Week 2 Final Notes PDF

Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share Week 2 – Lecture 1 - In chronological terms, the field of FPA was first dominated by insights from realism and neo-realism (ie. macro-perspective) - FPA often draws from libera...

Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share Week 2 – Lecture 1 - In chronological terms, the field of FPA was first dominated by insights from realism and neo-realism (ie. macro-perspective) - FPA often draws from liberalism, pluralism, critical frameworks and realism Prominent characters that shaped FPA as we know it today : o Hans J. Morgenthau ▪ "Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace" (1948) lays out principles of political realism argues international politics governed by objective laws rooted in human nature and that states act in their national best interest, primarily defined by power. text became cornerstone in understanding FP through a realist lens. ▪ "In Defense of the National Interest" (1951) Stresses FP should be based on national interest rather than ideological considerations o Kenneth Waltz ▪ Man, the state and war 1959 presents a three-level framework for understanding international relations: o individual (human nature), o state (domestic politics), o international system (anarchy). argues FP outcomes influenced by factors at all three levels. framework been foundational in IR study influenced both realist and constructivist theories in foreign policy analysis. ▪ "Theory of International Politics" (1979) most famous & influential work introduces neorealism argues that structure of international system (defined by anarchy & power distribution (polarity)) determines state behaviour. KW says states act primarily to ensure their survival & their FP shaped more by international system than internal factors. transformed FPA by shifting focus from individual state characteristics to systemic pressures 1  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share o Henry Kissinger ▪ “American foreign policy” principles of realpolitik → emphasizing pragmatic and strategic decision-making over ideological considerations. His approach shaped U.S. diplomacy during Cold War, advocates for balance-of-power strategies, engagement with adversaries, and a focus on national interests, influencing contemporary understandings of foreign policy formulation and execution. ▪ “Diplomacy” comprehensive analysis of IR also emphasizes NB of realpolitik and balance of power. highlights how diplomacy shapes national interests and the complexities of global politics provides framework for understanding contemporary foreign policy challenges. ▪ "On China" (2011) his perspective on U.S.-China relations, historical analysis of China’s diplomatic history and strategic culture. discusses China’s & how U.S. should handle relationship. influential in shaping U.S. policy towards China highlights importance of strategic patience and mutual understanding in great-power relations. ▪ "The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy" (1961) explores US’ FP issues during Cold War, nuclear arms race & U.S.- Soviet relations advocates for coherent strategy to manage nuclear threats & more flexible diplomatic approaches. book shaped debates around nuclear strategy and US’ FP during Cold War. - These authors looked at the (then current) state of the world and through discussions put forward new foundations Aspects where realism ideology differs from today’s FPA also referred to as ‘points of departure’ - Realism is about power politics - Realism believes the system is defined by anarchy, and there isn’t one all- powerful state that sets the “rules of the game” 2  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share - States remain the actors/agents in politics within the international system - Given the condition of anarchy and no overarching Levithan/“state policeman” that sets the rules → states always need to act within own best interests/within national interests - From the view of Realism o FPA is determined by 2 factors - Maintaining balance of power especially under conditions of the cold war & MAD (mutually assured destruction Don’t kill what you can’t hurt o Don’t engage in what would obviously be destructive conflict - To always serve national interest first Ideology is important but pragmatism is too Realist states and decision-makers should always be pragmatic, not led by ideology o Ideology for realists is a recipe for self-destruction o If too formed in private policy & consumed by it, the state can become the most powerful o Putin is too ideological to be a classical realist Neorealism – version of classical realism - sees international system as one conditioned by power rivalries, which results in anarchy - thus FP should accommodate relative distribution of power in world o states should strive to max power vis-à-vis other states, and FP should reflect this “billiard ball” (game of pool/snooker) view of FP/international order - analogy captures core principles of structural realism/neorealism developed by Kenneth Waltz o billiard ball = state - like billiard balls, states are mostly uniform (same basic motivations (security and power), although they may differ in size (capabilities).) o pool table = international system - specifically its structure of anarchy no overarching authority controlling movements of balls (states) ball movement/behaviour subject to external forces (table walls, other balls) 3  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share o collisions = inter-state interactions - Interaction = diplomacy/trade/alliances/conflict. - collisions cause reactions & movement, just as FP actions by one state (eg., forming an alliance, declaring war) provokes reactions from other states. o movement shaped by system's structure - ball direction & speed influenced by table layout & impact of other balls, state’s behaviour influenced by power distribution in international system. - States navigate constraints & opportunities presented by structure of the system (e.g., a multipolar or bipolar world). - Key elements of analogy : o analogy illustrates that power dynamics and external constraints, not individual preferences or domestic politics, primarily drive state behaviour o can predict movement of balls based on physics → neorealists believe state behavior is predictable based on system's structure. - anarchic system compels states to maximize security, often making FP predictable o balls constantly competing for space & positioning and collisions in game are natural results of the players' actions. - similarly, states constantly competing for power and security, a natural outcome of the anarchic structure Realism in FPA - FP is a result of state actors’ deliberation of how they can maximise gains and minimise costs (utility maximisation), given the anarchic system (serve my state interests first) - Assumes state actors are rational and that they think in terms of utility maximisation - Realism is all about ensuring the survival of state - later other scholars began to criticise assumptions and claims of realism 4  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share arguments from viewpoint of FP : 1. behaviouralist approach doesn’t give satisfactory explanations - behaviouralism focuses on measurable and observable things and tries to explain world in terms of tangible things → which is FP outputs (actions/decisions) - Realism has a grounding in behaviouralism - but what isn’t accounted by behaviouralism? o The intangibles in FP decision-making ▪ factors such as psychology, individual decision-makers’ background/personality (JFK, Fidel Castro, Kruschev in 1960s) ▪ eg. not only understanding FP in terms of Russia physically invading Ukraine (the action) but what motivated that decision of Putin and his advisors ▪ important to also study the process, not just the ouput of FP decisions 2. Critique of rationality/rational actor model - The critique of rationality and the rational actor model in foreign policy argues that decisions are not solely based on logical calculations of interests and benefits. Instead, they are influenced by cognitive biases, emotional factors, organizational dynamics, and the complexities of human behavior, leading to outcomes that may deviate from rational expectations. This perspective highlights the limitations of assuming that state actors always act in a coherent, rational manner when making foreign policy decisions. (Week 2 - lecture 2 Friday) 3. Important to unpack the 'black box' of foreign policy decision-making o "black box" refers to complex and often opaque process through which leaders and governments formulate their foreign policies. o Inside this "box," various factors (such as individual beliefs, political pressures, bureaucratic influences, and international contexts) interact to shape decisions, but the exact workings are not always visible or straightforward. o Bureaucracies/ministries of foreign policy - They function as the operational core within the black box, implementing decisions and influencing policy through their expertise and institutional agendas. 5  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share o Executive vs. legislative vs. judicial authority: - The interplay among these branches affects the decision-making process, as different authorities may have varying degrees of influence and control over foreign policy formulation. o Interest groups, the media, and public opinion: - These external pressures can shape the preferences and priorities of decision-makers, impacting how policies are crafted and communicated. o Psychology and cognition: - Individual biases and cognitive processes of leaders play a crucial role in how information is interpreted and decisions are made within the black box. o Foreign policy useful for states: - States often engage in foreign policy to navigate complexities and challenges in the international arena, which informs their decision- making strategies within the black box. 4. Through influence of neo-liberalism - Neo-liberalism influences FP by promoting free markets, economic interdependence, and globalization. - emphasizes the NB of international institutions and trade agreements to foster cooperation among states, arguing that economic integration leads to peace and stability. - approach prioritizes economic interests over military intervention, encouraging policies that support open markets and deregulation. - Complex interdependence o Neorealism recognizes that states are not isolated but interconnected, affecting each other's security and interests through economic and political ties. - International institutions o While neorealism acknowledges institutions like the UN and WTO, it views them primarily as arenas for state power dynamics rather than as independent actors that can alter the anarchic structure of international relations. - Non-state/sub-state levels o Neorealism traditionally focuses on state actors but can incorporate non- state actors as they influence state behavior and policy, reflecting a more nuanced understanding of power beyond the billiard ball model. _____________________________________________ 6  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share Later on, critical perspectives started to shape field of FPA - Can look at Marxist theory – explains IR in terms of economic exploitation, some states o Marxist theory analyzes society and history through the lens of class struggle and economic systems, emphasizing that capitalism leads to inequality and exploitation of the working class by the ruling class. It advocates for the overthrow of capitalist systems to establish a classless society where the means of production are collectively owned. - Social Constructivism viewpoint about world that objects to idea of objective reality/world exists o Social constructivism argues that reality is not objective but socially constructed through interactions, beliefs, and shared meanings among individuals. It emphasizes that our understanding of the world is shaped by cultural, historical, and social contexts rather than existing independently. o Constructivism - what is a state? How has it come to be? - Answer : humans - States aren’t naturally existing entities as realism proposes. States are what people have made - Realism takes at face value that we have nation states that are the natural order of IN system __________________________________________ - Values and ideas matter in IN politics o Ideas = anarchy, a state etc o Value = something we use to direct our life. Sometimes a system of beliefs o Values NB in human’s lives to guide us - Can distinguish between material power and ideational power in foreign policy - Material power - power by virtue of attributes - Ideational power - power to persuade/suasion or influence Taylor swift and kamala harris story o People like her and she represents something to people so she has persuasive power over people - States' interests (and their foreign policy) reflect their identities and vice versa o e.g. present-day Russia's or Saudi Arabia's projection of regional power o South Africa's projection as a middle power or regional hegemonic state 7  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share Traditions in FPA Realism - Billiard ball view / black box - Actor-general theories of FP o Actor-general theories in realism focus on state actors as the primary entities in international relations, emphasizing their behavior based on power, security, and national interest. These theories suggest that states act similarly in an anarchic international system, prioritizing survival and competition over cooperation. Liberalism/pluralism - Comparative foreign policy o Liberalism/pluralism emphasizes the differences in foreign policies among states based on their unique political, economic, and social contexts. - Societal sources of foreign policy o This perspective highlights the influence of domestic factors, such as public opinion and interest groups, on a state's foreign policy decisions. - Bureaucratic politics o It recognizes that foreign policy outcomes result from negotiations and power dynamics among various bureaucratic actors within the government rather than a unified state perspective. - Cognitive decision-making o This approach considers how individual beliefs, perceptions, and cognitive biases shape leaders' foreign policy choices. - Focus not on outcome but process o Liberalism/pluralism emphasizes understanding the decision-making process and the interactions among actors rather than solely focusing on the final outcomes of foreign policy. - Not actor-general but actor-specific o stresses that different actors (like governments, NGOs, and individuals) have distinct influences and roles in shaping foreign policy, leading to varied responses to international issues. - Very detailed explanation, zooms in on limited set of actors - Looks at process - Critique of homo economicus conception of human behaviour & decision- making o Homo eco equates to rational actor model (central to realism) 8  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share Critical/reflective approaches - Constructivism o Against idea of objective reality - Post-modernism - Post-colonial approaches - Feminist/gendered critiques - Class-based/Marxist critiques 9  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share READINGS ALDEN – CHAPTER 2 - rational choice methods been influential in modeling foreign policy, they face criticism for inadequately capturing the actual decision-making process and the cognitive biases of decision-makers. - FPA seek to retain rationalist elements, such as "bounded rationality," o which acknowledge the limitations of information and perception. - this ongoing tension has led to the development of new methodologies that aim to reconcile rationalist approaches with insights from political psychology and cognitive theory. Rationality and foreign policy decision making - realists view state actions as influenced by the anarchic structure of the international system. - Rational choice theory applies a systematic, utility-maximizing approach to analyze foreign policy, focusing on cost-benefit analysis and the concept of a "unitary actor." - Game theory is introduced as a tool for understanding decision-making during international crises and negotiations, illustrating how various strategies and perceptions affect outcomes. - rationalism aims to provide clear assessments of international interactions and optimal decision-making processes. Challenging rational decision making: the role of psychology, cognition and personality - Foreign policy is the product of human agency o individuals in leadership positions identifying foreign policy issues, making judgements about them and then acting upon that information. - Underlying behaviourist approach → recognition that individual leaders of states exercise a seminal influence over the foreign policy process through their experience, outlook and limitations o therefore, worthy of special attention. - Among the diversity of psychological factors said to play a role in shaping foreign policy are the influence of individual perceptions, human cognition, a leader's personality and the dynamics of group decision making. 10  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share - foreign policy decision makers operate in a highly complex world and their decisions carry significant risks. o include linguistic-cultural barriers, stereotypes, high volumes of, yet incomplete, information. - decision makers have a distortion of reality since their own perception alters the way is to simplify and order the external environment. o Policy makers can therefore never be completely rational in applying the rationalists' imperative of maximization of utility towards any decisions. A critique of rational decision making Harold and Margaret Sprout critiqued the rational approach to foreign policy by distinguishing between the 'operational environment,' which is objective, and the 'psychological environment,' influenced by biases and perceptions. - argued that decision-makers rely on their psychological environment rather than objective facts, creating distortions in foreign policy-making. - Richard Snyder expanded this critique by suggesting that decision-making should not be viewed as the actions of a unitary state but rather as a complex interplay of individual biases, bureaucratic processes, and the subjective interpretations of decision-makers. - Critics contend that foreign policy decisions often made within the constraints of available information, shaped by personal beliefs and cognitive limitations, making rational decision-making potentially misguided and dangerous. The role of perception - Cognitive psychology → individuals often prefer simplicity, seek consistency, and are loss-averse, which significantly impacts their decision-making processes. - leaders rely on perceptions rather than objective realities, leading to 'misperceptions' that shape their foreign policy choices based on stereotypes and biases. - psychological factors distort rational decision-making and contribute to sub- optimal choices in foreign policy. The role of cognition - Cognition limits how individuals select and process information. - this limitation, coupled with the desire for cognitive consistency, leads decision-makers to reinforce their existing beliefs and ignore contradictory information - beliefs are not fixed but fragmented, allowing for inconsistencies in how they inform decisions. 11  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share - foreign policy makers often prefer choices that involve the least trade-offs, resulting in sub-optimal decisions termed 'satisficing' rather than optimal rational choices. The role of personality - leader's personality significantly influences foreign policy decisions, with different leaders bringing unique biases to their roles. - Historical examples, such as John F. Kennedy's inexperience compared to Nikita Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis, illustrate how personality can shape international relations. - Emotional factors, particularly during crises, can lead to decision-making challenges like tunnel vision and aggression, with leaders motivated by power tending toward confrontational policies. - perceived “gains” or “losses” affect leaders' risk tolerance, ultimately complicating the rationality of their decision-making processes. The role of the group - Group decision-making hindered by psychological limitations similar to those faced by individuals o particularly the phenomenon of "groupthink," where members prioritize consensus over rational discussion. - leads to sub-optimal policy decisions as individuals suppress dissenting opinions to align with the group's view. - various strategies to mitigate groupthink o appointing a devil's advocate o rotating leadership roles ▪ but pressure for consensus remains strong, especially during crises. Critiques of the foreign policy decision-making approach - Critiques of the psychological approach: o overemphasizing individual factors like perception, cognition, and personality. o significance of personality is questioned, suggesting that role and context may matter more o neglect of foreign policy implementation is noted, emphasizing that implementing agents influence how policies are executed and perceived - Arguments for considering broader influences, such as bureaucratic and societal factors, that shape foreign policy. - The traditional linear model of decision-making is criticized for oversimplifying the complex realities of foreign policy processes, calling for a more nuanced understanding that includes the roles of both policymakers and implementers. 12  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share Reconciling rational and non-rational approaches: bounded rationality, cybernetics and poliheuristics - Efforts to reconcile rational and non-rational approaches to foreign policy decision-making have led to innovative frameworks like bounded rationality, o acknowledges that decision-makers operate under partial information. - John Steinbruner's cybernetic processing approach integrates analytical and cognitive paradigms to reflect decision-making complexities. - Alex Mintz's poliheuristic method describes a two-stage process: o 1) non-rational factors shape the feasible policy options o 2) second, these options are evaluated rationally to maximize utility. - While the poliheuristic approach effectively incorporates non-rational elements, it may overlook the influence of cognition and psychology, focusing primarily on political survivability. - Despite its limitations, poliheuristic theory enhances the understanding of foreign policy decision-making by blending rational choice with non-rational factors. Bringing foreign policy implementation back in - chapter critiques (FPA) field for neglecting the study of foreign policy implementation despite its focus on decision-making processes. - Scholars often overlook how decisions are operationalized and the feedback from external reactions, which diminishes the potential for learning and agency among foreign policy actors. - Chapter highlights the importance of understanding implementation as a critical area, illustrated by historical examples like the Berlin Wall's fall. - also points to existing frameworks that analyze the decision-implementation nexus, emphasizing the need for a more systematic approach to implementation in FPA. While some scholars have begun to address this gap, the overall focus remains on decision-making rather than the complexities and challenges of putting policies into practice. Learning and implementation - FPA mainly examines individual learning and historical impact, public administration emphasizes institutional learning processes. 13  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share - FPA categorizes learning into four types: o instrumental (improving performance) o social policy (redefining policy problems) o political (advocacy strategies) o mimicking (adopting policies without relevance). - chapter highlights the importance of becoming a "learning organization" and notes that failure often leads to significant learning, contrasting with the weaker lessons learned from success. - suggests that insights from public administration can enhance understanding of foreign policy implementation, despite the complexities and challenges involved in studying this area. HILL – CHAPTER 3 Analyzing foreign policy actions requires considering the implementation phase, as outcomes often differ from original intentions, and recognizing that states operate as unified actors while also interacting with domestic contexts and other significant global players. “Power at the Top” - In most states, foreign policy is primarily managed by the foreign minister, who faces challenges in controlling their portfolio due to interference from heads of government and other ministries. - While the role of heads of state varies, they can influence foreign relations, and the political foreign policy elite includes various cabinet members and intelligence and military leaders, highlighting the complex interplay of formal and informal power in shaping foreign policy. “The Foreign Policy Executive” - FP often overseen by a combination of the head of government and the foreign minister, along with other relevant ministers. o This "foreign policy executive" is crucial due to the complexity and unpredictability of foreign relations. - domestic pressures often limit politicians' engagement in foreign affairs, - Changes in leadership can dramatically alter foreign policy directions. Examples - By 1949, Truman emerged as a key leader in the Cold War, illustrating that leadership effectiveness depends on favorable circumstances. Some leaders, 14  Property of Savannah Farris – please don’t share like Ronald Reagan, may reflect broader cultural sentiments rather than contributing original ideas. - Political cultures can resist strong personalities, affecting the influence of leaders like Putin. The relationship between heads of government and foreign ministers is crucial, with dynamics varying based on their personalities and external events. - Strong leaders can dominate policy, but personal conflicts may arise, impacting decision-making. Successful foreign ministers gain importance over time, while early failures can lead to quick dismissals. Resigning on principle can have significant political repercussions. 15