The Peopling of the World, Prehistory–2500 B.C. PDF

The Peopling of the World, Prehistory–2500 B.C. Previewing Main Ideas INTERACTION WITH ENVIRONMENT As early humans spread out over the world, they adapted to each environment they encountered. As time progressed, they learned to use natural resources. Geography Study the...

The Peopling of the World, Prehistory–2500 B.C. Previewing Main Ideas INTERACTION WITH ENVIRONMENT As early humans spread out over the world, they adapted to each environment they encountered. As time progressed, they learned to use natural resources. Geography Study the time line and the map. Where in Africa did human life begin? SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY The earliest peoples came up with new ideas and inventions in order to survive. As people began to live in settlements, they continued to develop new technology to control the environment. Geography Early humans began to migrate about 1.8 million years ago. What paths did these migrations take? ECONOMICS Early humans hunted animals and gathered wild plant foods for 3 to 4 million years. Then about 10,000 years ago, they learned to tame animals and to plant crops. Gradually, more complex economies developed. Geography Early settlement sites often were near rivers. Why might they have been located there? INTERNET RESOURCES Interactive Maps Go to classzone.com for: Interactive Visuals Research Links Maps Interactive Primary Sources Internet Activities Test Practice Primary Sources Current Events Chapter Quiz 2 3  How would these tools help early humans survive? You have joined a team of scientists on an expedition to an ancient site where early humans once lived. The scientists’ goal is to search for evidence that might unlock the mysteries of the past. You’re an eyewitness to their astounding discovery—human-made tools about 5,000 years old. They belonged to the so-called Ice Man, discovered in 1991. (See History The remnants of a backpack in Depth, page 15.) A birch-bark container An axe A dagger and its sheath EXAM I N I NG the ISSU ES What did early humans need to do to survive? What physical actions would these tools help humans do? As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, think about recent tools and inventions that have changed people’s lives. As you read about the ancestors of present-day humans, notice how early toolmakers applied their creativity and problem-solving skills. 4 Chapter 1  1 Human Origins in Africa MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES INTERACTION WITH The study of early human artifact Neolithic ENVIRONMENT Fossil evidence remains and artifacts helps in culture Age shows that the earliest humans understanding our place in hominid technology originated in Africa and spread human history. Paleolithic Homo across the globe. Age sapiens SETTING THE STAGE What were the earliest humans like? Many people have asked this question. Because there are no written records of prehistoric peoples, scientists have to piece together information about the past. Teams of scientists use a variety of research methods to learn more about how, where, and when early humans developed. Interestingly, recent discoveries provide the most knowledge about human origins and the way prehistoric people lived. Yet, the picture of prehistory is still far from complete. Scientists Search for Human Origins TAKING NOTES Categorizing Use a Written documents provide a window to the distant past. For several thousand diagram to list advances years, people have recorded information about their beliefs, activities, and of each hominid group. important events. Prehistory, however, dates back to the time before the inven- tion of writing—roughly 5,000 years ago. Without access to written records, sci- entists investigating the lives of prehistoric peoples face special challenges. Hominid Group Scientific Clues Archaeologists are specially trained scientists who work like detectives to uncover the story of prehistoric peoples. They learn about early peo- Cro-Magnons ple by excavating and studying the traces of early settlements. An excavated site, called an archaeological dig, provides one of the richest sources of clues to the prehistoric way of life. Archaeologists sift through the dirt in a small plot of land. They analyze all existing evidence, such as bones and artifacts. Bones might reveal what the people looked like, how tall they were, the types of food they ate, diseases they may have had, and how long they lived. Artifacts are human-made objects, such as tools and jewelry. These items might hint at how people dressed, what work they did, or how they worshiped. Scientists called anthropologists study culture, or a people’s unique way of life. Anthropologists examine the artifacts at archaeological digs. From these, they re-create a picture of early people’s cultural behavior. (See Analyzing Key Concepts on culture on the following page.) Other scientists, called paleontologists, study fossils—evidence of early life pre- served in rocks. Human fossils often consist of small fragments of teeth, skulls, or other bones. Paleontologists use complex techniques to date ancient fossil remains and rocks. Archaeologists, anthropologists, paleontologists, and other scientists work as a team to make new discoveries about how prehistoric people lived. The Peopling of the World 5  Culture CULTURAL DATA In prehistoric times, bands of humans that lived near one another began to Annual movie attendance, develop shared ways of doing things: common ways of dressing, similar 1998–2000 (per person)* 5.0 hunting practices, favorite animals to eat. These shared traits were the first 2.9 beginnings of what anthropologists and historians call culture. Culture is the way of life of a group of people. Culture includes common practices of a society, its shared understandings, and its social organization. 0.3 By overcoming individual differences, culture helps to unify the group. * UNESCO, last update 3/03 Components of Culture Marriage rates, 1999 Common Practices Shared Understandings Social Organization (per 1,000 population)* 8.6 what people eat language family 6.0 clothing and symbols class and caste structure 5.1 adornment religious beliefs relationships between sports individual and community values tools and technology government U.S. Japan Finland the arts social customs economic system * Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, political beliefs United Nations, October 2001 work view of authority Divorces, 1996 (as % of marriages)* How Culture Is Learned 65% People are not born knowing about culture. Instead, they must learn 49% culture. Generally, individuals learn culture in two ways. First, they observe 6% and imitate the behavior of people in their society. Second, people in Russia U.S. Turkey their society directly teach the culture to them, usually through spoken * Human Development Report, or written language. United Nations, 2000 Average family size, 1980–1990* Media Government 7.0 5.1 Religious 2.6 Institutions Algeria Peru U.S. Family * UNESCO, last update 8/17/01 School Friends Workplace 1. Forming and Supporting Opinions Observation and Imitation In U.S. culture, which shared understanding do you think is the Direct Teaching most powerful? Why? See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R20. 2. Making Inferences Judging from the RESEARCH LINKS For more on culture, go to classzone.com divorce rate in Turkey, what components of culture do you think are strong in that country? Why? 6 Chapter 1  Early Footprints Found In the 1970s, archaeologist Mary Leakey led a scientific expedition to the region of Laetoli in Tanzania in East Africa. (See map on page 10.) There, she and her team looked for clues about human origins. In 1978, they found prehistoric footprints that resembled those of modern humans preserved in volcanic ash. These footprints were made by humanlike beings now called australo- pithecines (aw STRAY loh PIHTH ih SYNZ). Humans and other creatures that walk upright, such as australopithecines, are called hominids. The Laetoli footprints provided striking evidence about human origins: PRIMARY SOURCE The Leakey Family What do these footprints tell us? First,... that at least The Leakey family has had a 3,600,000 years ago, what I believe to be man’s direct ancestor tremendous impact on the study of walked fully upright.... Second, that the form of the foot was human origins. British anthropologists exactly the same as ours.... [The footprints produced] a kind Louis S. B. Leakey (1903–1972) and of poignant time wrench. At one point,... she [the female Mary Leakey (1913–1996) began hominid] stops, pauses, turns to the left to glance at some searching for early human remains in possible threat or irregularity, and then continues to the north. East Africa in the 1930s. Their efforts This motion, so intensely human, transcends time. turned what was a sideline of science MARY LEAKEY, quoted in National Geographic into a major field of scientific inquiry. Mary became one of the world’s The Discovery of “Lucy” While Mary Leakey was working renowned hunters of human fossils. Their son Richard; Richard’s wife, in East Africa, U.S. anthropologist Donald Johanson and his Maeve; and Richard and Maeve’s team were also searching for fossils. They were exploring daughter Louise have continued the sites in Ethiopia, about 1,000 miles to the north. In 1974, family’s fossil-hunting in East Africa Johanson’s team made a remarkable find—an unusually com- into the 21st century. plete skeleton of an adult female hominid. They nicknamed Drawing her “Lucy” after the song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” RESEARCH LINKS For more on the Conclusions She had lived around 3.5 million years ago—the oldest Leakey family, go to classzone.com Why were the hominid found to that date. discoveries of Hominids Walk Upright Lucy and the hominids who left hominid footprints and “Lucy” their footprints in East Africa were species of australopithecines. Walking upright important? helped them travel distances more easily. They were also able to spot threatening animals and carry food and children. These early hominids had already developed the opposable thumb. This means that the tip of the thumb can cross the palm of the hand. The opposable thumb was crucial for tasks such as picking up small objects and making tools. (To see its importance, try picking up a coin with just the index and middle fingers. Imagine all of the other things that cannot be done without the opposable thumb.) The Old Stone Age Begins The invention of tools, mastery over fire, and the development of language are some of the most impressive achievements in human history. Scientists believe these occurred during the prehistoric period known as the Stone Age. It spanned a vast length of time. The earlier and longer part of the Stone Age, called the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Age, lasted from about 2.5 million to 8000 B.C. The old- est stone chopping tools date back to this era. The New Stone Age, or Neolithic Age, began about 8000 B.C. and ended as early as 3000 B.C. in some areas. People who lived during this second phase of the Stone Age learned to polish stone tools, make pottery, grow crops, and raise animals. The Peopling of the World 7  Australopithecines ilis 4 million to 1 million B.C. 2.5 million to Homoand found in southern erectus 1.5 million B.C. eastern Africa found in East Africa brain size 500 cm3 (cubic centimeters) brain size 700 cm3 first humanlike creature to walk upright first to make stone tools 4 million years ago 3 million years ago Homo habilis Australopithecines Much of the Paleolithic Age occurred during the period in the earth’s history known as the Ice Age. During this time, glaciers alternately advanced and retreated as many as 18 times. The last of these ice ages ended about 10,000 years ago. By the beginning of the Neolithic Age, glaciers had retreated to roughly the same area they now occupy. Homo habilis May Have Used Tools Before the australopithecines eventually vanished, new hominids appeared in East Africa around 2.5 million years ago. In 1960, archaeologists Louis and Mary Leakey discovered a hominid fossil at Olduvai (OHL duh vy) Gorge in northern Tanzania. The Leakeys named the fossil Homo habilis, which means “man of skill.” The Leakeys and other researchers found tools made of lava rock. They believed Homo habilis used these tools to cut meat and crack open bones. Tools made the task of survival easier. Homo erectus Develops Technology About 1.6 million years ago, before Homo habilis left the scene, another species of hominids appeared in East Africa. This species is now known as Homo erectus, or “upright man.” Some anthropologists believe Homo erectus was a more intelligent and adaptable species than Homo habilis. Homo erectus people used intelligence to develop technology—ways of applying knowledge, tools, and inventions to meet their needs. These hominids gradually became skillful hunters and invented more sophisticated tools for dig- ging, scraping, and cutting. They also eventually became the first hominids to migrate, or move, from Africa. Fossils and stone tools show that bands of Homo erectus hunters settled in India, China, Southeast Asia, and Europe. According to anthropologists, Homo erectus was the first to use fire. Fire pro- vided warmth in cold climates, cooked food, and frightened away attacking ani- mals. The control of fire also probably helped Homo erectus settle new lands. Homo erectus may have developed the beginnings of spoken language. Recognizing Language, like technology, probably gave Homo erectus greater control over the Effects How did environment and boosted chances for survival. The teamwork needed to plan hunts Homo erectus use and cooperate in other tasks probably relied on language. Homo erectus might have fire to adapt to the named objects, places, animals, and plants and exchanged ideas. environment? The Dawn of Modern Humans Many scientists believe Homo erectus eventually developed into Homo sapiens— the species name for modern humans. Homo sapiens means “wise men.” While they physically resembled Homo erectus, Homo sapiens had much larger brains. 8 Chapter 1  Homo erectus 1.6 million 200,000 to 30,000 B.C. 40,000 to 8000 B.C. to 30,000 B.C. found in Europe and found in Europe found in Africa, Southwest Asia brain size 1,400 cm3 Asia, and Europe brain size 1,450 cm3 fully modern humans brain size 1,000 cm first to have ritual burials created art 1 million years ago Present 2 million years ago Homo erectus Neanderthal Cro-Magnon Scientists have traditionally classified Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons as early groups of Homo sapiens. However, in 1997, DNA tests on a Neanderthal skeleton indicated that Neanderthals were not ancestors of modern humans. They Time Line of Planet Earth were, however, affected by the arrival of Cro-Magnons, who Imagine the 102 stories of the may have competed with Neanderthals for land and food. Empire State Building as a scale for a time line of the earth’s history. Neanderthals’ Way of Life In 1856, as quarry workers Each story represents about 40 were digging for limestone in the Neander Valley in million years. Modern human Germany, they spotted fossilized bone fragments. These beings have existed for just a tiny were the remains of Neanderthals, whose bones were dis- percentage of the life of this planet. covered elsewhere in Europe and Southwest Asia. These people were powerfully built. They had heavy slanted brows, Present well-developed muscles, and thick bones. To many people, the name “Neanderthal” calls up the comic-strip image of a 40,000 years ago club-carrying caveman. However, archaeological discoveries Cro-Magnons appear. reveal a more realistic picture of these early hominids, who 200,000 years ago 1 billion Neanderthals appear. lived between 200,000 and 30,000 years ago. years ago Evidence suggests that Neanderthals tried to explain and 4 million years ago Australopithecines control their world. They developed religious beliefs and appear. performed rituals. About 60,000 years ago, Neanderthals held a funeral for a man in Shanidar Cave, located in north- 65 million years ago 2 billion Dinosaurs disappear; eastern Iraq. Some archaeologists theorize that during the years ago first mammals appear. funeral, the Neanderthal’s family covered his body with flowers. This funeral points to a belief in a world beyond the grave. Fossil hunter Richard Leakey, the son of Louis 240 million years ago and Mary Leakey, wrote about the meaning of this First dinosaurs appear. 3 billion Neanderthal burial: years ago PRIMARY SOURCE 3.5 billion years ago The Shanidar events... speak clearly of a deep feeling for First single-cell the spiritual quality of life. A concern for the fate of the life appears. human soul is universal in human societies today, and it was 4 billion years ago evidently a theme of Neanderthal society too. RICHARD E. LEAKEY, The Making of Mankind 4.4 billion years ago Earth is formed. Neanderthals were also resourceful. They survived harsh Ice Age winters by living in caves or temporary shelters made The Peopling of the World 9  of wood and animal skins. Animal bones found with Neanderthal fossils indicate the ability of Neanderthals to hunt in subarctic regions of Europe. To cut up and skin their prey, they fashioned stone blades, scrapers, and other tools. The Neanderthals survived Comparing for some 170,000 years and then mysteriously vanished about 30,000 years ago. How were Neanderthals simi- Cro-Magnons Emerge About 40,000 years ago, a group of prehistoric humans lar to people today? called Cro-Magnons appeared. Their skeletal remains show that they are identical to modern humans. The remains also indicate that they were probably strong and generally about five-and-one-half feet tall. Cro-Magnons migrated from North Africa to Europe and Asia. Cro-Magnons made many new tools with specialized uses. Unlike Neanderthals, they planned their hunts. They studied animals’ habits and stalked their prey. Evidently, Cro-Magnons’ superior hunting strategies allowed them to survive more easily. This may have caused Cro-Magnon populations to grow at a slightly faster rate and eventually replace the Neanderthals. Cro-Magnons’ advanced skill in spoken language may also have helped them to plan more diffi- cult projects. This cooperation perhaps gave them an edge over the Neanderthals. ARCTIC OCEAN Early Human Migration, 1,600,000–10,000 B.C. Arctic Circle Heidelberg, Germany Malta, Russia 600,000 years ago 15,000 years ago Diuktai Cave, Russia Mladec, Czech Rep. 14,000 years ago 33,000 years ago NORTH EUROPE AMERICA Ubeidiya, Israel ASIA 1 million years ago 40°N Lantian, China Meadowcroft 700,000 years ago Blackwater Draw, U.S. 11,000 years ago Rockshelter, U.S. 12,000 years ago Qafzeh, Israel Liujiang, China PAC I F I C O C E A N Tighenif, Algeria 92,000 years ago Tropic of Cancer 700,0000 years ago 67,000 years ago ATLANTIC AFRICA OCEAN Homo erectus fossil site s igin Tabon Cave, Philippines 30,000 years ago Homo sapiens fossil site n Or Lake Turkana, Kenya 0° Homo erectus migration route uma 1.6 million years ago Trinil, Indonesia Homo sapiens migration route fH Pedra Furada, Brazil 700,000 years ago 12,000 – 30,000 Area o Extent of the last glacier, 18,000 B.C. I N D I A N O C EA N Extent of land areas 18,000 B.C. years ago Tropic of Capricorn AUSTRALIA SOUTH Klasies River Mouth, AMERICA 160°W 120°W 160°E South Africa 80°E 100,000 years ago 0° Monte Verde, Chile Lake Mungo, Australia 12,000–33,000 years ago 40°S 0 2,000 Miles 38,000 years ago 0 4,000 Kilometers Famous Finds 1960 At Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Louis Leakey finds 2-million-year-old stone tools. CHAD 1974 In Ethiopia, Donald Johanson finds “Lucy,” a 3.5-million-year-old hominid skeleton. 1978 At Laetoli, Tanzania, Mary Leakey finds 3.6-million-year-old hominid footprints. ETHIOPIA 1994 In Ethiopia, an international team of scientists finds 2.33-million-year-old hominid jaw. 2002 In Chad, scientists announce discovery of a possible 6-million-year-old hominid skull. GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Movement To what continents did Homo erectus groups migrate after leaving Africa? TANZANIA 2. Human-Environment Interaction What do the migration routes of Homo sapiens reveal about their survival skills and ability to adapt? 10 Chapter 1  New Findings Add to Knowledge Scientists are continuing to work at numerous sites in Africa. Their discoveries change our views of the still sketchy pic- Chad Discovery ture of human origins in Africa and of the migration of early In 2002, an humans out of Africa. international team of scientists Fossils, Tools, and Cave Paintings Newly discovered fos- announced the sils in Chad and Kenya, dating between 6 and 7 million years discovery of a 6- old, have some apelike features but also some that resemble to 7-million-year- hominids. Study of these fossils continues, but evidence sug- old skull in gests that they may be the earliest hominids. A 2.33-million- northern Chad. year-old jaw from Ethiopia is the oldest fossil belonging to The skull is similar in size to a modern chimpanzee, with a similar the line leading to humans. Stone tools found at the same site brain capacity. (See photograph.) suggest that toolmaking may have begun earlier than previ- The team reported that the skull, ously thought. nicknamed Toumai, or “hope of life,” New discoveries also add to what we already know about was the earliest human ancestor so prehistoric peoples. For example, in 1996, a team of far discovered. Its date is, in fact, researchers from Canada and the United States, including a millions of years older than the previous oldest-known hominin. high school student from New York, discovered a Neanderthal The skull dates from the time that bone flute 43,000 to 82,000 years old. This discovery hints at scientists believe the ancestors of a previously unknown talent of the Neanderthals—the gift of humans split from the great apes. musical expression. The finding on cave walls of drawings of Whether the skull is actually human animals and people dating back as early as 35,000 years ago or ape will require further study. gives information on the daily activities and perhaps even reli- gious practices of these peoples. Early humans’ skills and tools for surviving and adapting to INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a TV news special on the Chad skull. Include the environment became more sophisticated as time passed. conflicting theories on its origin. Go to As you will read in Section 2, these technological advances classzone.com for your research. would help launch a revolution in the way people lived. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. artifact culture hominid Paleolithic Age Neolithic Age technology Homo sapiens USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which advance by a hominid 3. What clues do bones and 6. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS Why was the discovery of fire so group do you think was the artifacts give about early important? most significant? Explain. peoples? 7. MAKING INFERENCES Why will specific details about the 4. What were the major physical appearance and the customs of early peoples achievements in human history never be fully known? during the Old Stone Age? 8. SYNTHESIZING How do recent findings keep revising Hominid Group 5. How did Neanderthals and knowledge of the prehistoric past? Cro-Magnons differ from earlier 9. WRITING ACTIVITY INTERACTION WITH ENVIRONMENT Cro-Magnons peoples? Write a persuasive essay explaining which skill— toolmaking, the use of fire, or language—you think gave hominids the most control over their environment. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING AN ILLUSTRATED NEWS ARTICLE Research a recent archaeological discovery. Write a two-paragraph news article about the find and include an illustration. The Peopling of the World 11  Cave Paintings Cave paintings created by primitive people are found on every ▼ Cave Paintings at continent. The oldest ones were made about 35,000 years ago. Tassili n’Ajer, Algeria Cave paintings in Europe and Africa often show images of These paintings depict women, children, and hunting and daily activities. In the Americas and Australia, on cattle. Located in Algeria, the Tassili n’Ajer the other hand, the paintings tend to be more symbolic and (tah SEEL ee nah ZHEER) site contains more than less realistic. 15,000 images. They depict shifts in climate, Scholars are not sure about the purpose of cave paintings. animal migrations, and changes in human life. The oldest paintings date back to about 6000 They may have been part of magical rites, hunting rituals, or B.C. Images continued to be painted until an attempt to mark the events during various seasons. Another around the second century A.D. theory is that cave paintings (especially the more realistic ones) may simply be depictions of the surrounding world. RESEARCH LINKS For more on cave paintings, go to classzone.com ▼ Cave Paintings at Cuevas de las Manos in Argentina Cuevas de las Manos (Cave of the Hands) is located in the Rio Pinturas ravine, northeast of Santa Cruz, Argentina. Its rock walls display numerous hand paintings in vivid colors. The Tehuelches (tuh WEHL cheez) people created the paintings between 13,000 and 9,500 years ago. The cave is about 78 feet deep and, at the entrance, about 48 feet wide and 32 feet high. 12  ▲ Replica of Lascaux Cave Painting, France Discovered in 1940 , the Lascaux (lah SKOH) cave contains more than 600 painted animals and symbols. These works were probably created between 15,000 and 13,000 B.C. In 1963, the cave was closed to the public. The high volume of visitors and the use of artificial lighting were damaging the paintings. A partial replica of the cave was created and is visited by about 300,000 people a year. 1. Analyzing Motives Why do you think primitive peoples used the walls of caves for their paintings? ▲ Australian Aboriginal Cave Painting See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R15. This Aboriginal cave painting is in Kakadu (KAH kuh doo) National Park, Australia. Aboriginal people have lived in this area for at least 2. Comparing and Contrasting How 25,000 years. The painting depicts a Barramundi (bahr uh MUHN dee) are these paintings similar to or fish and a Dreamtime spirit. In the Aboriginal culture, Dreamtime is a different from public murals created supernatural past in which ancestral beings shaped and humanized today? the natural world. 13  2 Humans Try to Control Nature MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES ECONOMICS The development New methods for obtaining nomad slash-and- of agriculture caused an food and the development of hunter- burn farming increase in population and the technology laid the foundations gatherer domestication growth of a settled way of life. for modern civilizations. Neolithic Revolution SETTING THE STAGE By about 40,000 years ago, human beings had become fully modern in their physical appearance. With a shave, a haircut, and a suit, a Cro-Magnon man would have looked like a modern business executive. However, over the following thousands of years, the way of life of early humans underwent incredible changes. People developed new technology, artistic skills, and most importantly, agriculture. TAKING NOTES Early Advances in Technology and Art Outlining Use an outline to organize main Early modern humans quickly distinguished themselves from their ancestors, ideas and details. who had spent most of their time just surviving. As inventors and artists, more advanced humans stepped up the pace of cultural changes. Humans Try to Control Nature Tools Needed to Survive For tens of thousands of years, men and women of the I. Early Advances in Old Stone Age were nomads. Nomads were highly mobile people who moved Technology and Art from place to place foraging, or searching, for new sources of food. Nomadic A. groups whose food supply depends on hunting animals and collecting plant B. foods are called hunter-gatherers. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers, such as roving II. The Beginnings g of bands of Cro-Magnons, increased their food supply by inventing tools. For Agriculture example, hunters crafted special spears that enabled them to kill game at greater distances. Digging sticks helped food gatherers pry plants loose at the roots. Early modern humans had launched a technological revolution. They used stone, bone, and wood to fashion more than 100 different tools. These expanded tool kits included knives to kill and butcher game, and fish hooks and harpoons to catch fish. A chisel-like cutter was designed to make other tools. Cro- Magnons used bone needles to sew clothing made of animal hides. Artistic Expression in the Paleolithic Age The tools of early modern humans explain how they met their survival needs. Yet their world best springs to life through their artistic creations. Necklaces of seashells, lion teeth, and bear claws adorned both men and women. People ground mammoth tusks into polished beads. They also carved small realistic sculptures of animals that inhabited their world. As you read in the Cave Paintings feature, Stone Age peoples on all continents created cave paintings. The best-known of these are the paintings on the walls and ceilings of European caves, mainly in France and Spain. Here early artists drew lifelike images of wild animals. Cave artists made colored paints from 14 Chapter 1  charcoal, mud, and animal blood. In Africa, early artists engraved pictures on rocks or painted scenes in caves or rock shelters. In Australia, they created paintings on large rocks. The Beginnings of Agriculture Vocabulary For thousands upon thousands of years, humans survived by hunting game and Edible means “safe gathering edible plants. They lived in bands of 25 to 70 people. The men almost to be eaten.” certainly did the hunting. The women gathered fruits, berries, roots, and grasses. Then about 10,000 years ago, some of the women may have scattered seeds near a regular campsite. When they returned the next season, they may have found new crops growing. This discovery would usher in the Neolithic Revolution, or the agricultural revolution—the far-reaching changes in human life resulting from the beginnings of farming. The shift from food-gathering to food-producing culture represents one of the great breakthroughs in history. Causes of the Agricultural Revolution Scientists do not know exactly why the agricultural revolution occurred during this period. Change in climate was proba- bly a key reason. (See chart on page 17.) Rising temperatures worldwide provided longer growing seasons and drier land for cultivating wild grasses. A rich supply of grain helped support a small population boom. As populations slowly rose, hunter-gatherers felt pressure to find new food sources. Farming offered an attrac- tive alternative. Unlike hunting, it provided a steady source of food. Early Farming Methods Some groups practiced slash-and-burn farming, in which they cut trees or grasses and burned them to clear a field. The ashes that remained fertilized the soil. Farmers planted crops for a year or two, then moved to another area of land. After several years, trees and grass grew back, and other farm- ers repeated the process of slashing and burning. The Neolithic Ice Man In 1991, two German hikers made an accidental discovery that gave archaeologists a firsthand look at the technology of early toolmakers. Near the border of Austria and Italy, they spotted the mummified body of a prehistoric traveler, preserved in ice for some 5,000 years (upper right). Nicknamed the “Ice Man,” this early human was not empty-handed. The tool kit found near him included a six-foot longbow and a deerskin case with 14 arrows. It also contained a stick with an antler tip for sharpening flint blades, a small flint dagger in a woven sheath, a copper ax, and a medicine bag. Scientific research on the body (lower right) concluded that the Ice Man was in his 40s when he died in the late spring or early summer from an arrow wound. Scientists also determined that in the hours before his death, he ate wild goat, red deer, and grains. The Ice Man is housed in a special museum in Bolzano, Italy. The Peopling of the World 15  Domestication of Animals Food gatherers’ understanding of plants probably spurred the development of farming. Meanwhile, hunters’ expert knowledge of wild animals likely played a key role in the domestication, or taming, of animals. They tamed horses, dogs, goats, and pigs. Like farming, domestication of animals came slowly. Stone Age hunters may have driven herds of animals into rocky ravines to be slaughtered. It was then a small step to drive herds into human-made enclosures. From there, farmers could keep the animals as a constant source of food and gradually tame them. Not only farmers domesticated animals. Pastoral nomads, or wandering herders, tended sheep, goats, camels, or other animals. These herders moved their animals to new pastures and watering places. Agriculture in Jarmo Today, the eroded and barren rolling foothills of the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq seem an unlikely site for the birthplace of agricul- ture. According to archaeologist Robert Braidwood, thousands of years ago the environmental conditions of this region favored the development of agriculture. Wild wheat and barley, along with wild goats, pigs, sheep, and horses, had once thrived near the Zagros Mountains. In the 1950s, Braidwood led an archaeological dig at a site called Jarmo. He concluded that an agricultural settlement was built there about 9,000 years ago: PRIMARY SOURCE We found weights for digging sticks, hoe-like [tools], flint-sickle blades, and a Analyzing wide variety of milling stones.... We also discovered several pits that were Primary Sources probably used for the storage of grain. Perhaps the most important evidence of Why do you all was animal bones and the impressions left in the mud by cereal grains.... think Braidwood The people of Jarmo were adjusting themselves to a completely new way of life, believes that we just as we are adjusting ourselves to the consequences of such things as the can learn from steam engine. What they learned about living in a revolution may be of more early peoples? than academic interest to us in our troubled times. ROBERT BRAIDWOOD, quoted in Scientific American The Jarmo farmers, and others like them in places as far apart as Mexico and Thailand, pioneered a new way of life. Villages such as Jarmo marked the begin- ning of a new era and laid the foundation for modern life. Villages Grow and Prosper The changeover from hunting and gathering to farming and herding took place not once but many times. Neolithic people in many parts of the world independently developed agriculture, as the map at the right shows. Farming Develops in Many Places Within a few thousand years, people in many other regions, especially in fertile river valleys, turned to farming. Africa The Nile River Valley developed into an important agricultural center for growing wheat, barley, and other crops. China About 8,000 years ago, farmers along the middle stretches of the Huang He (Yellow River) cultivated a grain called millet. About 1,000 years later, farmers first domesticated wild rice in the Chang Jiang River delta. Making Mexico and Central America Farmers cultivated corn, beans, and squash. Inferences Peru Farmers in the Central Andes were the first to grow tomatoes, sweet What advan- potatoes, and white potatoes. tages might farming and herding have From these early and varied centers of agriculture, farming then spread to over hunting and surrounding regions. gathering? 16 Chapter 1  Agriculture Emerges, 5000–500 B.C. 120°E 80°E 0 1,000 Miles A S I A E U R OPE 0 2,000 Kilometers AN 40°N MAK e KL I H TA ESER T ) ng R. D a w Jarmo Hu e llo Eu hr Tig (Y r p ate s is Jericho R. Pan-po R R.. N ile us CHINA I nd SAHARA. R A E ABI R D SE A INDIA RT N A F R I C A INDIAN OCEAN 80°W NORTH SONORAN DESERT AMERICA ATLANTIC OCEAN Major crops Tropic of Cancer Sorghum Wheat Bananas Grapes Tehuacan Soybeans Valley Barley Olives NA Agriculture by 5,000 B.C. MIB Corn Potato Agriculture by 3,000 B.C. KALAHARI D P A C IF IC Agriculture by 2,000 B.C. ESE 0° Equator DESERT Cotton Rice Agriculture by 500 B.C. OCEAN RT SOUTH AMERICA MA DESERT 0 1,000 Miles Tropic of Capricorn Agricultural Revolution Temperature Population A T A CA 0 2,000 Kilometers World Population (in millions) 60° 150 Average Global Temperature Post- 58° 125 Agricultural (in Fahrenheit) 100 Revolution 56° 75 Agricultural beginnings of 54° Revolution agriculture 50 Hunting- 52° 25 gathering last ice age 50° 0 stage 25 20 15 10 5 1 25 20 15 10 5 1 ▲ A Neolithic grindstone and vessel Years Ago (in thousands) Years Ago (in thousands) used to grind grain Source: Ice Ages, Solving the Mystery Source: A Geography of Population: World Patterns SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps and Charts 1. Map What geographic feature favored the development of agricultural areas before 5000 B.C.? 2. Chart What effect did the agricultural revolution have on population growth? Why? The Peopling of the World 17  Catal Huyuk In 1958, archaeologists discovered the agricultural village now known as Catal Huyuk (chuh TUL hoo YOOK), or the “forked mound.” It was located on a fertile plain in south-central Turkey (about 30 miles from modern-day Konya), near a twin-coned volcano. Catal Huyuk covered an area of about 32 acres. At its peak 8,000 years ago, the village was home to 5,000 to 6,000 people who lived in about 1,000 dwellings. These rectangular-shaped houses were made of brick and were arranged side-by-side like a honeycomb. ▼ A 9,000-year-old Catal Huyuk showed the benefits of settled life. Its rich, well-watered soil pro- baked-clay figurine duced large crops of wheat, barley, and peas. Villagers also raised sheep and cattle. found in Catal Catal Huyuk’s agricultural surpluses supported a number of highly skilled workers, Huyuk such as potters and weavers. But the village was best known at the time for its obsidian products. This dark volcanic rock, which looks like glass, was plentiful. It was used to make mirrors, jewelry, and knives for trade. Catal Huyuk’s prosperity also supported a varied cultural life. Archaeologists have uncovered colorful wall paintings depicting ani- Vocabulary mals and hunting scenes. Many religious shrines were dedicated to a Shrines are places mother goddess. According to her worshipers, she controlled the where sacred relics are kept. supply of grain. The new settled way of life also had its drawbacks—some of the same that affected hunter-gatherer settlements. Floods, fire, drought, and other natural disasters could destroy a village. Diseases, such as malaria, spread easily among people living closely together. Jealous neighbors and roving nomadic bands might attack and loot a wealthy village like Catal Huyuk. Despite problems, these permanent settlements provided their resi- dents with opportunities for fulfillment—in work, in art, and in leisure time. As you will learn in Section 3, some early villages expanded into cities. These urban centers would become the setting for more com- plex cultures in which new tools, art, and crafts were created. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. nomad hunter-gatherer Neolithic Revolution slash-and-burn farming domestication USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which effect of the 3. How did Cro-Magnon’s new 6. MAKING INFERENCES What kinds of problems did Stone development of agriculture tools make survival easier? Age peoples face? was the most significant? 4. What factors played a role in 7. SUMMARIZING In what ways did Neolithic peoples the origins of agriculture? dramatically improve their lives? Humans Try to Control Nature 5. What were the first crops 8. HYPOTHESIZING Why do you think the development of I. Early Advances in grown in the Americas? agriculture occurred around the same time in several Technology and Art different places? A. 9. WRITING ACTIVITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Write a two- B. paragraph opinion paper on the most significant II. The Beginnings g of Agriculture consequences of the Agricultural Revolution. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A CHART Use text information on Jarmo and Catal Huyuk to make a chart listing the tools, weapons, and other artifacts that archaeologists today might find at an ancient site of a farming settlement. 18 Chapter 1  3 Civilization CASE STUDY: Ur in Sumer MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Contemporary civilizations share civilization cuneiform Prosperous farming villages, the same characteristics typical specialization Bronze Age food surpluses, and new of ancient civilizations. artisan barter technology led to the rise of institution ziggurat civilizations. scribe SETTING THE STAGE Agriculture marked a dramatic change in how people lived together. They began dwelling in larger, more organized communities, such as farming villages and towns. From some of these settlements, cities gradually emerged, forming the backdrop of a more complex way of life—civilization. Villages Grow into Cities TAKING NOTES Summarizing Use a chart Over the centuries, people settled in stable communities that were based on agri- to summarize characteristics culture. Domesticated animals became more common. The invention of new of the civilization at Sumer. tools—hoes, sickles, and plow sticks—made the task of farming easier. As peo- ple gradually developed the technology to control their natural environment, they Characteristics reaped larger harvests. Settlements with a plentiful supply of food could support 1. 2. larger populations. 3. As the population of some early farming villages increased, social relation- 4. ships became more complicated. The change from a nomadic hunting-gathering 5. way of life to settled village life took a long time. Likewise, the change from vil- lage life to city life was a gradual process that spanned several generations. Economic Changes To cultivate more land and to produce extra crops, ancient people in larger villages built elaborate irrigation systems. The resulting food surpluses freed some villagers to pursue other jobs and to develop skills besides farming. Individuals who learned to become craftspeople created valuable new products, such as pottery, metal objects, and woven cloth. In turn, people who became traders profited from a broader range of goods to exchange—craftwork, grains, and many raw materials. Two important inventions—the wheel and the sail—also enabled traders to move more goods over longer distances. Social Changes A more complex and prosperous economy affected the social structure of village life. For example, building and operating large irrigation sys- tems required the labor of many people. As other special groups of workers formed, social classes with varying wealth, power, and influence began to emerge. A system of social classes would become more clearly defined as cities grew. Religion also became more organized. During the Old Stone Age, prehistoric people’s religious beliefs centered around nature, animal spirits, and some idea of an afterlife. During the New Stone Age, farming peoples worshiped the many gods and goddesses who they believed had power over the rain, wind, and other forces of CASE STUDY 19  nature. Early city dwellers developed rituals founded on these earlier religious beliefs. As populations grew, common spiritual values became lasting religious traditions. How Civilization Develops Most historians believe that one of the first civilizations arose in Sumer. Sumer was located in Mesopotamia, a region that is part of modern Iraq. A civilization is often defined as a complex culture with five characteristics: (1) advanced cities, (2) specialized workers, (3) complex institutions, (4) record keeping, and (5) advanced technology. Just what set the Sumerians apart from their neighbors? Advanced Cities Cities were the birthplaces of the first civilizations. A city is more than a large group of people living together. The size of the population alone does not distinguish a village from a city. One of the key differences is that a city is a center of trade for a larger area. Like their modern-day counterparts, ancient city dwellers depended on trade. Farmers, merchants, and traders brought goods to market in the cities. The city dwellers themselves produced a variety of goods for exchange. Specialized Workers As cities grew, so did the need for more specialized work- ers, such as traders, government officials, and priests. Food surpluses provided the opportunity for specialization—the development of skills in a specific kind of work. An abundant food supply allowed some people to become expert at jobs besides farming. Some city dwellers became artisans—skilled workers who make goods by hand. Specialization helped artisans develop their skill at designing jew- elry, fashioning metal tools and weapons, or making clothing and pottery. The wide range of crafts artisans produced helped cities become centers of trade. Complex Institutions The soaring populations of early cities made government, or a system of ruling, necessary. In civilizations, leaders emerged to maintain order among peo- ple and to establish laws. Government is an example of an institution—a long-lasting pattern of organization in a com- munity. Complex institutions, such as government, religion, and the economy, are another characteristic of civilization. With the growth of cities, religion became a formal insti- tution. Most cities had great temples where dozens of priests took charge of religious duties. Sumerians believed The Incan System that every city belonged to a god who governed the city’s of Record Keeping activities. The temple was the hub of both government and Drawing Early civilizations other than Sumer also developed record keeping. The religious affairs. It also served as the city’s economic center. Conclusions empire of the ancient Incan civilization There food and trade items were distributed. Why were cities stretched along the western coast of essential to the Record Keeping As government, religion, and the economy South America. Though the Inca had growth of civiliza- became more complex, people recognized the need to keep tions? no writing system, they kept records using a quipu, a set of colored strings records. In early civilizations, government officials had to tied with different-size knots at various document tax collections, the passage of laws, and the stor- intervals (see photograph). Each knot age of grain. Priests needed a way to keep track of the calen- represented a certain amount or its dar and important rituals. Merchants had to record accounts multiple. The colors of each cord of debts and payments. represented the item being counted: Most civilizations developed a system of writing, though people, animals, land, and so on. The quipucamayoc, officials who some devised other methods of record keeping. Around knew how to use the quipu, kept 3000 B.C., Sumerian scribes—or professional record records of births, deaths, marriages, keepers—invented a system of writing called cuneiform crops, and historical events. (KYOO nee uh FAWRM), meaning “wedge-shaped.” (Earlier Sumerian writing consisted of pictographs—symbols of the 20 Chapter 1  objects or what they represented.) The scribe’s tool, called a stylus, was a sharpened reed with a wedge-shaped point. It was pressed into moist clay to create symbols. Scribes baked their clay tablets in the sun to preserve the writing. People soon began to use writing for other purposes besides record keeping. They also wrote about their cities’ dramatic events—wars, natural disasters, the reign of kings. Thus, the beginning of civilization in Sumer also signaled the beginning of written history. Improved Technology New tools and techniques are always needed to solve problems that emerge when large groups of people live together. In early civilizations, some farmers harnessed the powers of animals and nature. For example, they used ox-drawn plows to turn the soil. They also created irrigation systems to expand planting areas. Sumerian artisans relied on new technology to make their tasks easier. Around 3500 B.C., they first used the pot- ter’s wheel to shape jugs, plates, and bowls. Sumerian met- alworkers discovered that melting together certain amounts of copper and tin made bronze. After 2500 B.C., metal- workers in Sumer’s cities turned out bronze spearheads by the thousands. The period called the Bronze Age refers to ▲ The wedge- the time when people began using bronze, rather than cop- shaped symbols per and stone, to fashion tools and weapons. The Bronze Age started in Sumer of cuneiform are around 3000 B.C., but the date varied in other parts of Asia and in Europe. visible on this clay tablet. Specialized Workers Civilization merchants teachers As the history of Sumer demonstrates, soldiers metalworkers civilization first developed in cities. In priests government officials fact, the very word civilization comes potters farmers from the Latin word for citizen. However, scribes weavers the development of cities is only one aspect of civilization. Many scholars Complex Institutions Record Keeping define civilization as a complex culture Formal governments Cuneiform tablets— with officials and laws records of business with five characteristics. The graphic CHARACTERISTICS transactions, Priests with both organizer to the right shows how Sumer religious and political OF CIVILIZATION historical events, displayed these five characteristics. power customs, and in Sumer traditions A rigorous education system for training of scribes SKILLBUILDER: Advanced Cities Advanced Technology Interpreting Graphics Uruk—population of By around 3000 B.C.: 1. Making Inferences Judging from the about 50,000, which The wheel, the plow, and doubled in two centuries the sailboat probably in information on this graphic, what Lagash—population of daily use economic activities probably took place in about 10,000 to 50,000 Bronze weapons and body Sumerian cities? Umma—population of armor that gave Sumerians 2. Drawing Conclusions What is the about 10,000 to 50,000 a military advantage over relationship between the development of their enemies specialized workers and the development of complex institutions? CASE STUDY 21  CASE STUDY: UR IN SUMER Civilization Emerges in Ur Ur, one of the earliest cities in Sumer, stood on the banks of the Euphrates River in what is now southern Iraq. Som