Week 10 Human Anatomy Review PDF

Chemoreceptors: detect specific molecules that dissolve in water Thermoreceptors: detect temperature changes Photoreceptors: detect changes in color, intensity, and position of light Mechanoreceptors: detect touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch Nociceptors: detect painful stimuli Stimuli: se...

Chemoreceptors: detect specific molecules that dissolve in water Thermoreceptors: detect temperature changes Photoreceptors: detect changes in color, intensity, and position of light Mechanoreceptors: detect touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch Nociceptors: detect painful stimuli Stimuli: sensory information our bodies are exposed to. Sensation: constant awareness of the stimuli. General senses: temp, pain, touch, stretch, and pressure. Throughout skin and organs. Special senses: gustation, olfaction, vision, equilibrium, and hearing. Housed in complex organs in the head. Phantom pain: pain felt in a limb that is no longer there due to removal. Referred pain: impulses from certain viscera are perceived as originating not from the organ, but from the skin. Heart attack is in the heart, but the pain is on the skin of the arm. Tastants: molecules and ions in food that are used to determine taste. Gustation pathway: gustatory cells facial nerve glossopharyngeal insula. Papillae: bumps on surface of tongue where tastebuds are located. Gustatory cells: detect tastants (molecules and ions) in taste buds. Name the 5 taste sensations: Unami, sour, salty, sweet, bitter Extrinsic muscles around the eyeball function: Help move the eyeball Conjunctivitis: An infection of the conjunctiva that turns the "white of the eye" red. Conjunctiva: lines the eyelids and covers the anterior eye, except the cornea. It is the clear liquid over it all. Sclera: the white of the eye. What is the function of the lacrimal gland: Produce tears to help moisturize and clean the eyeball. Name the three layers of the eye wall from deep to superficial: Retina, fibrous tunic, and vascular tunic The deepest layer of the eyeball: retina The neural layer of the eye is very important because it houses: photoreceptors and associated neurons involved in vision. 3 layers of the neural layer of the eye: photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. Optic disc: "blind spot" on the retina that lacks photoreceptors. Fovea centralis: depression in the retina containing the highest proportion of cones and barely any rods. Choroid: contains a vast network of capillaries supplying nutrients and oxygen to the retina. Ciliary body: changes lens shape. Accommodation: the ability of the lens to change shape to focus an image. Iris: pigmented anterior eye, defines pupil. Pupil: controls amount of light entering the eye. It's the opening of the iris. Circular sphincter pupillae: making pupil smaller (bright spaces). Radial dilator pupillae: making pupil bigger (dark spaces). Cones: day vision, color vision, and high acuity. Rods: night vision, visions in shades of grey, low acuity, and more of these. 20/15 vision: better than normal 20/20 vision: average \>20/20 vision: worse than normal Myopia: difficulty seeing far objects because the eye is slightly elongated. Hyperopia: difficulty seeing close objects because the eye is more fat and short in shape. Presbyopia: Hyperopia that occurs as the individual gets older and the lens loses its ability to accommodate. Cataracts: lens becomes cloudy. Glaucoma: Increased pressure in the eye due to the buildup of ageus humor, and pressure occurs in the optic nerve. Weed can treat. Diabetic Retinopathy: diabetes- small unstable blood vessels. It can develop with age and vessels can rupture. Strabismus: misalignment of the eyes- due to an imbalance of extrinsic muscles (one set is stronger than the other). Vision pathway: cornea anterior cavity lens posterior cavity retina optic nerve optic chiasm optic tract optic radiation occipital lobe. Tear pathway: lacrimal gland lacrimal canaliculi lacrimal sac nasolacrimal duct. Auricle: funnels vibrations from the outside to the inside of the ear. External acoustic meatus: opening of ear canal. Tympanic membrane: is the eardrum and amplifies waves. Auditory tube: connects middle ear to nasopharynx. The three auditory ossicle bones responsible for transmitting sound waves into the ear: Stapes, incus, malleus. Cochlea: tube wrapped around itself and has cochlear ducts that are filled with endolymph. The cochlear duct has two chambers: scala vestibuli: top cavity filled with perilymph and scala tympani: bottom cavity filled with perilymph. Auditory pathway: auricle external acoustic meatus tympanic membrane malleus incus stapes oval window cochlea cochlear nerve temporal lobe. Tinnitus: ringing in ears, no cause. Goes away randomly or can be a tumor. Conductive hearing loss: adults have an angled down auditory tube that helps pressure and fluid drain, but children are flat= build up = ear infections and hearing issues. Otitis: externa: "swimmers ear", media: middle ear infection-mainly infants, and interna: inner ear infection causing dizziness, vertigo, and compromised hearing. Receptors within the semicircular ducts detect which type of movement of the head: Rotational head movements. Receptors within the utricle and saccule detect which type of movement of the head: stationary and linear acceleration. Static equilibrium detects the head when: linear movement (extends/flexes).\ Ampulla: enlarged base of each semicircular canal. Crista ampullaris: elevated region of ampulla covered by an epithelium of hair cells- big bump. Thyroid gland: butterfly-shaped with right and left lobes, secretes calcitonin and thyroxine (important role in metabolism). Bone tissue has a lot of calcium, so OSTEOBLASTS build bone tissue and pull blood calcium to fix calcitonin. - Hyperthyroidism: most common cause- Graves' disease: autoimmune disease and hypersecretion of thyroid hormones. - Hypothyroidism: failure of the thyroid gland and inadequate dietary supply of iodine. - Goiter: enlarged thyroid. - Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome: lack of maternal iodine intake during pregnancy. Leading to slow growth and intellectual disabilities. Pineal gland: small, cone-shaped body in posterior epithalamus. It secretes melatonin: when low light during sleeping, more melatonin is secreted = making us drowsy. Gonads: ovaries (estrogen: promotes the production of female secondary sex characteristics and progesterone: maintains the lining of the uterus during pregnancy) and testes (testosterone). Pancreas: posterior to the stomach - Exocrine functions: ducts and function is digestion. - Endocrine functions: secretes hormones into the bloodstream- insulin (lowers blood sugar levels) and glucagon (raises blood sugar levels). - Diabetes mellitus: most common of all endocrine disorders - Type 1 diabetes: lack of insulin secretion, early onset, non-obese, mainly children. - Type 2 diabetes: normal or increased insulin secretion, but reduced sensitivity of insulin target cells. Obese more likely and adult-onset. Thymus: superior to heart and deep to the sternum. Larger in infants and children. Secretes thymosins- development of mature T cells-promote development of the immune system. Grows large and shrinks by adulthood. Parathyroid glands: usually 4 per person and on the back of the neck. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin are antagonistic hormones. When blood calcium levels are too low, we secrete PTH to bring levels back up. These activate OSTEOCLASTS to breakdown bone tissue to bring calcium into the blood. Adrenal glands: superior borders of the kidneys. Has 3 layers (sup-deep) - Mineralocorticoids: (aldosterone) regulate mineral balance. - Glucocorticoids: (cortisol) naturally occurring anti-inflammatories. - Gonad corticoids: (androgens) promote the development of male secondary sex characteristics, both genders have it, but more male. Adrenal medulla: inner core, secretes norepinephrine and epinephrine, part of the fight or flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Hypothalamus: control center, autoimmune processes. Secretes regulatory hormones that control the release of anterior pituitary hormones. Produces oxytocin and ADH. Controls stimulation of adrenal gland medulla. Pituitary gland: "hypophysis" the pituitary stock allows communication with hypothalamus. Posterior pituitary gland: hormones synthesized by the hypothalamus are stored here. ADH: prevents fluid loss via urine. Oxytocin: stimulate contraction of uterus during birth. Pituitary dwarfism: hyposecretion of GH during early infancy/birth growth period. Not enough GH. Gigantism: hypersecretion of GH during early infancy/birth growth period. Too much GH. Has to use a cane from CT disorders. Acromegaly: hyposecretion of GH during adulthood. After growth plates close there\'s randomly too much GH. Adds mass to bones: hands and feet. Endocrine glands: ductless glands, secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream and look for receptors with specific hormones "specific process." Anterior pituitary - Growth hormone: promotes growth and development of tissues. High in children/adolescents (not adults). - Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) --promotes gamete production- sperm and eggs. Acts on follicles to stimulate the development of eggs. Acts on male to promote sperm also. - Luteinizing Hormone (LH) -- stimulates secretion of sex hormones- estrogen and testosterone- ovaries and testes. - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) --stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones- acts on thyroid and promotes secretion of hormones on that stricture. - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) --promotes secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex - Prolactin (PRL) --promotes/ stimulates milk production in mammals. Increases in pregnant females. - Endorphins -- bodies natural pain killers. Pain receptors (nociceptors) bind to pain receptors to get information blocked from nociceptors so no communication to the brain about pain. - Morphine: attaches and blocks to pain receptors to block brain from getting info of pain in the body. Olfaction pathway: olfactory nerve olfactory bulb olfactory tract temporal lobe. Smell is perceived in the: temporal lobe Hematocrit: % volume of all formed elements in the blood. Whole blood: buffy coat, plasma, and RBC Erythrocytes (RBCs): transport respiratory gases, only in blood vessels, and hemoglobin: a gas-carrying component of O2 and CO2. Anemia: below normal O2 carrying capacity of blood, low hematocrit. - Pernicious anemia- body doesn't make enough blood cells due to lack of B12. - Hemolytic anemia- RBCs are destroyed faster than bone marrow can produce them. - Granulocytes - Neutrophils: first to appear at an infection phagocytize bacteria- most common-many. - Eosinophils: protect against infections by parasitic worms. Increase in \# during allergic reactions- fewer-more specific. - Basophils: release histamines in damaged tissue vascular dilation: release heparin (blood thinner, helps prevent blood loss)-fewer, more specific. - Agranulocytes - T lymphocytes: kill infected cells or cancer cells - B lymphocytes: produce antibodies against specific antigens and deacidify toxin. - Monocytes: very mobile and phagocytotic (bacteria, viruses, and virus cells). Leukemia: cancer that causes overproduction of abnormal WBCs. Organs lose functions. Treat with chemotherapy and craniospinal irradiation. Systemic circulation: takes blood to and from the body (vertical loops), starts on left side. Pulmonary circulation: takes deoxygenated blood from right side (horizontal). 3 layers of blood vessel tunics - Tunica intima: deepest layer. Endothelium: simple squamous epithelium and CT. Thin and irregularly shaped. Capillary walls only have this. - Tunica media: middle layer. Thick and smooth involuntary muscle, circularly arranged. When contracts decrease tube opening: vasoconstriction. When relaxesincreases tube opening: vasodilation. - Tunica externa: outermost layer. Anchors vessels to surrounding structures. "silent killer"- damaging effects take years to show. Arteries: takes blood AWAY from the heart. - Elastic arteries: largest, closest to the heart. Has fibers that stretch when heart pumps blood to them. - Muscular arteries: medium, in middle. Have thicker tunica media and many layers of smooth muscle cells. - Arterioles: smallest, farthest from the heart. Branch into smaller capillaries as further away from the heart. Veins: carry blood BACK to the heart. Contains valves to prevent pooling of blood. Drain capillaries and return blood back to the heart. Venules- smallest veins/merge to form veins. Capillaries: smallest blood vessels. Metabolic exchange between blood and tissues. Capillary beds: dense network of vessels that perfuse organs and tissues throughout the body. Foramen ovale: the opening between the right atrium and the left atrium of the fetal heart. Endocardium: innermost/deepest layer of the heart. Deoxygenated blood: is in the chambers of the right side of the heart. Deoxygenated blood returns from the right atrium from the lower body via: IVC Systolic pressure: blood pressure during ventricular contraction. Artery: has the thickest walls. Polycythemia: higher than normal hematocrit Hemoglobin: red-carrying pigment in blood that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. Morphine: a synthetic endorphin Glucagon and insulin are antagonistic hormones. IVC: companion vessel for the descending abdominal aorta. Right heart: directs blood to the lungs gas exchange Left heart: directs blood to body tissues gas, nutrient, waste delivery Heart valves: unidirectional blood flow Right AV valves: "lub" when closure Semilunar valves: "dub" when closure Base of the heart: posterosuperior surface -- top part Apex: inferior conical end -- pointy ends Pericardium: serous membrane around heart Parietal pericardium: lines internal surface of the body wall Visceral pericardium: covers external surface of heart Pericardial cavity: serous fluid reduces friction between moving organs Epicardium: visceral layer of serous pericardium and areolar connective tissue Myocardium: cardiac muscle; thickest of the three layers Endocardium: internal surface of heart chambers; simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue Superior vena cava (SVC)- coming from upper body Inferior vena cava (IVC)- coming from lower body Coronary sinus- all deoxygenated blood to right atrium Heart murmur: abnormal heart sounds, can be caused by defective heart valves Great cardiac vein: runs alongside anterior interventricular artery Middle cardiac vein: runs alongside posterior interventricular artery Small cardiac vein: Travels close to the right marginal artery Coronary artery disease: atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries: - Fatty plaque formation decreases blood supply to the myocardium - Results in diminished heart function - May cause angina pectoris (chest pain) - Risk factors -- high blood pressure, smoking, high cholesterol levels, diabetes, inactivity, and family history - Treatment -- medication, changes in diet and exercise Heart attack: Death of cardiac muscle cells and the resulting failure of the heart to deliver enough blood to the rest of the body. Heart exhibits autorhythmicity -- it initiates its own heartbeats Ductus arteriosus -- artery between right pulmonary artery and aortic arch. Serves as a bypass for blood from lungs to systemic circulation.