiet place Edit and proofread in several short blocks of time, rather than all at once  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana COMMUNICATION SKILLS II (ENGL 158) DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH WRITING A CV Types, CV vs. Resume, Structure of CV THE CURRICULUM VITAE (CV) The term Curriculum Vitae is a Latin phrase which means, “Course of Life”. It is a document of personal advertisement for opportunities such as employment, promotion, scholarship and a research grant. www.knust.edu.gh Types of CV Traditional/Chronological CV: It outlines an individual’s work and educational history. It highlights the progress and achievements of one’s career. The individual’s history must be captured in the reverse order (starting with the current) Potential employers mostly ask for this type of CV. www.knust.edu.gh Types of CV cont’d Functional/Skills based CV: It highlights an individual’s skills and achievements gained in his/her working career. It is useful for a graduate or apprentice who just completed his/her education/training to show that he/she possesses skills that may be related and relevant to a job. It is popular especially in cases where one has held numerous roles which are related. www.knust.edu.gh Types of CV cont’d Technical CV: It showcases the skills and experiences required for a technical position or a specific profession. It focuses on a particular skill, and its related skills, peculiar to a technical job. It highlights the technical training/education, skills and experience of an individual. It is usually used by individuals in the fields of Information Technology (IT) and Engineering. www.knust.edu.gh General Purpose Vs. Specific Purpose CV General Purpose CV As the name implies, it encapsulates every significant details of one’s personality and life’s accomplishments. It will contain several sections to give a holistic impression of one’s “course of life”. This can be written by an individual not for specific purposes. However, they can be edited when needed to meet specific purposes. www.knust.edu.gh General Purpose Vs. Specific Purpose CV Specific Purpose CV They are written mainly on the demand of an organization or to meet certain standards of an institution or for specific purposes. For example, an individual applying for a teaching appointment in an institution must specifically tailor his/her CV to highlight areas of interest in teaching. The individual, in this case, can add the position he/she is applying for on the CV. It is important to plan the information on the CV to meet the needs for which the document is being prepared. A thorough background investigation of the authorizer is recommended to know how to tailor the CV. www.knust.edu.gh The CV Vs. Resume These are two documents of similar profile which presents some sort of information about an individual. They are however considered as separate documents by some institutions and in some countries (Especially, in the USA). Usually, a CV gives details of the necessary information such as education and work experience whilst the resume presents a concise account, usually of one’s skills and qualifications. It is always important to inquire which of the two documents is required in an institution or a country. www.knust.edu.gh The CV Vs. Resume cont’d Some Similarities Both CVs & Resumes: Are tailored for the specific job/company you are applying to Should represent you as the best qualified candidate Are used to get you an interview Do not usually include personal interests www.knust.edu.gh The CV Vs. Resume cont’d Some Differences of CV and Resume A CV is a Latin phrase which means “Course of life” whereas Resume is a French word which means “Summary” A CV is comprehensive (2-20 pages or more) whereas a resume is concise (1-2 pages). References/Referees are included in CV whereas they are not in resume. CV is more oriented to academic credentials whereas resume is to non-academic credentials Education is mentioned at the top of the CV whereas it is mentioned after experience in resume www.knust.edu.gh  Structure of the CV Generally, CVs may have the following areas: Personal Details/Data Education Experience Reference/Referees www.knust.edu.gh  Personal Details/Data The following are important in this section: Name (in full) Addresses 1. Postal Address 2. Home Address (if necessary) 3. Email Address 4. Website Address (if necessary) Date of Birth (if necessary) Place of Birth/ Home town (if necessary) Nationality (if necessary) Sex (if necessary) Marital Status (if necessary) NB: it is important to know what the recipient is looking for in the CV. www.knust.edu.gh Personal Details/Data cont’d The name and other entries can however be omitted under this section when it forms part of the Heading thus; CURRICULUM VITAE: AMA SARPOMAA SARPONG Phone: +233659655907/ +233800361650 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Personal Data Date of Birth: 28th October, 1980 Hometown: Asante Bekwai Marital Status: Married www.knust.edu.gh Education This section must be written in the reverse chronological order i.e. the most recent educational qualification should be entered first in a ‘descending’ order. For individuals who have numerous post- secondary school academic qualification, the first and second cycle academic qualification can be omitted. Dates must always be added to the Schools and Certificates awarded. www.knust.edu.gh Education cont’d The official names of the institutions or schools must be written and not abbreviations or acronyms. Again, the specialization or official name of the certificate or degree awarded must be stated. Eg. Bachelor of Arts (English). This must be stated as written on the certificate awarded. The Class Division can be stated for special effect, especially when the individual excels (First Class, Second Class (Upper Division), Distinction, etc.). www.knust.edu.gh Education cont’d Dissertations or thesis topics can be added to the Schools and Certificates awarded for individuals using the CV for specific purposes in academia or any job that requires research skills. www.knust.edu.gh  Work Experience This summarizes the experiences one has garnered over the years in his/her working life. It includes internships, attachment, National Service, Substantive job or work etc. This section must include; The name of Work Place: For verification purposes, it is important to state the organizational name. No one would believe your claim of job experience without the veracity of an institutional name. Job Title: Stating the job title also eases the verification process for prospective employers. www.knust.edu.gh Work Experience cont’d Job Specification: In cases where one is applying for employment, the job specification of the previous work may be included when the job being applied for is related to it. This shows the individual’s suitability for the appointment and increases his/her employability www.knust.edu.gh Reference/Referees This section lists individuals of high reputation/offices to be contacted for any enquires on the individual’s competencies or character. Prospective employers etc. may contact referees for testimonials. This section must include the contact information i.e. phone numbers, e-mails etc. One may however submit referees on request but must be stated in the CV. www.knust.edu.gh Structure of the CV cont’d Other areas: The entries espoused above are the general, if not the most important, of the content of the CV. Other entries may include, based on the purpose of the CV, the following; 1. Personal Statement/ Personal objective/ Personal Profile 2. Professional Skills 3. Professional Development (This includes workshop, symposium, seminar, etc. attended) www.knust.edu.gh Structure of the CV cont’d Other areas: 4. Publications (research papers, books, etc.) 5. Presentations (at workshops etc.) 6. Memberships and Affiliations 7. Community Service/ Voluntary Work 8. Awards 9. Interest/Hobbies www.knust.edu.gh In-class Activity Students are to go on the internet and search for samples of CVs and identify the various sections or parts of the CVs they have seen for discussion. They are to print samples for their keeps, after class, to serve as a guide in preparing their personal CVs www.knust.edu.gh www.knust.edu.gh Assignment You have seen a call for interns at the “Sweet Mother Group of Companies”. Prepare a personal CV to aid your application. www.knust.edu.gh Works Consulted Adolinama, P. P. (2005). Communication Skills for University Students. Accra: ANEST Company Limited Brisk, P. H. (2011). Creating your CV as a Self Marketing Tool. Paul H. Brisk & Ventus Publishing ApS. Curricula Vitae (CVs) versus Resumes. (2011, December 28). Retrieved August 6, 2018, from The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips- and-tools/curricula-vitae-cvs-versus-resumes/ Resume vs. Curriculum Vitae: What's the Difference? (2015, September 14). Retrieved August 6, 2018, from University of California, Davis: Internship and Career Center: https://icc.ucdavis.edu/materials/resume/resumecv.htm Sekyi-Baidoo, Y. (2003). Learning and Communicating. Accra: Infinity Graphics Limited. www.knust.edu.gh  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana COMMUNICATION SKILLS II (ENGL 158) DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH FORMAL LETTERS STRUCTURE, FEATURES, LANGUAGE & STYLE FORMAL LETTER (Intro) A formal letter is a written form of communication for official or business purposes. Formal letters are those that concern work or employment or those that are written to/by people who hold some offices or positions. www.knust.edu.gh FORMAL LETTER (Intro) cont’d Examples of such letters include: Letters of application for employment Letters to the press (editors, newspapers etc.) Letters to government offices, businesses, organizations Query letters Dismissal letters Appointment letters www.knust.edu.gh Features of Formal letters The various parts of a formal letter are: Writer’s Address Date Recipient’s Address Salutation Heading Content/Body (Introduction, Main body, Conclusion) Subscription www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) The WA is the details of the place that the writer lives or works. This must be written without the name of the writer (the subscription captures that) The WA has two components: 1. The Institution and mail element 2. The Location Element www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d The Institution and Mail Element This contains the name of the institution and the mail address which may be a Post Office Box, Private Mail Bag or a Block and Street Name. Eg. Hour of Grace School P. O. Box UP90 KNUST Kumasi Hour of Grace School 4 Jackson Street (GPS Location) Ayeduase Kumasi www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d In the case where the writer has no address of the kind shown above, the “Care of” (C/o) address can be used: Eg. C/o Mr. Kojo Botsio Hour of Grace School P. O. Box UP90 KNUST Kumasi In the case of reply, the letter will be sent to the stated address and received by Mr. Botsio. www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d The Location Element It may include the suburb, town or city, region or province and country. Eg. Plot 47 Block 5 4 Jackson Street (GPS Location) Ayeduase Kumasi Ghana www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d WA Formats Letterhead: It has the organizational logo or emblem as well as the address details of the organization or institution. It is generally designed at the apex of a plain paper. A letterhead is seen as the sole property of an organization. Written: The writer types/writes his/her address with all details as discussed above. www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d Position of the WA “Top-right corner” of the sheet/screen: The details of the WA discussed above are written or typed at the said position. NB: When the WA is written at this end, the subscription must also be written at the “down- right” corner of the sheet/screen after the conclusion of the main body. www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d Position of the WA “Top-left corner” of the sheet/screen: The details of the WA discussed above are written or typed at the said position. NB: When the WA is written at this end, the subscription must also be written at the “down- left” corner of the sheet/screen after the conclusion of the main body. www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d WA at Top-right corner Writer’s Address Date Recipient's Address Salutation Heading/Topic/Title Body of the letter(Introduction, Main body, and conclusion) Subscription www.knust.edu.gh Writer’s Address (WA) cont’d WA at Top-left corner Writer’s Address Date Recipient's Address Salutation Heading/Topic/Title Body of the letter(Introduction, Main body, and conclusion) Subscription www.knust.edu.gh Date This states the day, month and year in which the letter is written. It is a separate element from the address. Eg. 10th November, 2020 November 10, 2020 www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address This states the person to whom the letter is written. This has three parts: 1. Recipient’s name or designation 2. Institution’s name 3. Location www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address cont’d Recipient’s name or designation This specifies the name or the designation of the person to whom the letter is written. In using the name, the title (Mr., Mrs., Prof., Dr., Miss etc) and full name must be used. Letters that carry personal names are considered to be for the exclusive interest of the person addressed. Eg. Mr. Kojo Botsio www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address cont’d Recipient’s name or designation cont’d Letters that carry the designation of the individual is deemed the property of the institution. They can be opened by the Secretary. Eg. The Chief Administrative Officer Sometimes, the designation is added in parenthesis to the personal name. This implies that though the letter is personal, it is associated with the recipient’s position. Eg. Mr. Kojo Botsio (The Chief Administrative Officer) www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address cont’d The Institution’s name This states the name of the institution of the recipient. Eg. The Chief Administrative Officer Hour of Grace School The Location of the institution This may not be necessary in the main letter as it is mandatory in addressing the back of an envelope for a recipient. Eg. The Chief Administrative Officer Hour of Grace School 4 Jackson Street, Ayeduase - Kumasi www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address cont’d For the purpose of distribution, the concept of recipient address is broadened into: Direct Recipient: This is the person to whom the letter is specifically written to (as explained above). Copy Recipient: This is the person who the writer thinks must be informed about the content of the letter. It is written with the caption, CC (Courtesy Copy/Carbon Copy) at the close of the letter. Eg. CC: The Human Resource Manager The Finance Officer www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address cont’d ‘Attention’ Recipient: The attention recipient is expected to carry out some duties related to the content of a letter. This is written with ‘Attention’ or ‘Attn’ and found at the close of the letter. Eg. Attn: The Human Resource Manager ‘Through’ Recipient: ‘Through’ recipient: This is the official who serves as a transit for a letter to get to its direct recipient. They play important roles in the action that is to be taken from the letter. This is written at the position of the recipient address. www.knust.edu.gh Recipient’s Address cont’d Eg. ‘Through’ Recipient: The Vice Chancellor KNUST Through: The Provost College of Arts and Humanities KNUST Through: The Dean Faculty of Social Sciences KNUST Through: The Head Department of English KNUST www.knust.edu.gh Salutation This is a form of greeting or call to the recipient for his/her attention The salutation must show politeness. Some accepted forms are: 1. Dear Sir (when the recipient is a male) 2. Dear Madam (when the recipient is a female) 3. Dear Sir/Madam (when the recipient is not known – avoid this if possible) The designation of the recipient can be used in the salutation. For example: Dear Supervisor, Dear Tutor, Dear Principal The salutation is written below the recipient address with a mandatory comma (Dear Sir,) www.knust.edu.gh Heading This captures the purpose of a letter. It must not be written in a sentence form therefore, it must not be punctuated (i.e. end with a full stop). Eg: Offer of Appointment The name of the writer or any information that identifies the writer must not be written in this section. When the letter is being written in response to a letter received earlier, the heading of the previous letter should be copied with the prefix ‘Re:’. For example, Re: Offer of Appointment www.knust.edu.gh Content/Body This is partitioned into: 1. Introduction 2. Main body 3. Conclusion Introduction: It gives a gist of the subject matter of the letter. It must be noted that the formal letter is written mainly for official or business purposes hence, officials do not have the time for ‘unnecessary’ pleasantries. Eg. of Introduction: I respectfully write to your high office to apply for the position of Teaching Assistant. www.knust.edu.gh Content/Body cont’d Main Body: The main body gives details of the subject matter introduced in the introduction. For example, in an application for employment letter, the writer must in this section, convince the recipient to be awarded the job. The writer can concisely write about his/her education, experience, professional skills etc. Normally, application letters are submitted with CVs as attachments therefore, elaborate details must be omitted in this part. The idea of salience or ‘what is important’ must be utilized in the writing of the main body. www.knust.edu.gh Content/Body cont’d Conclusion: This is as important as the introduction and main body. In application letters of employment, one can end with: 1. Statement of Hope: This is where the individual ends with a statement which shows his/her hope to be offered the appointment. Eg. I humbly hope that my application is considered. 2. Statement of Attachment: This is written when supporting documents are attached to the letter. Eg. Attached to this letter are all supporting documents to my application. www.knust.edu.gh Subscription This closes the letter and identifies the writer. This has four (4) parts: 1. Complimentary close/closing 2. Signature 3. Name 4. Designation and identification Complimentary Close/ Closing End the letter with ‘Yours faithfully,’ especially in job application letters. ‘Yours sincerely’ is used when there is some sort of rapport between the writer and the recipient. It can also be used when the name of recipient is written at the recipient address section. www.knust.edu.gh Subscription cont’d Complimentary Close/ Closing Cont’d Mandatorily, the initial letter of ‘Yours’ must be ‘capitalized’ whilst the following adverb, for example ‘faithfully’, must start with a small letter. ‘Yours’ should be used when an adverb (mainly words ending in ‘-ly’) is used in the closing. In cases where an adverb is not used, ‘Your’ can be applied. For example, Your Trustee www.knust.edu.gh Subscription cont’d Signature To curb issues of impersonation and for the authenticity of the letter, the writer must append his/her signature. There can also be an individual who bears the same name. The signature is therefore important in identifying the writer. This is a legal symbol for an individual. Name The name of the writer is written after the signature. The name can be followed by one’s social or academic title or credentials. For example, Ama Sarpong (Mrs.) or Ama Sarpong (PhD) www.knust.edu.gh Subscription cont’d Designation and Identification This is written after the name of the writer. It may be any information that seeks to further identify the writer. For example: Adwoa Antwi Bosiako (Purchasing Clerk) Or Adwoa Antwi Bosiako (Student Number: 20522070) www.knust.edu.gh Language and Style The language should be precise and should have an unflinching preoccupation with the subject and focus of the interaction. There should be a high degree of politeness There should be strictness of form. Nothing should be taken for granted. As much as possible, things are supposed to be stated in their full form. Do not use contracted forms of words. www.knust.edu.gh Language and Style cont’d Never use sentences like: “bye for now” or participial phrases such as “Thanking you in advance”, “Hoping to hear soon from you etc. Do not ‘beg’ or sound very religious in your business or application letter. Use words such as plead or implore instead of “beg”. Avoid artificial elegance. The tendency is for writers to use language in order to merely create artistic beauty. It is important to remember that strict adherence to object of communication, and precision of communication are features of the language and style of the formal letter. www.knust.edu.gh Reading Assignment Please read on the Principle of Formality from Sekyi-Baidoo (2003:186) or any other source and make your own notes www.knust.edu.gh Assignment You have seen a Call for Applications on various vacant positions at a firm or institution. Write a letter to the Managing Director to apply for your prospective position. www.knust.edu.gh Works Consulted Adolinama, P. P. (2005). Communication Skills for University Students. Accra: ANEST Company Limited Sekyi-Baidoo, Y. (2003). Learning and communicating (Second Edition). Accra: Infinity Graphics Ltd. www.knust.edu.gh  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana COMMUNICATION SKILLS II (ENGL 158) DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH Meeting and Minutes Writing  The Meeting A meeting is generally a formal interaction – social, occupational, business or political. Thus, whether it be a business management meeting, meeting of the cabinet or a family meeting, an applicable level of distance and strictness is observed in order to ensure the following: www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Appropriate and ordered behavior or conduct Adherence to the object or agenda of meeting Making of decisions which will be binding on all, and which will also guide the future of the organization. www.knust.edu.gh  Types of Meeting 1. Formal meetings: In formal meetings, the number of people who should be present to validate the meeting must be present. This is the quorum. A formal record of these meetings must be kept. 2. Annual General Meeting (AGM): Annual general meetings are meetings that are held every year to assess the management of organization over the year. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 3. Statutory meetings: Statutory meetings are held in order that directors and shareholders can communicate and consider special reports. Companies are required by law to hold these statutory meetings. 4. Board meetings: Board meetings are held as often as individual organizations require. They are attended by all directors and chaired by the Chairman of the board. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 5. Informal Meetings: Informal meetings are not restricted by the same rules and regulations as formal meetings. Such meetings may take the form of brainstorming or discussion sessions where strict agendas may not be necessary, and minutes may not be kept. www.knust.edu.gh  Notice of Meeting When a meeting is to be convened, a notice is required to be sent to all who are to attend it. A notice of a meeting of a company is a document informing the members or directors of a company about an upcoming meeting. This document specifies the date, time and place of the meeting and the general nature of the business to be transacted at the meeting. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. A notice of a meting should satisfy these conditions: It should be under proper authority. It should state the name of the organization. It should state the day, date, time, and place. It should inform persons required to attend the meeting in advance. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. It should state the purpose and, if possible, the agenda. It should carry the date of circulation and convener’s/secretary’s signature. www.knust.edu.gh  Agenda of a Meeting An agenda is the list of items to be considered at a meeting. It is also called business or order of business. The agenda may be part of the notice or may be attached as an annexure. The secretary prepares it in consultation with the chairperson and get his approval. The items of agenda should cover all that is necessary to be considered at that time. www.knust.edu.gh  Meeting terminologies Motion: A formal statement, usually involving some proposed action, put to a meeting for discussion and subsequent decision by vote. Mover: The proposer of a motion Amendment: Proposed modification to a motion which is not in conflict with the general thrust of that motion. If the amendment is adopted it becomes part of the original motion (now called ‘motion as amended’ or ‘substantive motion’) www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Point of Order: It is used when a member feels that the meeting procedure is not being stuck to and he/she wants the meeting to return to the correct procedure or order. Out of Order: When an individual is not sticking to the meeting procedure, being rude, interjecting or misbehaving in some way, the chairperson might rule him/her out of order. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Point of information: A member may raise his/her hand and ask to make a point of information when it is not his or her turn to speak. Quorums: This is the minimum number of people who must be present for the members of the meeting to conduct business and take decisions. This minimum is stated in the organization’s constitution. www.knust.edu.gh  Assignment 1. Mention and explain ten (10) other meeting terminologies. 2. Choose an organization and identify three different ways through which decisions are reached in the meetings of that organization. www.knust.edu.gh  Minutes Writing Minutes is basically an account of the various issues raised and discussed at a meeting and the decisions taken on such issues. The report, on the other hand, is principally an account or a record of the various events that takes place at a human interaction. The minutes, unlike the report, is concerned not about events but about discussions. www.knust.edu.gh  Types of Minutes There are three types of minutes. 1. Narrative minutes 2. Resolution minutes 3. Action minutes www.knust.edu.gh  Narrative Minutes Narrative minutes seek to describe the various contributions which precede decisions as well as vetoes in detail. In this way, it becomes quite easy for one to see how thorough discussions were. It can establish whether the decisions were arrived at on consensus or whether there was a lot of opposition to it. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Details included in narrative minutes are: Details of how meeting was begun and conducted Who initiated issues and what he actually said Contributions made in support on in dissension www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Motions and Counter-motions Decisions made How the decisions were arrived – by voting, unanimity, etc. Attitudes of members www.knust.edu.gh  Resolution Minutes Resolution minutes concentrate in responding to the question below: What decisions were taken at the meeting? To this end, resolutions only record the decisions reached, whether they were unanimous or whether there was dissent, and also other details which are essential to the description and implementation of the decisions. www.knust.edu.gh  Action Minutes Action minutes is closer to resolution minutes than to narrative minutes. It can effectively be seen as a kind of resolution minutes in which further emphasis is placed on the person and the strategies by which the decisions are implemented. Action minutes are useful in specifying the mode of implementation of decisions. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. They usually contain the following information applicable: Executing officer(s) Time frame for execution Equipment to be used for execution Supervising officers www.knust.edu.gh  The Structure of Minutes Minutes which is a record of formal interaction, cannot be a haphazard representation of this interaction. The various items to be recorded in minutes are stipulated, though they may change from organization to organization and from occasion to the other. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 1. Title 2. Attendance or Roll Call 3. Opening 4. Reading of Previous Minutes and Matters Arising 5. Main Business or Main Discussions 6. Any Other Business or Other Matters 7. Closing 7. Endorsement www.knust.edu.gh  The Title The title consists of the following elements: Name of organization Nature of meeting Place, date and time. www.knust.edu.gh  Attendance or Roll Call Items here generally include the underlisted: Members present: Members who are present and involved in carrying out the business of the meeting. They are also entitled to participate in voting or any kind of way through which decisions are reached. Members absent with apologies: Members who have provided reasons for being unable to attend a meeting. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Members absent: Members who have not provided any reason for being unable to attend a meeting. Members in attendance: Members who are physically present but are not part of the people actually involved in carrying out the business of the meeting. They are also not entitled to participate in any kind of way through which decisions are reached. www.knust.edu.gh  Opening Items here generally include the underlisted: Time (if not stated in the title) Method of opening – prayer and/or introductory remarks Appointment of meeting officials- Chairman, Secretary, Porter (where necessary) Determination of quorum (where necessary) www.knust.edu.gh  Previous Minutes Minutes of previous meetings are read to acquaint members of with the committee’s previous discussions and decisions and to evaluate the organization and individuals on this basis. Items recorded are based on deliberations that ensue; these include: 1. Corrections: Corrections are generally not recorded unless some discussions or agitation. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 2. Moving for acceptance: Important items to record in minutes are: who moved for acceptance who seconded it 3. Matters Arising: These usually comprise: Reports and questions on implementation of decisions taken Items deferred to a next meeting or the current meeting precisely www.knust.edu.gh  Main Business The various topics that constitute the main business are usually provided on the agenda. The main business deliberation can be put into two: Discussions Briefing www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Discussions: what is recorded into the minutes from here are usually: Issues and their discussions Decisions taken on these issues www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Briefing: Sometimes, some of the items in the main business do not necessarily entail discussions and decision making. What one needs to record are the details of the announcement or the report. This is to provide an opportunity for future reference. In addition, one needs to record the ensuing enquiries and discussions of they are important enough. www.knust.edu.gh  Any Other Business (AOB) This is also referred to as Other Matters. Here, we record discussions that do not form part of the agenda drawn for the meeting. The issues here are pertinent items raised by members. They are generally announcements, remarks, complaints, suggestions, and enquiries. www.knust.edu.gh  Closing In the minutes, the closing generally covers the following: Final and concluding remarks made by the chairman Motion for closing Prayer Time www.knust.edu.gh  Endorsement This comprises of the name and signature of the person who recorded the minutes. Sometimes, the name and signature of the Chairman of the meeting is also provided. www.knust.edu.gh  Layout of Minutes As a document, the minutes do not communicate only by their words and construction. They communicate also by the way the various parts have been graphically arranged. A well-laid out minutes, draws attention to the various parts of the document. It also points to the relationship between those parts. Thus, it shows which parts are the main issues and also which sections are under these main parts. www.knust.edu.gh  The Importance of Minutes As a record of decisions As a reflection of consensus As a guide to officials For evaluation For personal accountability Attendance and punctuality www.knust.edu.gh  The Language of Minutes Minutes are a formal document. The language is therefore, formal. Features of colloquial language such as contractions, slang expression, figurative expressions, etc. are not advisable in minutes. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Some notable aspects of the language of minutes are: 1. Tense: The simple past tense is generally used for minutes. This is because minutes are a record of past speeches and decisions. 2. Reported speech: Reported speech instead of direct speech is used in minutes. It facilitates summary and helps to remove untidy and irrelevant parts of contributions. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 3. Passive voice: The passive is so frequently used in minutes. This is in response to the fact that what is said and the decisions made are considered more important than the persons who said them. This practice highlights group interest and downplays the individual. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 4. The genitive: We have already indicated that resolution and action minutes concentrate on consensus or group decisions rather than on individual contributions. For this reason, general forms such as “the meeting”, “the committee”, or the “members” are used frequently in order to efface the actual speaker or officer. Where it is only one person, the indefinite forms “a”/ “an”, or “one” are used, as in “a member” or “one member”. www.knust.edu.gh  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana MEMORANDUM  What is a Memorandum? Generally speaking, the memorandum is a kind of formal communication which usually operates within an organization. A memorandum can also be said to be a correspondence between employees of a place of work. The memorandum differs from the formal letter basically in its formal features, its range of circulation, and in its range of formality. www.knust.edu.gh Memorandum Versus Formal Letter Formal letters are basically formal because they exhibit a remarkable degree of distance between people in communication. On the other hand, memorandum exhibits a wide range of formality which can be classified into the formal, informal and semi-formal. It suffices to say that such clear distinctions and ranges are not easily associated with the formal letter. Memorandums in themselves are considered less formal than formal letters which bridge the distance between communicators who believe that they have been brought much closer together by the common organization they serve. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. At the workplace, therefore, matters which tend to emphasize an individual’s goals, or those which tend to pitch the organization against and individual are communicated through the formal letter, instead of the memorandum. It is in the sense of this social framework that appointment, promotion, leave, query, resignation and dismissal correspondence are communicated as formal letters and not as memorandum. www.knust.edu.gh  Types The memorandum can be classified into the informal, the semi-formal and the formal. The Informal Memoranda These are hand-written, conversational messages of simple requests, directives or information between employees of an organization. They are usually made up of between one and six lines. An informal memorandum usually operates between equals or between officers and their subordinates. These memoranda do not usually follow the three-part structure (introduction, body, conclusion). www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. Officers do not usually keep record of these memoranda because they are considered as one of the many short messages which people give us in our daily lives. The language of the informal memorandum is basically colloquial. The use of contracted forms, abbreviations, and elliptical constructions are a mark of this colloquial language. Below is an example of an informal memorandum culled from Sekyi-Baidoo (2003). www.knust.edu.gh www.knust.edu.gh The Semi-formal Memorandum The semi-formal memorandum is a communication between equals, between an administrator and his subordinate or between a subordinate and an immediate boss between whom there is not much difference in status or rank. The semi-formal memorandum, like the informal one, is also concerned with day-to-day activities of the organization. It contains a well discussed or fully presented subject. It does not contain snippets of directives or information. Unlike the informal ones, the semi-formal ones are filed. These memoranda usually follow the three-part structure (introduction, body, conclusion). The language of this form of memorandum is simple, everyday vocabulary construction except in instances when the nature of the subject demands specialized vocabulary. Even when this happens, it is believed that the workers understand it. Below is an example of a semi-formal memorandum culled from Sekyi-Baidoo (2003). www.knust.edu.gh www.knust.edu.gh  The Formal or Policy Memorandum The formal or policy memorandum can be likened to the formal letter in the distance that exists between the employees in communication. It is concerned not with day-to-day information and activities but with general policies and directives. It is usually an announcement, explanation, suggestion, or reaction based on the principles and practices on which the organization operates. It is as a result of its preoccupation with organizational principles and practices that it is called policy memorandum. Policy memorandums are usually addressed to communal recipients such as All Employees, All Managers, All Heads of Departments or individuals with official designation such as The Head, The Secretary, The Minister etc. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. These memorandums follow the three-part structure (introduction, body, conclusion). The language of formal memorandum is formal and therefore uses the impersonal method generally. The use of passives and genitives(instead of specific names) reflect its impersonal nature. It is important to avoid the use of colloquial language in formal memos. The use of contracted forms, abbreviations, and elliptical constructions are a mark of this colloquial language. Below is an example of a formal memorandum culled from Sekyi-Baidoo (2003). www.knust.edu.gh www.knust.edu.gh www.knust.edu.gh  Structure of a Memorandum Departments often design their “memo pads” with the following features: 1. Corresponding heading: This is the heading which appears at the top usually in bold print and seeks to identify the nature of the correspondence. For most organizations this heading, comprises the word Memorandum or Memo. Others such as Office Memo, Interoffice Correspondence and Interoffice Communication are sometimes used in place of memorandum. Some organizations do not even have this correspondence heading on their memo pads. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. 2. Specific headings: These headings come below the correspondence heading. They serve to identify the people and the subject or focus of the communication. It is important in every communication that the people in the communication event are all identified. In the formal letter, these people are identified in the recipient’s address and salutation on one hand, and the writers address and the subscription on the other. www.knust.edu.gh  Cont. The specific headings comprise the following elements which can be arranged not necessarily in the order below: From: To: Date: Subject: Informal and sometimes semi-formal memorandums generally have no subscription. The writer may only write a ‘Thank you’ or initial his/her name at the end of the correspondence. It is now however customary for formal and some semi-formal memorandums to display the signature, the name and the designation of the writer. www.knust.edu.gh  Uses of a Memorandum Memorandums are used within an organization to: 1. Report information 2. Make requests 3. Recommend an action 4. Communicate issues of immediate importance Organization can also send memos to people or firms that have close or long-standing relationships with them. www.knust.edu.gh Types of Modern Communication Other types of modern communication have been around since the early days of phone and internet. Some of these include: Voice Calling SMS Text Messaging Email Social Media www.knust.edu.gh  Assignment Explore other types of modern communication used in organizations. www.knust.edu.gh Verbal Communication  Oral communication Department of English Faculty of Social Sciences College of Humanities and Social Sciences Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Stage fright Chairperson’s remarks Vote of Thanks Proposal of Toast Interview  Objectives By the end of the lesson, the students will be able to: 1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of oral communication 2. Give and explain different types of formal oral presentation used in Business/corporate communication and our everyday interactions. 3. Identify the stages or process involved in any of the oral presentations. 4. Show confidence in public speaking.  Oral/Verbal Communication Definition Oral Communication is a type of communication which employs the spoken word, either direct or indirect as a communication channel. Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other either direct conversation, or face-to-face, or over the phone, or via voice notes or chat rooms, etc. Classroom oral presentation and discussions, dramatization, poetry recital, vote of thanks, interview etc. are examples of oral communication.  Characteristics of Effective Oral Communication The following are some characteristics of an effective oral /verbal communication: Completeness: Effective communication is complete, that is the receiver gets all the information he/she needs to process the message and take action.  Characteristics Cont. Conciseness: Conciseness is about keeping the message to a point. Conciseness helps the listeners to focus on what is important, speed up the processing of information, and cater for improved understanding.  Characteristics Cont. Concreteness: A concrete message is specific, tangible and vivid. It is supported by facts and figures for enhanced trustworthiness. It helps your listeners gain an overview of the broader picture and deals the risk of misunderstanding, fosters trust and encourages constructive criticism.  Characteristics Cont. Courtesy: Courtesy and consideration complement each other in effective communications. Courtesy means respecting the receiver’s culture, values and beliefs – i.e. crafting a message that is genuinely polite and unbiased. The presenter should try his/her best to be honest, respectful, considerate, open and polite with the receiver of the information. The message when supplemented with proper care and kindness will definitely find an audience.  Characteristics Cont. Clearness: The clearer the message, the easier it gets the receiver to decode it according to the original intent. To deliver an effective oral communication, start with a clear goal and accurate thoughts. Clear communications build on exact language use and concrete words to reduce ambiguities and confusion in the communication process. Effective communication is about delivering an information unambiguously, so that the receiver can decode it correctly.  Characteristics Cont. Correctness: Correct grammar and syntax guarantee effectiveness and credibility of your message. Formal errors might affect the clarity of your message, bring about ambiguity and raise doubts. They might also have a negative impact on the overall perception of the message, which could be seen as sloppy or negligent.  Characteristics Cont. Consideration: Effective communication takes into account the receiver’s background and points of view. Tailoring your message to your audience using relevant argumentations and familiar examples makes it easier for them to process the contents. If your message sounds disrespectful, the emotional reaction of the receiver might affect the perception of your message.  Types of Oral Communication Interactive – (face-to-face conversation, interview, phone calls – chance to ask for clarification, request) Partially interactive – (giving speech or presentation, check comprehension from audience’s faces) Non-interactive (recording, performing in a play, singing, reciting a poem)  Examples of oral communication Vote of thanks Introduction of chair person Chair person’s remarks Proposal of toast Welcome address Telephone conversation Interview Class presentation Public speech Debate  Public Speaking: Stage Fright The term “public speaking” no longer refers to just talking in front of a physical audience. It can also mean presenting to a virtual audience through online events, meetings, conferences. “I hate speaking in front of large groups of people, yet I love picturing the standing ovation after delivering a great speech” (Daniel Waas) If you’ve ever seen a documentary about people with phobias, they’re always told to face their fears. So after trying to think of anything other than doing just that, I challenged myself to go and speak at large events in order to overcome my fear of public speaking. (Daniel Waas) COMMON FEARS WHEN IT COMES TO PUBLIC SPEAKING Looking like a fool Boring the audience Being lost for words People noticing your nervousness People hating the presentation or, worse, getting up to leave  Stage fright(Glossophobia) : What is it ? Stage Fright or Performance Anxiety is a state of fear or shyness which occurs when an individual is faced with the requirement of performing in front of and audience (either directly or through a screen in front a camera). Stage fright is a fear to perform publicly. It is group of disorders affecting individuals in a range of endeavours, such as public speaking, sports, performing arts in dancing, acting, and music making. Stage fright can affect not only public speakers but all kinds of people who have to appear in front of an audience- musicians, dancers, politicians, or athletes etc.  Signs/Symptoms of Stage Fright Symptoms of stage fright can occur at different levels: Psychological – Sweating, altered heart rate, headache, upset stomach, chills, nausea Cognitive- congestion and mental confusion, fear of failure and ridicule. Behavioural- Urge to escape from the situation, stuttering, frequent and long silence.  Controlling Stage Fright Try not to obsess about being perfect (No one is perfect) Know your material- Choose a topic that you are really passionate about or familiar with. Make sure you know all about the topic by reading around it to be confident that the information is all accurate. Prepare Your Environment In Advance So You Can Concentrate On Delivery Laptop/tablet, microphone ,projector or display, presentation clicker, lectern power socket to plug in your laptop Practise some more- Regular Practise creates familiarity and bring comfort. Watch yourself- It is a good to practise in private( in front of a mirror or in a quiet room and watch yourself perform. Record performance and analyze your onstage movement.  Controlling Stage Fright Cont. Prepare Notes- If you are allowed, type up your notes or write them out to have an easy-to-see notes with you. If you freeze up and forget some information, you will have a solid safety net that you know you depend on. Bring something to hold onto- Most people fidget when they are nervous so bring that you can channel your anxiety towards. If you do not have a podium to stand behind, try to find a clipboard, notebook, or a stack of papers. Learn from others- Observe top performers to decide what is about the way to perform (their movement, body language, how they interact with the audience etc. Observing top performers with great stage presence inspires and helps you develop your own onstage persona. Do not hurry through it-. Speaking quickly is associated with hurried breaths with fear and panic.  Chairperson’s Remarks Chairperson’s remarks come after they have introduced and after the main programme. In the first marks, the chairperson has to: Greet guests informally by using light-hearted language: Choose a simple and straightforward greeting such as, "Good morning everyone!" Express your gratitude towards the guests for attending the programme by using a phrase such as, "It's so wonderful to see you all here on this special day Keep the tone more serious if it's an important occasion: Use more formal language and don't crack any inappropriate jokes. Introduce the event itself: Provide a short introduction to the name and purpose of the event. Prepare the minds of guests by giving the assurance: Say that you hope the audience enjoys the event. Pass on your warm wishes to the audience for the rest of the event.  Chairperson’s Remarks In the after the programme remarks, the chairperson should briefly: Acknowledge those who have played an important part in the event. Mention 2-3 people who have helped to turn the event from an idea into reality. State their names and the role that each person played. Avoid reading off a long list of people or sponsors, as your audience will begin to get bored. Stick to just a handful of highlights. Mention any parts of the event that are of special importance. Pick the parts that are the most important, and give people encouragement about anything they should stick around for or pay special attention to. Thank the audience for attending the programme. Say a brief sentence or 2 expressing your gratitude on behalf of the event. Keep it short and to the point. For example at an informal event you could say, "Thank you to everyone here for coming along tonight."  Thanking/Thanksgiving Thanking/Thanksgiving is one of the major types linguistic routines- greetings, apology, request, thanking, recounting one’s mission etc. Thanking is an expressive speech act that states what the speaker feels. Thanks are rituals employed in communicative encounters to mark the closing of events such meeting, public debate, lectures, seminars, workshops, invitation to wedding etc. After each of the following communicative events, the speaker will say “thank you for listening and/or thanks for coming. Ritualized and institutionalized thank are predictable hence, when one fails to render thanks, it brings annoyance. Thanks serve as a linking line between giving and receiving and it is a symbol of love. The ability to say thank you in any form is a mark of communicative competence, depicting how polite one is and brings a bond of social cohesion and solidarity among the benefactor and the beneficiary (Agyekum 2011).  Vote of Thanks Vote of Thanks is part of an agenda of any organized programme where some people are designated to express gratitude to God, the participants and the organizers and sponsors of the programme. Vote of thanks requires that dignitaries, functionaries (organizers, MC, musicians etc.) are acknowledged for the part they played in the function. The speaker is advised to go straight to the point, mentioning names of identifiable groups, special personalities, individuals and thank them for what they did. In a very formal occasion, thanking God may not be necessary, leave that to closing prayer.  Formal Vote of Thanks A formal vote of thanks to a speaker is a mark of courtesy. Sincerity is the key word when putting forward vote of thanks. This depends on the genuine assessment of the positive and helpful aspects of the speech. It is useful to refer to the speaker’s wit and wisdom, the precise and frank manner in which he/she has dealt with the subject matter, and indicate the great interest which you (audience) have had in particular portion of his/her speech. Mention briefly one or two points to indicate that you have really taken them in, and show assurance of practicing them. It would be appropriate if the introduction is made without using the traditional words like “ I am happy to be called upon to give the vote of thanks”  Example of formal vote of thanks This is very memorable to all of us here because of the valuable information that we have received from our special resource person. He has given us more than enough of what expected to know on this important topic. You will agree with me that he deserves our sincere appreciation for sharing with us all the issues that we were yearning for. He has succinctly explained the need to take our learning seriously and the need to observe all the protocols of the COVID 19 to reduce the spread of the virus. His in-depth analysis of this topic will leave with us long lasting memories. This will go a long way to instil in us the spirit to learn hard and to observe all the COVID protocols. We also express our thanks to all those who have in diverse ways contribute to make programme a fruitful one. Thank You  Proposal of Toast: What is it? To wish a person future health, happiness, and success and ask others to raise their glasses and join in a drink A toast is proposed on the occasions of birthdays, weddings, anniversaries, ceremonies, etc.  Proposal of Toast Proposal of Toast on occasions of anniversaries of business or personality requires that: mention is made of the reason for the occasion a very brief history is given about event mention is made of some challenges and achievements mention few names who made it possible for the achiements call on audience to toast them into the future.  How to propose a toast Be prepared. Know your audience. (Ask yourself, what would they like to hear from me?) Keep short and sweet (be brief) Catch your audience attention (stand by a chair and raise your voice while you hold your glass) When mentioning names of persons or places be sure they are correct and you pronounce them properly. Give substance to your remarks. A good toast can be enriched with a few words of wisdom Be witty but never vulgar Don’t get drunk Proposing a toast  Telephone Conversation Telephone is one of the most commonly used means of oral communication. Telephone is used to: place and take orders, exchange needed information, make appointments, establish valuable business contacts, etc. It provides instant feedback It save communication time.  Efficient use of the telephone Introduce yourself, ask them to introduce themselves, speak clearly, do not rush, ask them to speak for clarity and end in a definite way. Be brief- Do not become loquacious Be courteous- Show respect to all. Be resourceful- Always decide to help others Speak clearly and audibly- Speak naturally and audibly. Actively listen and take notes. Remain cheerful- smile when you talk to people Make the caller feel welcome Do not shout or whisper- being overtly loud or overtly quiet can make the conversation awkward. Do not leave caller on hold for too long. Don’t get distracted by the room or people around- Avoid asking your callers to repeat themselves over and over. Limit background noise  Efficient use of the telephone cont. Make sure not to hang up by accident Don’t use poor equipment- Phone equipment that always disconnecting, dropping calls or having full of interferences will not help. Do not answer anonymously- Calling a strange company can be a bit off-putting for your customers  INTERVIEW An interview is a selection process designed to obtain information from a person through oral responses to oral inquiries. An interview is a conversation (face-to-face) between the interviewer and the interviewee, where the interviewer seeks replies from the interviewee for choosing a potential human resource. Interview is a selection procedure designed to predict future job performance on the basis of applicants’ oral responses to oral inquiries. The interview is the most critical component of the entire selection process.  Importance of interview It serves as the primary means to collect additional information on an applicant. It serves as the basis for assessing an applicant’s job-related knowledge, skills, and abilities. It is designed to decide if an individual should be interviewed further, hired, or eliminated from consideration.  Types of Interview There are several types of interview: Unstructured /Nondirective Interview. Structured /Directive Interview. Situational Interview. Behavioral Interview. Job-related Interview. Stress Interview. Panel Interview /Board Interview One-On-One Interview. Mass Interview /Group Interview Phone Interview  Unstructured/Nondirective Interview An unstructured interview is an interview where probing, open-ended questions are asked. It involves a procedure where different questions may be asked to different applicants. In unstructured interviews, there is generally no set format to follow so that the interview can take various directions. The lack of structure allows the interviewer to ask follow-up questions and pursue points of interest as they develop.  Structured/Directive Interview In structured interviews, the interviewer lists the questions and acceptable responses in advance and may even rate and score possible answers for appropriateness. An interview consisting of a series of job-related questions that are asked consistently of each applicant for a particular job is known as a structured interview. A structured interview typically contains four types of questions. Situational questions: Pose a hypothetical job situation to determine what the applicant would do in that situation. Job knowledge questions: Probe the applicant’s job-related knowledge. Job-sample simulation questions: Involve situations in which an applicant may be actually required to perform a sample task from the job. Worker requirements questions: Seek to determine the applicant’s willingness to conform to the requirements of the job.  Behavioral Interview In a behavioral interview, you ask applicants to describe how they reacted to actual situations in the past. Candidates are asked what actions they have taken in prior job situations that are similar to situations they may encounter on the job. The interviewers are then scored using a scoring guide constructed by job experts. This is a structured interview that uses questions designed to probe the candidate’s past behavior in specific situations. This technique involves asking all interviewees standardized questions about how they handled past situations that were similar to situations they may encounter on the job. The interviewer may also ask discretionary probing questions for details of the situations, the interviewee’s behavior in the situation, and the outcome. The interviewee’s responses are then scored with behaviorally anchored rating scales.  Job-related Interview In a job-related interview, the interviewer asks applicants questions about relevant past experiences. It is a series of job-related questions that focus on relevant past job-related behaviors. The questions here don’t revolve around hypothetical or actual situations or scenarios. Instead, the interviewer asks job-related questions such as, “Which courses did you like best in business school?”  Stress Interview In a stress interview, the interviewer seeks to make the applicant uncomfortable with occasionally rude questions. The aim is supposedly to spot sensitive applicants and those with low or high- stress tolerance. Stress interviews may help unearth hypersensitive applicants who might overreact to mild criticism with anger and abuse. It intentionally creates anxiety to determine how an applicant will react to stress on the job.  Panel Interview (Board Interview) A panel interview, also known as a board interview. It is an interview conducted by a team of interviewers, who together interview each candidate and then combine their ratings into a final score. Here one candidate is interviewed by several representatives of the firm. This technique entails the job candidate giving oral responses to job-related questions asked by a panel of interviewers. Each member of the panel then rates each interviewee on such dimensions as work history, motivation, creative thinking, and presentation. The scoring procedure for oral interview boards has typically been subjective; thus, it would be subject to personal biases of those individuals sitting on the board. This technique may not be feasible for jobs in which there are a large number of applicants that must be interviewed.  One-On-One Interview In a one-on-one interview, one interviewer meets one candidate. In a typical employment interview, the applicant meets one-on-one with an interviewer. As the interview may be a highly emotional occasion for the applicant, meeting alone with the interviewer is often less threatening.  Mass Interview (Group Interview) The mass/group interview is a relatively new technique in the west and almost unknown in our country. It is a procedure for the discovery of leadership. Several job applicants are placed in a leaderless discussion, and interviewers sit in the background to observe and evaluate the performance of the candidates. In a mass/group interview, a panel interviews several candidates simultaneously. The panel poses a problem and then watches to see which candidate takes the lead in formulating an answer.  Other types of interview Appraisal Interview: An appraisal interview is to assess the performance of employees and progress made. It is normally conducted annually. Promotion Interview: Promotion interview is to assess the suitability of internal employees for higher position. Counseling Interview: Counseling interview is to help employees overcome their emotional or other kinds of problems.  Preparing for an interview In an interview, the applicants ‘market’ their skills, abilities, knowledge and personality to the employer, so preparation is very important. Since selection interview aims at choosing the right applicant, the interview will enable the interview panel to choose the candidate who satisfies requirement on. Comportment Manners Speech Intelligence Judgment Initiative Resourcefulness Assurance Commonsense  Preparing for an interview – Before the interview Prepare for the interview by researching the background of the company or the organization: history, aims, organizational structure, turnover, service or product, priorities, location, competitors, etc. Put your CV, certificates, and other documents together. Think about possible questions that you are likely to be asked and prepare for possible answers for them. You may search for the venue of the interview  Preparing for an interview- Interview Day On the day of the interview, arrive early at the venue. Your interview begins the moment you step inside the organization. Be courteous and friendly towards everyone you meet starting with receptionist. Be mindful of your appearance: dress neatly, decently and comfortably in tune with the company and the position you are apply for. Take with you the original certificates and other necessary documents.  During the interview It is natural to feel a little nervous before an interviewer but try to relax as much as you can. Greet the interviewers and sit comfortably in the chair reserved for you. Avoid any sign of unpreparedness before the interviewers; nodding and shaking head, biting of fingers, hitting the table etc. Pay attention to the interviewers and listen attentively to questions being asked. Answer questions in a clear and audible voice. Be tolerable to the interviewers and avoid unnecessary arguments with them. Show politeness throughout the interview process. Ask for clarity if you don’t understand or not clear about the question Thank the interviewers before you leave the room.  After interview Do critical self evaluation Do follow-up