Psychology: Behavioural Science Introduction PDF

PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT DR ALINA EWALD  1. Welcome to the subject 2. What is Psychology 3. Levels of Analysis 4. Behavioural Science - Common Beliefs AGENDA 5. The Focus of the Subject 6. The Content of the...

PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT DR ALINA EWALD  1. Welcome to the subject 2. What is Psychology 3. Levels of Analysis 4. Behavioural Science - Common Beliefs AGENDA 5. The Focus of the Subject 6. The Content of the Subject 7. Assessments 8. Tutorials 9. Some Ground Rules 10. What is Expected 11. How to Succeed in this Subject WELCOME Subject Coordinator: Dr Alina Ewald MY RESEARCH FOCUS: Fathering, work-family balance, the social and psychological impact of adopting flexible working arrangements for balancing work and life. PSYCHOLOGY One of the most fascinating and important subjects you can study Serves as the foundation for all other fields of human inquiry, including the helping professions, arts, and sciences Psychology is central to the issues that matter most in our daily lives —topics you probably already have strong opinions about WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY The Scientific Study of Mental Processes and Behaviour Behaviour is a response of an individual or group Behaviour relates to everything a person does Behavior can be observed, or heard, or seen, and measured It can relate to inherited characteristics or learned characteristics Mental processes relates to the internal states and processes, which can be inferred from actions. It refers to thinking, remembering and feeling PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE Psychology as a science enriches our lives and benefits society Researchers in psychology study the connections between brain function and behaviour, as well as the influence of the environment on behaviour They apply their findings to enhance our understanding and improve the world around us Through empirical methods, psychology researchers gather and analyse data, aiming to better comprehend and address some of society’s most complex issues  ADDRESSES IMPORTANT QUESTIONS E.g., What is the role of motivation behind behaviour – the driving force to pursue some things and avoid others ? E.g., Understanding the influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond to being unwell? E.g., What are the relative roles of genetics and environment in psychological functioning? E.g.,. What are the basic elements of language and how does language develop ? ADDRESSING IMPORTANT ISSUES The application of psychological research in behavioural science can assist with the following examples: E.g., decreasing the economic burden of disease on government and society E.g., helping educators to design effective teaching methods and in understanding how children think, process and remember E.g., contributing to justice by helping the courts understand the role of bias in trials E.g., helping people overcome psychological barriers that can impede their success at work APPLICATIONS: RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY Dr Kathleen Kremer uses Dr Jack Start uses psychological psychological science to study child science to help NASCAR drivers attitudes, behaviours, and achieve performance emotions Dr Deborah Tate uses psychological Dr David Strayer uses psychological Dr Eduardo Salas uses psychological science to examine the success of science to study distracted driving science to examine how people face-to face health programs make decisions SUB-DISCIPLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY There are many fields of specialisation E.g., Social, Clinical, Cognitive, Health, Forensic, Community, Developmental, Cross-cultural, Positive Psychology, Indigenous, and Sport Psychology There are also many different perspectives in Psychology E.g., Humanistic, behaviourist, cognitive, and evolutionary psychology  DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY The way psychologists and other scientists understand any phenomenon depends on their interpretation and worldview Although different perspectives offer different ways of approaching psychology, each has made distinctive contributions  DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY Historically, psychology has focused on the darker side of human nature and aspects such as mental illness, rather than mental health and flourishing Positive Psychology is an emerging field which focuses on the creation of individual resilience, strengths and virtues, creativity and other indicators of human flourishing PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE One of the most consistent findings in Positive Psychology is that other people make us happy! Simply building and maintaining relationships tends to significantly improve our overall happiness and wellbeing Research shows that once we have enough income to meet our basic needs, additional funds do not significantly increase our levels of happiness and wellbeing  LEVELS OF ANALYSIS In psychology we explore behaviour through different lenses The three main lenses are 1. Biological 2. Psychological and 3. Environmental Biological level: neurochemistry, and genetic aspects Psychological level: thoughts, and cognitions and other functions Environmental level: societal factors such as culture, family, and beyond In this subject we will explore a range of topics using these levels of analysis  DEPRESSION Through The Biological Level Is there a genetic basis for depression? Are children of depressed parents genetically more predisposed to depression? How do neurotransmitters affect depression? How does medication target neurotransmitters? Through The Psychological Level We can explore how thoughts and beliefs impact on depression? Are we people with depression more optimistic or pessimistic? does cognitive therapy work? Through The Environmental Level How do people with depression experience their environment? What are the social aspects of depression – has the person pulled away from their support network? PSYCHOLOGY VS PSEUDOSCIENCE How can we spot the difference between true psychological science and pseudoscience ? Pseudo means ‘false’ Presented as science, but lacks the rigor of the scientific method It doesn't stand up under scientific scrutiny Can lead to misunderstandings about psychology  BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE Some Common Beliefs and Claims Most people with exceptionally high IQ are well adjusted in other areas of their life. In romantic relationships opposites usually attract An innocent person has nothing to fear from a lie detector test Married adults are less happy than adults who aren’t married On some types of mental tasks, people perform as well or better when they are 70 years old than when they are 20 years old The facts: No, you don’t only use 10% of your brain – even in simple tasks we use most of our brain Common Belief: People only use 10% of their brain power The facts: There is little to no evidence that a language can be learned while asleep Common Belief: A new language can be learned while asleep The Fact: Memory is constructed and reconstructed. It’s more like a Wikipedia page, you can go in and change it, but so can other people Common Belief: Human memory is like a recording of what happened PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE Understanding the science behind behaviour can help you know fact from fiction and to challenge some these myths Applying understandings from behavioural science can improve the quality of life for people CONTENT Biological Bases of Mental Life and Behaviour Neurons, the nervous system and the brain, and how these biological elements contribute to mental life and behaviour in humans Research Methods: methods psychologists use to study human behaviour and the importance of ethics in research Genes and Environment Understanding chromosomes and genes, gene environment correlations, key aspects of evolutionary theory, genetic influences on behaviour CONTENT Sensation and Perception: The basic principles that apply across all senses, how soundwaves are transformed into hearing, the various ways in which perception is organised Learning: What are the theories of learning, and what is classical conditioning and operant conditioning Attention and Memory: Memory and information processing, describing working memory, remembering, misremembering and forgetting CONTENT Language and Thinking: Defining language and its basic elements, describing various units of thought, explaining how language develops. Emotion and Motivation: Explore the different theoretical perspectives on motivation, and the different theories of emotion Psychopathology – Diagnosis: The cultural context of psychopathology, define mental health, mental health problems, and mental disorders, what are the contemporary approaches to psychopathology CONTENT Psychopathology Treatment: Key principles and techniques of therapies, and biological treatments Health and Wellbeing: Explore the biopsychosocial model of health behaviour and distinguish between different theories of health behaviour, what are the major sources of stress, what are the major strategies in coping with stress BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 WEEK 2 LECTURE – THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF MENTAL LIFE AND BEHAVIOUR DR ALINA EWALD  Part One - Overview - Neurons: Basic Units of The Nervous System - How Neurons Communicate Part Two AGENDA - - Neurotransmitters The Endocrine System Part Three - The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - The Central Nervous System (CNS) PART ONE INTRODUCTION Brain-behaviour relationships INTRODUCTION What is a neuron? What is the basic anatomy of a neuron? How does the neuron send a signal? How do neurons communicate with each other? INTRODUCTION What is a neuron? The most important cells of the nervous system A biological unit that underlies all behaviour Its function is to receive, conduct and transmit signals INTRODUCTION Understanding the basic anatomy of a neuron Neurons What is the basic anatomy of a neuron? They come in many shapes and varieties Most neurons have: - cell body (soma) - dendrites - axon and - terminal buttons Synapse – a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron  Neurons What do these components do? Soma – contains the nucleus Dendrites – involved in signals from other neurons Axon – carries information from cell body to terminal buttons Terminal Buttons – secrete neurotransmitters Synapse - a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron INTRODUCTION How does a neuron send a signal ? Neurons How does a neuron send a signal? Neurons How do neurons communicate with each other? - Neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate with each other - A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released by a terminal button: it has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron Neurons The purpose of neurons! Neurons do two important things 1.) they generate electricity through action potentials 2.) they release chemicals called neurotransmitters Action Potential How does the action potential work? - Neurons propagate signals in the form of action potentials that can travel great distances along an axon - Axons are built to conduct fast electrical messages in the form of action potentials Action Potential How does the action potential work? Action Potential Firing of a neuron - Resting Potential: The neuron is not firing - Graded Potential: Either 1.) a neuron is rendered more likely to fire with further stimulation or 2.) the neuron is inhibited, which renders it less likely to fire - Action Potential: The firing of the neuron Action Potential Action Potential Versus Graded Potential Action Potential Action potentials and neurotransmitters PART TWO Neurotransmitters What are neurotransmitters? - Chemicals that transmit information from one cell to another - They can either increase or decrease neural firing - Excitatory neurotransmitters depolarise the postsynaptic cell membrane (making an action potential more likely) - Inhibitory neurotransmitters hyperpolarise the membrane (increasing its polarisation). - Excitatory neurotransmitters “grease the wheels of neural communication” - Inhibitory neurotransmitters “put on the breaks” Neurotransmitters Dopamine Neurotransmitters Dopamine: - An excitatory neurotransmitter - Involved in voluntary movement, emotional arousal, and learning - Plays a part in the reward pathways - Plays a part in addiction - An undersupply of dopamine is implicated in Parkinson’s disease and depression - An oversupply of dopamine has been implicated - in schizophrenic spectrum disorders (dopamine hypothesis i.e. more active dopamine receptors, effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs). Neurotransmitters Dopamine: Neurotransmitters GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) : Neurotransmitters GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) : - The major inhibitory neurotransmitter - Involved in learning, memory, and sleep (Wang & Kriegstein, 2009) - Research shows that GABA is particularly important in regulating anxiety - An undersupply of GABA may cause a highly reactive nervous system (Bremner, 2000) - Patients with panic attacks have 22% lower concentration of GAMA (Goddard et al. 2001) - Many anti anxiety drugs bind to GABA receptors e.g. BuSpar enhances GABA activity The Endocrine System The endocrine system is a collection of glands that control various bodily functions through the secretion of hormones The endocrine system sends global messages through the bloodstream The Endocrine System PART THREE The Nervous System Consists of two basic divisions: The Central Nervous System (CNS) - The brain and spinal cord The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - The part of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord, including nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord The Peripheral Nervous System PNS Is Divided into: - The Somatic Nervous System - The Autonomic Nervous System (Sympathetic + Parasympathetic) The Peripheral Nervous System The Somatic Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Somatic Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System - The Sympathetic Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System - The Para-sympathetic Nervous System The Central Nervous System The Central Nervous System How does the central nervous system work ? The Central Nervous System Reflexes The Central Nervous System The Brain The Central Nervous System The Central Nervous System The Central Nervous System THE BRAIN THE BRAIN THANK YOU PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 WEEK 2 TUTORIAL  Attendance - Welcome, Subject-Introduction, Ice-breaker Re-cap of Lecture - The anatomy of a neuron - The role of a neuron AGENDA - Neurotransmitters and human behaviour (an example) Research Report - Introduction to the Report Assessment - Overview of the experiment In tutorial quiz (not mandatory) WHAT IF I HAVE A QUESTION OUTSIDE OF CLASS? 1. The Learning Guide 2. The FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions on vUWS) 3. The Discussion Board (for subject- related questions) 4. IT-related questions: (+61) (2) 9852 5111 5. Issues of a personal nature please email the unit coordinator or deputy coordinator 6. Please do not email your tutor SUBJECT INTRODUCTION Psychology is a field of scientific inquiry Psychology uses a set of scientific techniques and methods to explain and understand the causes of behaviour Psychological science seeks to understand the experiences, motives, and perspectives behind human actions, decision-making processes, and interactions This subject expands on the nature of psychology as a scientific discipline ICE-BREAKER Find out about your fellow students by asking the person next to you to share with you their answers to the following questions (each take a turn): What is your name? What are your hidden talents? Career-wise, where would you like to be in 3-5 years?  What are the main components of a neuron? - Neurons have several principal parts in common: Dendrites, soma, axon and terminal buttons ANATOMY OF - Neurons communicate via synapses: A NEURON Junctions between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the somatic or dendritic membrane of another - When an action potential travels down an axon: Its’ terminal buttons secrete a chemical (which has either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neurons) THE ROLE OF A NEURON Neurons do two important things 1.) They generate electricity through action potentials 2.) They release chemicals called neurotransmitters  GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) : Major inhibitory neurotransmitter Involved in learning, memory, and sleep (Wang & Kriegstein, 2009) NEURO- Some research has revealed that it is particularly TRANSMITTERS important in regulating anxiety AND An undersupply of GABA may cause a highly reactive HUMAN nervous system (Bremner, 2000) BEHAVIOUR Patients with panic attacks have 22% lower concentration of GABA (Goddard et al. 2001) Many anti anxiety drugs bind to GABA receptors e.g., BuSpar enhances GABA activity Research Methods: Foundations and Applications Part 1 Nicole Traynor Associate Lecturer, School of Psychology Western Sydney University [email protected] MODULE OUTLINE 1. Part 1 Types of Research Methods in Psychology The Scientific Method 2. Part 2 Variables in Psychology Reliability and Validity 3. Part 3 Ethics in Psychological Research Cultural Considerations in Psychological Research An introduction to Research in Psychology Types of Research Methods Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative Experimental Descriptive case study Naturalistic observation Survey Correlational Brain imaging Types of Research Methods Quantitative vs. Qualitative Qualitative Ethnography Phenomenology Action research Grounded theory Discourse analysis Content analysis Mixed Methods The Scientific Method The Scientific Method Step 1: Question / Observation Identify a question of interest From observation, news, reading, research etc The Scientific Method Step 2: Hypothesis Develop a testable hypothesis Test a theory Operationally defined variables The Scientific Method Step 3: Research Design Choose an appropriate design for your study The Scientific Method Step 4: Test Data collection The Scientific Method Step 5: Analyse Statistical analyses Significant findings – hypothesis supported (Staff & Maggs, 2020) The Scientific Method Step 6: Publish / Develop Publish findings in peer- reviewed scientific journal Develop/revise theory Part 1 Summary Introduction to what we research in psychology Types of research in psychology The Scientific Method Part 2: Variables and Reliability and Validity Research Methods: Foundations and Applications Part 2 Nicole Traynor Associate Lecturer, School of Psychology Western Sydney University [email protected] Acknowledgment of Country With respect for Aboriginal cultural protocol and out of recognition that its campuses occupy their traditional lands, Western Sydney University acknowledges the Darug, Eora, Dharawal (also referred to as Tharawal) and Wiradjuri peoples and thanks them for their support of its work in their lands in Greater Western Sydney and beyond. Mrs Janice Bruny - Tree of Knowledge MODULE OUTLINE 1. Part 1 Types of Research Methods in Psychology The Scientific Method 2. Part 2 Variables in Psychology Reliability and Validity 3. Part 3 Ethics in Psychological Research Cultural Considerations in Psychological Research Variables in Psychology Variables in Psychology Defining and Measuring Variables Variable: Any factor, event, situation, behaviour, or characteristic that can vary Operational definition: the set of procedures used to measure or define it E.g., aggression, pain Variables in Psychology Types of variables Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher Dependent Variable (DV): The response being measured Confounding variable: An uncontrolled variable that is confused or confounded with the effects of the independent variable Reliability and Validity Reliability and Validity Reliability Reliability: refers to the consistency and stability of a measure or research method over time. A reliable measure produces the same results under consistent conditions. Test-retest reliability Inter-rater reliability Internal consistency Reliability and Validity Validity Validity: refers to the degree to which a test accurately measures the construct it aims to assess, or a study effectively addresses the hypothesis it intends to evaluate. Construct validity External validity Internal validity Variables in Psychology Internal Validity Internal validity: refers to the accuracy about cause-and-effect relationship between variables Threats to internal validity Confounding variables Placebo effects Experimenter expectancy effects Demand characteristics Part 2 Summary What a variable is Independent variable (IV) Dependent ariable (DV) Confounding variables Reliability and validity Part 3: Ethical and Cultural Considerations in psychological research Research Methods: Foundations and Applications Part 3 Nicole Traynor Associate Lecturer, School of Psychology Western Sydney University [email protected] Acknowledgment of Country With respect for Aboriginal cultural protocol and out of recognition that its campuses occupy their traditional lands, Western Sydney University acknowledges the Darug, Eora, Dharawal (also referred to as Tharawal) and Wiradjuri peoples and thanks them for their support of its work in their lands in Greater Western Sydney and beyond. Mrs Janice Bruny - Tree of Knowledge MODULE OUTLINE 1. Part 1 Types of Research Methods in Psychology The Scientific Method 2. Part 2 Variables in Psychology Reliability and Validity 3. Part 3 Ethics in Psychological Research Cultural Considerations in Psychological Research Ethics in Psychological Research Ethics in Psychological Research Questionable Ethics Conditioned Fear: Watson and Raynor’s (1920) little Albert experiment Power and authority: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971) Ethics in Psychological Research Ethical Considerations in Human Research Informed Consent Confidentiality and privacy Minimizing harm Right to withdraw Deception and debriefing Ethics in Psychological Research Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Six core values: Reciprocity Respect Equality Responsibility Survival and protection Spirit and integrity Cultural Considerations in Psychological Research Cultural considerations Cross-cultural differences Cultural senstivity E.g., "How often do you express your opinions openly during family gatherings? Language differences Cultural relevance Cultural considerations Cultural safety Respect Collaboration Ethics Reflection / avoid stereotypes Module Summary What types of phenomenon we study in psychology Methods of psychology research Variables, reliability and validity Cultural and Ethical Considerations PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 WEEK 3 TUTORIAL  Attendance Overview of this week’s topic - Key elements of quantitative research - Key elements of qualitative research - Cultural considerations in psychological research AGENDA Research report - Research Report II: Understanding the Topic, Method, and Results In-tutorial quiz  SOME KEY ELEMENTS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? Involves delving deeply into a research topic through methods such as interviews, observation and case studies to gain a richer understanding of phenomena. Takes a holistic view, often takes an inductive approach, and is carried out in naturalistic settings (e.g., not in a laboratory) Typically adopts a theoretical perspective (e.g., interpretivism or critical theory). Is driven by an epistemology that concerns the very nature of knowledge (e.g., constructionism) SOME KEY ELEMENTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH? Uses designs including experiments or surveys to provide data that can be quantified, tabulated, summarised, or analysed Generally guided by a theory of knowledge Uses standardised procedures For generalisability, a study must have both internal validity (a valid design) and external validity (be applicable to situations outside the laboratory) A measure has reliability if it produces consistent results. THE STEPS INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING AN EXPERIMENT Cultural Considerations In Research The discipline of psychology is a product Every culture has a set of unwritten In relation to psychological research of Western Society. Only recently has it rules that are handed down from become accepted that culture can diversity is important to consider. generation to generation. Cultural When you read research papers, think significantly influence psychological values, lived experiences and personal about the implications culture might development – this is reflected in challenges shape many aspects of increased attention to culture in play in the research findings people’s lives research questions and design Research designs should allow for Cross-cultural research focuses on and Australia has a diverse population, e.g., cultural differences. For e.g., Is compares participants from diverse language a barrier to research in the city of Sydney, almost half of the participation, do methods need to be cultural groups across perception, residents were born overseas. So, it is emotional expression, personality, and particularly important for Australian adapted to consider cultural differences, would the findings of a other psychological features and research to consider culture in research contexts practices study differ in another culture? Tutorial Activity In your table groups, discuss as a group what might be some of the potential consequences of neglecting cultural considerations in psychological research (such as misinterpretation of data, culturally insensitive methods, language barriers, or ethical issues – e.g., misunderstanding or misrepresenting cultural beliefs) (5 mins) Then share with the class the some of these! RESEARCH REPORT: Understanding the topic As discussed last week: There is some evidence that self talk can enhance performance Self talk is particularly effective in improving performance in activities that involve fine motor skills and precision such as dart throwing There have been some mixed findings about this topic For example, some athletes report that negatively framed self talk can also result in positive outcomes in performance  RESEARCH REPORT: Examples of The Readings The Hatzigeorgiadis et al.(2011) paper is based on the premise that what people think influences their actions! The results of this study establish the effectiveness of self-talk in sport The Park et al. (2020) study found statistically significant relationships in self-talk in relation to value, fun and interest, and competence in shooting The Cumming et al. (2006) study found that a combination of facilitative imagery and self-talk can enhance performance whereas debilitative imagery and self-talk can hamper it  RESEARCH REPORT: Why explore the background on the topic? Your job is to consider the research question and your hypothesis, then find the relevant information from the main readings (available in vUWS) and use this information as a starting point to formulate your introduction. You could also search for any other journal articles that could be helpful for you in developing this section of the report.  RESEARCH REPORT: Keep in mind research the question and hypothesis Two key aspects underpinning the topic of the report are the research question and hypothesis Research Question: Is there a difference in dart throwing accuracy due to self-talk? Hypothesis: You will develop your own hypothesis, for example: “The positive self-talk group will perform better in dart throwing accuracy than the negative self-talk group” RESEARCH REPORT: Understanding the participants and method The study uses an experimental design The participants were undergraduate university students from Western Sydney University The average age of the participant was 20 years old The participants cultural background was varied, but primarily from an Anglo-Australian background There were 2 conditions in the experiment; positive self-talk and negative self-talk while throwing darts  RESEARCH REPORT: Understanding the method A post-experimental questionnaire was given as a manipulation check that asked, “What were you thinking about (or saying aloud to yourself) while you were throwing darts?” and “How often do you play darts?” Those participants that responded differently to their assigned condition when asked “What were you thinking about (or saying aloud to yourself)” while throwing darts were screened out To control for experience effects, participants who rated themselves as having played darts more than once per week in the last year were screened out RESEARCH REPORT: Understanding the results Dart throwing accuracy (cm from the bullseye) for two types of self-talk were analysed with an independent samples t- test The average distance from the bullseye was significantly different between both conditions You do not need to understand this test (t-test) – just that there were two groups, and they performed significantly different from each other (as outlined in the table) RESEARCH REPORT A re-cap of the results: RESEARCH REPORT: Any Questions So F ar?  Go to vUWS Week 3 Tutorial - “In-Tutorial Quiz” IN-TUTORIAL Click on the link and participate in the online quiz For each quiz that is attempted you can gain 1% towards QUIZ your final mark for this subject (10 quizzes in total) You will have 5 minutes to complete the quiz Thank you, that is all for today Next week’s tutorial will be on Research Report III: Justifying the aims, method, and hypothesis, and discussing the results Genetics and Psychology Genes, environment and behaviour Dr Emma Walter [email protected] Acknowledgement of Country About me PhD in Psychology Research interests in individual differences and psychopathology Cozy vibes - blankets and books Lowfi chillhop study music of choice Coffee is LIFE!!!! Japan next on my bucket list Lecture outline Introduction to genetics Nature vs Nurture Gene- Environment Interactions Introduction to genetics  DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes Human body contains approximately 100 TRILLION cells Each cell (except red blood cells) contains a nucleus 23 pairs (1 from mother, 1 from father) NUCLEUS C H R O MO S O ME S  DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes DNA is the molecule that forms genes, and multiple genes are grouped into chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of every cell and contain all the genetic information of an organism. A gene DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) carries the genetic information of a living being. A section of DNA is known as a gene. Genes contain the code for the production of a NUCLEUS C H R O MO S O ME S DN A particular protein within a cell. Human cells have approx 25,000 genes!  DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes DNA is the molecule that forms genes, and multiple genes are grouped into chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of every cell and contain all the genetic information of an organism. NUCLEUS C H R O MO S O ME S DN A G E N O ME Human cells have approx 25,000 genes!  P SUGAR What is DNA made of? Nucleotides are the basic units of DNA, composed of a phosphate group (P), a sugar (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base (A, C, G, or T) that encodes genetic information.  Basic functions of DNA Information storage Replication DNA stores the genetic information that DNA can make exact copies of determines the characteristics and itself, which is essential for cell functions of an organism. division and growth. Transcription and translation Inheritance DNA is transcribed into RNA and then DNA is inherited from generation to translated into proteins, which control generation and is responsible for cellular activities. passing traits from parents to offspring.  How it all comes together Genome: complete genetic material of an organism ⚬ Has only 4 letters! ￭ Purine bases: Adenine A and Guanine G ￭ Pyrimidine bases: Thymine T and Cytosine C Alleles: Different forms of the genes ⚬ Dominant: Only ONE allele is needed for the trait to be expressed. ⚬ Recessive: TWO alleles are needed for the trait to be expressed. Genotype: specific genetic makeup of an individual Phenotype: the individual observable characteristics  History of DNA 1859 - Charles Darwin publishes The 1866 - Gregor Mendel discovers the basic Origin of the Species principles of genetics 1869 - Friedrich Miescher identifies "nuclein" 1900's - The Eugenics Movement 1944 - Oswald Avery identifies DNA as the 'transforming principle' 1950 - Erwin Chargaff discovers that DNA composition is species specific 1953 - James Watson and Francis Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA 1977 - Frederick Sanger develops rapid DNA sequencing techniques 1980-90 - Discoveries that genes could be mapped to certain diseases 1990 - The Human Genome Project begins 2003 – The Human Genome Project is completed 2013 – DNA Worldwide and Eurofins Forensic discover identical twins are not 100% identical  History of DNA 1859 - Charles Darwin publishes The 1866 - Gregor Mendel discovers the basic Origin of the Species principles of genetics 1869 - Friedrich Miescher identifies "nuclein" 1900's - The Eugenics Movement 1944 - Oswald Avery identifies DNA as the 'transforming principle' 1950 - Erwin Chargaff discovers that DNA composition is species specific 1953 - James Watson and Francis Crick discover the double helix structure of DNA 1977 - Frederick Sanger develops rapid DNA sequencing techniques 1980-90 - Discoveries that genes could be mapped to certain diseases 1990 - The Human Genome Project begins 2003 – The Human Genome Project is completed 2013 – DNA Worldwide and Eurofins Forensic discover identical twins are not 100% identical Nature vs Nurture  Nature vs Nurture Nativism Extreme nature position Empiricism (Behaviourism) Extreme nurture position Gene x Environment Interaction between both Nature vs Nurture Very OLD debate - 300 BC Greek philosophers (eg. Plato + Socrates) Nature - all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics. Nurture - all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationships, and our surrounding culture. Nativisim Human characteristics are a product of evolution Individual differences are due to variation in genetic code Proponents Noam Chomsky - language acquisition is innate Francis Galton - intelligence (coined the phrase "nature vs nurture”) John Bowlby - attachment theory; children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others Personality traits/temperament models  Empiricism At birth, the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience Psychological characteristics and behavioural differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the results of learning. Proponents: John Watson - behaviour is shaped almost entirely by the environment. Watson famously claimed that he could train any infant to become any type of specialist, regardless of their genetics. B.F Skinner - imitation theory proposes that language develops as a result of children trying to imitate their caregivers or those around them Albert Bandura - social learning through modelling (Bobo doll)  Gene x Environment Mutagens: these are pollutants in the environment that enter the body and directly change your DNA sequence. Gene-Gene interactions: When pollutants in the environment do not change your DNA sequence, but rather cause a chain reaction that affects the functioning of one gene that then affects the functioning of another gene Transcription factors: Pollutants in the environment can directly affect the DNA sequence by altering transcription factors, which are responsible for starting the process of using genes to make proteins that are needed for different functions in the body. Epigenetics: The environment can alter your health by affecting the proteins that turn genes on or off. Evidence - how do we know who is right? Family, twin and adoption studies Linkage studies Genome-wide Association Studies (GWAS)  How much genetic variance do you share with your family? First degree relatives Siblings, non-identical twin, parents, and children - 50% Second degree relatives Half-siblings, uncles, aunts, nephews and nieces,& grandparents - 25% Third degree relatives First cousins, half-uncles, half-aunts, half-nephews and half-nieces - 12.5% Twins Dizygotic Twin studies Two eggs, two sperm. Share Allow us to understand the Monozygotic 50% genes. importance of environmental and genetic One egg, one sperm, splits influences for traits, into two. Share ~100% genes phenotypes, and disorders Linkage studies  Evidence of genes and environment in psychology  Family twin and adoption studies BEHAVIOURAL GENETICS! Family studies - Researchers study relatives to determine if genetic similarity is related to similarity in a particular trait If something is genetic, then See more similarity between MZ twins than DZ twins Twin studies See no difference – Researchers between compare MZ twins raised trait and together similarities MZ twinsin raised apart identical Adopted children and fraternal would have more twins similarities with their biological parents than their adopted parents If somethingAdoption Researchers study relatives to determine if studies - then is environmental, genetictosimilarity MZ twins similar DZ twinsis related to similarity in a particular trait MZ twins raised together to have higher relationships than those MZ twins raised apart Adopted children would have more similarities with their adopted parents than their biological parents  Polygenic Inheritance Behavioural genetics has suggested that often no one gene is linked to psychological traits – it is often thousands collectively contributing E.g. Depression is thought to be influenced by around 1000 genes (Plomin, 2018) Thus there isn’t a simple genetic determinism for most psychiatric conditions.  Evidence in psychology Personality Personality traits such as introversion/extroversion, Intelligence conscientiousness, and openness to experience have been shown to have a genetic basis, with Aggression heritability estimates typically ranging from 40% to 60%. Wellbeing Environmental influences, such as parenting styles, Depression cultural background, and life experiences, also shape personality development. Anxiety Schizophrenia G x E: e.g. individual with a genetic tendency toward anxiety may only exhibit this trait in response to Neurodivergence stressful life events. (Benjamin & Warren, 2010; Zhang et al., 2022)  Evidence in psychology Personality Intelligence Twin and adoption studies have shown that genetics play a significant role in intelligence, with heritability Aggression estimates ranging from 50% to 80%. Wellbeing However, the environment also has a strong impact. Educational opportunities, parental involvement, and Depression socioeconomic status can greatly influence the development and expression of intellectual abilities. Anxiety G x E: certain environmental conditions can either Schizophrenia enhance or suppress the expression of genetic potential Neurodivergence (Plomin et al., 2016; 2018; Tucker-Drob & Briley, 2014)  Evidence in psychology Heritability estimates typically ranging from 30% to 50%, Personality based on twin and family studies. Specific genes, such as the MAOA gene (often referred to as the "warrior gene"), Intelligence have been associated with aggressive behaviour, particularly in males. Aggression Wellbeing However, the environment also has a strong impact. Early childhood experiences, Social and cultural contexts also Depression influence aggression. Anxiety G x E e.g. genetic predisposition towards aggression might only exhibit aggressive behaviour when exposed to adverse Schizophrenia environments, positive environments can mitigate the expression of these genetic tendencies. Neurodivergence (Ficks & Waldman, 2014; Reif et al., 2007)  Evidence in psychology Personality Twin studies have demonstrated that traits associated with wellbeing, such as optimism and emotional stability, have a Intelligence genetic component. Specific genes related to the regulation of neurotransmitters have been linked to individual differences in Aggression wellbeing. Wellbeing Positive environmental factors, such as strong social support networks, stable employment, and access to healthcare, can Depression enhance wellbeing, while adverse conditions like chronic stress or social isolation can diminish it. Anxiety G x E e.g. genetic predisposition for high wellbeing may still Schizophrenia experience low wellbeing if exposed to severe life stressors and vice versa Neurodivergence (Bartels, 2015; Jamshidi et al., 2020)  Evidence in psychology Heritability estimates ranging from 30% to 40%. Twin studies Personality have shown that the risk of developing depression is higher among individuals who have first-degree relatives with the Intelligence disorder. Specific genetic variants, such as those related to the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) Aggression Wellbeing Stressful life events, such as trauma, loss, and chronic stress, are well-established triggers. Depression G x E e.g. genetic predisposition may be more vulnerable to Anxiety environmental stressors, which can trigger or exacerbate depressive episodes. Most severe forms of depression often Schizophrenia result from a complex interplay between genetic predispositions and negative environmental experiences Neurodivergence (Coleman et al., 2020; Singh et al., 2024)  Evidence in psychology Heritability estimates ranging from 30% to 40%. Specific Personality genes involved in neurotransmitter regulation, such as those affecting serotonin and dopamine pathways, have been Intelligence linked to an increased risk of anxiety disorders Aggression Early life stress, trauma, chronic stress, and adverse life Wellbeing events are major environmental contributors. Depression G x E e.g. genetic predisposition for anxiety are more likely to develop symptoms in response to stressful life events Anxiety (Sharma et al., 2016; Shimada-Sugimoto et al, 2015) Schizophrenia Neurodivergence  Evidence in psychology A strong genetic component, contributing to about 80% of the Personality risk of developing the condition. Genetic factors involve numerous genes, with recent research identifying hundreds of Intelligence genetic variants associated with schizophrenia through genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Aggression Wellbeing Key environmental contributors include prenatal exposures (such as infections during pregnancy), early childhood trauma, Depression urban upbringing, and substance abuse. Anxiety G x E e.g. genetic predisposition might develop schizophrenia only when exposed to specific environmental stressors, such Schizophrenia as significant life stress, or in combination with other risk factors like cannabis use during adolescence Neurodivergence (Simgh et al., 2022; Trubetskoy et al., 2022)  Evidence in psychology Autism has a high heritability estimate of 70% to 90%, Personality indicating a strong genetic influence. Similarly, ADHD also shows substantial genetic involvement, with heritability Intelligence estimates around 70%. Researchers have identified numerous genes associated with these conditions, though the genetic Aggression architecture is complex, involving many genes with small Wellbeing effects rather than single-gene causes. Depression Prenatal exposures (such as maternal stress, infections, or exposure to toxins), perinatal complications, and early Anxiety childhood environments. Schizophrenia G x E e.g. environmental factors might trigger or exacerbate neurodivergent traits in individuals with a genetic Neurodivergence predisposition (Koi, 2021; Rolland et al., 2023) Summary DNA and genes are the building block of human beings Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception, e.g., the product of exposure, life experiences, and learning on an individual. behavioural genetics has enabled psychology to quantify the relative contribution of nature and nurture concerning specific psychological traits. Current research demonstrates the importance of both genes and the environment for a number of psychological characteristics and disorders It is complex and we are still learning! Benjamin Sophiya, Warren, D. T (2010). Nature and Nurture: Genetic Influences and Gene-Environment Interactions in Depression, Current Psychiatry Reviews; 6(2). DOI: 10.2174/157340010791196484 Chilver, M.R., Champaigne-Klassen, E., Schofield, P.R. et al. Predicting wellbeing over one year using sociodemographic factors, personality, health behaviours, cognition, and life events. Sci Rep 13, 5565 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-32588-3 Coleman, J. R. I., et al. (2020) Genome-wide gene-environment analyses of major depressive disorder and reported lifetime traumatic experiences in UK Biobank. Molecular Psychiatry, 25:1430–1446. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0546-6 Fields, Stanley & Johnston, Mark. (2010). Genetic Twists of Fate. 10.7551/mitpress/8709.001.0001. Jamshidi J, Williams LM, Schofield PR, et al. Diverse phenotypic measurements of wellbeing: Heritability, temporal stability and the variance explained by polygenic scores. Genes, Brain and behaviour. 2020; 19:e12694. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12694 Koi, P. (2021). Genetics on the neurodiversity spectrum: Genetic, phenotypic and endophenotypic continua in autism and ADHD, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, 89, 52-62 Kwong, A. S. F., López-López, J.,A., Hammerton, G., Manley, D., Timpson, N. J., Leckie, G., & Pearson, R. M. (2019). Genetic and environmental risk factors associated with trajectories of depression symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood. JAMA Network Open, 2(6) doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.6587 Levitt M. Perceptions of nature, nurture and behaviour. Life Sci Soc Policy. 2013;9:13. doi:10.1186/2195-7819-9-13 Moulton C. Perfect pitch reconsidered. Clin Med J. 2014;14(5):517-9 doi:10.7861/clinmedicine.14-5-517 Plomin, R., & Von Stumm, S. (2018). The new genetics of intelligence. Nature Reviews Genetics, 19(3), 148-159. Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Knopik, V. S., & Neiderhiser, J. M. (2016). behavioural Genetics (7th ed.). Reif, A., Rösler, M., Freitag, C. et al. Nature and Nurture Predispose to Violent behaviour: Serotonergic Genes and Adverse Childhood Environment. Neuropsychopharmacol 32, 2375–2383 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301359 Rolland, T., Cliquet, F., Anney, R.J.L. et al. Phenotypic effects of genetic variants associated with autism. Nat Med 29, 1671–1680 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02408-2 Schoneberger T. Three myths from the language acquisition literature. Anal Verbal Behav. 2010;26(1):107-31. doi:10.1007/bf03393086 Sharma S, Powers A, Bradley B, Ressler KJ. Gene × Environment Determinants of Stress- and Anxiety-Related Disorders. Annu Rev Psychol. 2016;67:239-61. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033408. Epub 2015 Oct 6. PMID: 26442668; PMCID: PMC5739029. Shimada-Sugimoto M., Otowa, T, Hettema, J. J. (2015). Genetics of anxiety disorders: Genetic epidemiological and molecular studies in humans. PCN Frontier Review, 69(7), 388-401 Singh, M.K., Gorelik, A.J., Stave, C. et al. Genetics, epigenetics, and neurobiology of childhood-onset depression: an umbrella review. Mol Psychiatry 29, 553–565 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-023-02347-x Singh, T., Poterba, T., Curtis, D. et al. Rare coding variants in ten genes confer substantial risk for schizophrenia. Nature 604, 509–516 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04556-w Trubetskoy, V., Pardiñas, A.F., Qi, T. et al. Mapping genomic loci implicates genes and synaptic biology in schizophrenia. Nature 604, 502–508 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04434-5 Zhang, H., Khan, A., & Rzhetsky A. Gene-environment interactions explain a substantial portion of variability of common neuropsychiatric disorders. Cell Reports Medicine, 2022; 100736 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100736 Images sarahwolfephotography Canva image generator PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 WEEK 4 TUTORIAL Research Report III: The introduction, justifying the aims, method, and hypotheses, and discussing the results  Attendance Research report - The Report: Key Facts - The Title - The Abstract - The Introduction AGENDA - - Justifying the aims, method, and hypotheses The methods and results section - The discussion section - Activity: The Introduction In-tutorial quiz  Due by: 17:00 on Monday 16th September 1000 word count. No 10% Lee-way THE REPORT: Only the Abstract, Introduction and Discussion count in the 1000- Key Facts word count. The Title, Method and Results sections, and Reference list do NOT count in the 1000-word count. Worth 40% The Structure of the report ❑ Title Abstract You need to write these 3 sections ❑ Introduction ❑ Method – Prepared for you ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion You need to write ❑ References these 2 sections Structure of your research report Reports consist of several distinct sections: ❑ Title ❑ Abstract ❑ Introduction ❑ Method – Prepared for you ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion ❑ References Report Writing: Title page Title Page no. 1 A functional title can be worked out by answering Question 1: What is the relationship between the variables in your study? Name John S. Smith Affiliation School of Psychology, Western Sydney University Subject name and Number BEHV1016: Psychology: Behavioural Science Subject Coordinator Dr Coordinator’s name Due date 16, September, 2024 Word Count Word Count: 998 Report Writing: Abstract ❑ The abstract appears after the title page Second page of report First page of report page no. page no. Abstract Title Student Name Institution Subject Details Third page of report page no. Title As Heading The introduction startson a new page andhasa heading… What should go into each section (Abstract) The abstract needs to: introduce the problem being investigated ❑ Title describe the sample studied ❑ Abstract outline the method(s) used present your findings (and indicate the levels ❑ Introduction of significance) ❑ Method – Prepared for you highlight important implications and conclusions ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion All in 150 words or less ❑ References For more information on structure see vUWS >Assessment 1> resourcese What should go into each section (Introduction) The introduction includes: ❑ Title a statement of the problem under investigation an explanation of the context of the problem ❑ Abstract a summary of previous literature regarding the problem ❑ Introduction the hypothesis(es) being tested or the research ❑ Method – Prepared for you question(s) posed. ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion ❑ References For more information on structure see vUWS >Resources for how to write a research report >Structure What should go into each section (Introduction) Potential format: First paragraph: Statement of problem + ❑ Title explanation of context ❑ Abstract Begin with general statement/example highlighting importance of area ❑ Introduction Introduce +define key words (if not done ❑ Method – Prepared for you later) ❑ Results – Prepared for you Finish with statement outlining general problem area ❑ Discussion ❑ References For more information on structure see vUWS >Resources for how to write a research report >Structure What should go into each section (Introduction) Potential format: Middle section: Summary of previous ❑ Title literature on problem (literature review) ❑ Abstract Think: what concepts/studies does my reader need to know to understand why I ❑ Introduction did this experiment? ❑ Method – Prepared for you Highlight gap in literature (e.g., “to date, no study has examined the effect of…..”) ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion ❑ References For more information on structure see vUWS >Resources for how to write a research report >Structure Structure Structure of the Introduction Last paragraph of the introduction includes: Statement of the aim (i.e. it aims to answer the question from the previous paragraphs) Statement of IV and DV (suggest you explicitly write “The independent variable is…” and “The dependent variable is…”) Statement of hypotheses, which must include the IV and the DV in the statement. Our study (explanation of your hypothesis) theories/previous research on the topic of self-talk in performance Literature review - Theory and/or previous studies attempting to explain situation and justification of your own study The overall aim might be “to study if there is a difference in dart throwing accuracy due to self-talk” Theory and/or previous studies attempting to explain an observation will help to inform on the hypothesis - predictions of an investigation’s outcome that make specific reference to the independent variables (IVs) manipulated and dependent variables (DVs) measured by the researchers. ….you have read the method – this should give you an idea of the hypothesis. Also, your core readings will help with this (see the Assessments folder). Recap of Structure of the report ❑ Abstract ❑ Introduction ❑Method – Prepared for you – Revisiting Ethics, Participants, Procedure ❑ Results – Prepared for you – Revisiting the main finding ❑ Discussion ❑ References  The Methods and Results Sections of The Report The results are available in the method and results document in vUWS. You do not need to modify the results or add any information. You do not need to include the results section in your report. You should not copy the results (or method) into your report as they will not be marked. Are there any questions on the content of the Methods and Results sections? What should go into each section (Discussion) 3 general areas of the discussion are the first paragraph, middle section, last paragraph ❑ Title First paragraph: ❑ Abstract Restate aim “Consistent with hypotheses” OR “Contrary to ❑ Introduction hypotheses” – explain results with respect to hypothesis ❑ Method – Prepared for you Summary statement about what this tells us about human behaviour ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion ❑ References What should go into each section (Discussion) In the discussion section, you analyse and interpret ❑ Title the findings by: ❑ Abstract giving reasons for support/non-support of hypotheses ❑ Introduction linking your findings to the results in the ❑ Method – Prepared for you literature describing any shortcoming or limitations of your study ❑ Results – Prepared for you discussing implications of your findings ❑ Discussion considering issues/areas for future research setting out conclusion(s). ❑ References Questions?  On a blank word document, or on a piece of paper if you prefer, attempt to write out the last paragraph of your introduction Activity To do this include: A statement of the aim (i.e. it aims to answer the question outlined previously) A statement of IV and DV (suggest you explicitly say “The independent variable is…” and “The dependent variable is…”) A statement of hypotheses, which must include the IV and the DV in the statement. How Did You Go? Thank you, that is all for today Next week’s tutorial will be on Research Report IV: Using the marking criteria to understand what is required Week 5 Sensation & Perception Associate Professor John Cass [email protected] Sensation: The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Sensation is the initial detection of environmental stimuli such as light, sound, and heat. Perception: The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events. Perception involves making sense of what our senses detect, allowing us to recognize objects, people, and situations. The sensory systems Transduction: The process of converting physical energy (like light or sound) into electrochemical signals that the brain can interpret Key systems Vision: Conversion of light waves into neural signals by the retina. Audition: Conversion of sound waves into neural signals by the cochlea. Somatosensation: Detection of pressure, temperature, and pain through skin receptors. Proprioception: Sensing the position and movement of the body through the vestibular and kinesthetic systems. Gustation (Taste) and Olfaction (Smell): Detection of chemical molecules in food and the air.  Vision - Understanding How We See Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones: Specialized cells in the retina that detect light and color. Rods: More sensitive to light, useful for night vision. Cones: Detect color and detail, concentrated in the fovea. Post-receptoral Mechanisms: Processing of visual information beyond photoreceptors, including lateral antagonism (contrast enhancement) and the blind spot (an area with no photoreceptors). Retino-Thalamic-Cortical Pathway: The pathway visual information takes from the retina, through the thalamus, to the visual cortex (V1). V1 (Primary Visual Cortex): The first stage in the brain where visual information is processed. What vs. Where Pathways: What Pathway (Ventral Stream): Involved in identifying objects. Where Pathway (Dorsal Stream): Involved in locating objects in space. Audition Cochlea: A spiral-shaped, fluid-filled structure in the inner ear that translates sound waves into neural signals. Frequency and Amplitude: ◦ Frequency: Perceived as pitch. ◦ Amplitude: Perceived as loudness. Neural Pathways: Sound signals travel from the cochlea through the auditory nerve to the brainstem, and finally to the primary auditory cortex. Primary Auditory Cortex: Located in the temporal lobe, this area processes basic aspects of sound, such as pitch and volume. Localization: The brain's ability to determine the location of a sound source based on timing and intensity differences between the ears. Somatosensation Skin Receptors: Mechanoreceptors: Detect pressure and texture. Nociceptors: Detect pain. Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature changes. Nociception: The sensory process that provides signals that trigger pain. Thermoception: The ability to sense heat and cold. Spinal Cord: The pathway through which somatosensory information travels to the brain. Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the parietal lobe, this region processes sensory input from the skin and other body parts.  Proprioception Skin Receptors: Mechanoreceptors: Detect pressure and texture. Nociceptors: Detect pain. Thermoreceptors: Detect temperature changes. Nociception: The sensory process that provides signals that trigger pain. Thermoception: The ability to sense heat and cold. Spinal Cord: The pathway through which somatosensory information travels to the brain. Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the parietal lobe, this region processes sensory input from the skin and other body parts. Gustation & Olfaction Gustation (Taste): Detects five basic tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Taste buds on the tongue send signals to the brain about the chemical composition of food. Olfaction (Smell): Detects airborne chemicals through receptors in the nasal cavity. Smell is closely linked to taste and plays a significant role in flavor perception. Absolute vs Relative thresholds Absolute Threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time. Relative Threshold (Difference Threshold or Just Noticeable Difference): The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected. Example: The ability to detect the difference between two slightly different shades of color. Gestalt Grouping principles Gestalt Psychology: A theory that the mind perceives objects as part of a greater whole and as elements of more complex systems. Key Principles: Proximity: Objects that are close to each other are perceived as a group. Similarity: Objects that are similar in appearance are perceived as belonging together. Continuity: The mind prefers continuous forms rather than disconnected segments. Closure: The mind completes incomplete figures to form a familiar object. Figure-Ground: The ability to distinguish an object (the figure) from its background (the ground). PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 WEEK 5 TUTORIAL Research Report IV: Using the Marking Criteria to Understand the Report  Attendance Research report - The Report: Highlighting Relevant Resources - Using the Marking Criteria to Understand the Report AGENDA - Activity: The Discussion Section In-tutorial quiz The marking criteria, checklist and tips document, and report exemplar in vUWS The main readings for the topic are in vUWS There are resources for the structure and formatting of the report in vUWS Please use tutorials and the discussion board for questions ALL QUESTIONS ARE The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to show you have read and summarised at least one paper from the existing literature To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to demonstrate that you have read and summarised at least two relevant papers AND attempted to critically evaluate the content. The term critically evaluate means you have provided a brief but thoughtful analysis/assessment of the research in the study The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to demonstrate an attempt to support your claims/arguments with appropriate scholarly sources i.e. there is evidence that you have tried to achieve this To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to demonstrate that all relevant claims/arguments are supported using primary sources When you make a claim, ask yourself, “how do I know this” and cite accordingly  The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to demonstrate that there is some clarity in your writing, even though there is still room for improvement. Your sentences should have a clear function e.g., to provide evidence, and to make assertions (premises) that lead to conclusions, so that the reader can logically move from one point to the next. To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to demonstrate that there is this sort of clarity in almost all the sentences in the paper. The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to demonstrate an understanding of some of the key concepts and how they are connected to the literature and to your research question. To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to demonstrate an understanding of all key concepts and their connections to the literature and research question throughout the paper. Show the reader that you are clear on what they are and why these are important for your topic/questions The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to demonstrate relevance to the topic/research question, however the key variables may be missing To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to express the relationship between the DV (Dart throwing accuracy) and the IV (Self-talk type (positive or negative) A great title summarises the main idea of the paper, has a length of 12 words or fewer, includes only words that contribute meaning, and a great title gives away the ending J The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to attempt to summarise the study, however, there may be some issues with clarity, or some (3 or more elements) information may be missing. To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to include all the elements of the abstract – however, there may still be some issues with clarity in one of the elements.  The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to show an attempt to present: a logical justification for the study, there may be issues with the flow of this section, or parts may be missing such as; an outline of the topic, and explanation of why the topic matters, key definitions, a statement of the DV and IV, and a statement of the hypothesis. To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to outline the topic and its importance, and to provide: key definitions, aims, as well as a statement of the DV and IV and the hypothesis – with an attempt to justify these.  The Marking Criteria To pass this criteria you will need to provide an attempt of the discussion that can be followed, however, some issues may exist e.g., a statement of support/non-support for hypothesis is absent or not written properly, unclear attempt to explain the importance/relevance of findings, suggestions for future research are unclear/absent/implausible or over-emphasise methodological issues. To get a distinction in this criteria requires you to clearly state whether hypotheses were supported, why this is important, suggestions for improvements and future research are made – mentioning at least 1 out of: potential development of theory, potential development of research, implications for the real-world. The Marking Criteria Re-cap: What should go into each section (Discussion) 3 general areas of the discussion are the first paragraph, middle section, last paragraph ❑ Title First paragraph: ❑ Abstract Restate aim “Consistent with hypotheses” OR “Contrary to ❑ Introduction hypotheses” – explain results with respect to hypothesis ❑ Method – Prepared for you Summary statement about what this tells us about human behaviour ❑ Results – Prepared for you ❑ Discussion ❑ References Re-cap: What should go into each section (Discussion) In the discussion section, you analyse and interpret ❑ Title the findings by: ❑ Abstract giving reasons for support/non-support of hypotheses ❑ Introduction linking your findings to the results in the ❑ Method – Prepared for you literature describing any shortcoming or limitations of your study ❑ Results – Prepared for you discussing implications of your findings ❑ Discussion considering issues/areas for future research setting out conclusion(s). ❑ References  On a blank word document, or on a piece of paper if you prefer, attempt to write a draft of the first paragraph of your discussion Activity To do this: Restate the aim Did the findings support the hypothesis? So, “Consistent with the hypothesis” OR “Contrary to the hypothesis” – explain results with respect to hypothesis Summary statement about what this tells us about human behaviour (reflection on the introductory sentences of the introduction section). How Did You Go? Time for the quiz J Thank you, that is all for today Next week’s tutorial will be on Conditioning (the Lecture will be on Learning) Learning Part 1: Classical Conditioning Nicole Traynor Associate Lecturer, School of Psychology Western Sydney University [email protected] Acknowledgment of Country With respect for Aboriginal cultural protocol and out of recognition that its campuses occupy their traditional lands, Western Sydney University acknowledges the Darug, Eora, Dharawal (also referred to as Tharawal) and Wiradjuri peoples and thanks them for their support of its work in their lands in Greater Western Sydney and beyond. Mrs Janice Bruny - Tree of Knowledge MODULE OUTLINE 1. Part 1 What is learning? Classical Conditioning 2. Part 2 Operant Conditioning 3. Part 3 Observational Learning Treating Anxiety and Fear What is learning? “Learning is a change in behaviour due to experience” “Learning is a change in behaviour due to experience” Learning involves change What changes is behaviour Due to experience Classical Conditioning Mechanisms of Classical Conditioning Acquisition NS + US Extinction CS CS CS Spontaneous Recovery CS Generalisation and discrimination Classical Conditioning Examples  Pet behaviour Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Going for a walk Unconditioned Response (UR): Excited Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Sound of lead Conditioned Response (CR): Excited Classical Conditioning Examples  Childhood experience Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Vaccination Unconditioned Response (UR): Pain of the needle Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Doctor’s office Conditioned Response (CR): Pain Classical Conditioning Examples  Advertising Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Sight of food Unconditioned Response (UR): Feeling hungry Conditioned Stimulus (CS): McDonald’s golden arches Conditioned Response (CR): Feeling hungry Classical Conditioning of Fear Little Albert Experiment Tested infants’ reactions to various stimuli and found no evidence of innate fear Infants react to a sudden loud noise with crying/startle response 9-month-old Little Albert exposed to a white rat and a loud noise repeatedly Little Albert developed a fear of the white rat Fear generalised to other similar objects Part 1 Summary Introduction to what learning is Ivan Pavlov Classical Conditioning US, UR, CS, CR Mechanisms Examples Fear conditioning Part 2: Operant Conditioning Learning Part 2: Operant Conditioning Nicole Traynor Associate Lecturer, School of Psychology Western Sydney University [email protected] Acknowledgment of Country With respect for Aboriginal cultural protocol and out of recognition that its campuses occupy their traditional lands, Western Sydney University acknowledges the Darug, Eora, Dharawal (also referred to as Tharawal) and Wiradjuri peoples and thanks them for their support of its work in their lands in Greater Western Sydney and beyond. Mrs Janice Bruny - Tree of Knowledge MODULE OUTLINE 1. Part 1 What is learning? Classical Conditioning 2. Part 2 Operant Conditioning 3. Part 3 Observational Learning Treating Anxiety and Fear Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning The probably of a behaviour is modified by its consequences An operant is any behaviour which is produced and which can be characterised by its observable effects of the environment Differs from Classical Conditioning in that it involves voluntary behaviours and the delivery of the outcome is dependent on making the voluntary behaviour (response) Thorndike’s Law of Effect Thorndike’s Puzzle Box (video) Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement: the addition of a pleasant event is consequent on the production of a specific response HD Negative reinforcement: the withdrawal of an aversive event is consequent on the production of a specific response Punishment Positive Punishment: the addition of an aversive event is consequent on the production of a specific response Negative punishment: the withdrawal of a pleasant event is consequent on the production of a specific response Operant Conditioning Increasing/decreasing behaviour Increases Decreases Add Positive reinforcement Positive punishment Subtract Negative reinforcement Negative punishment Problems with punishment Does work if it isn’t clear what is being punished Classical conditioning of negative emotional response to punisher Punishment may not eliminate other reinforcing outcomes Only effective if delivered immediately after the behaviour Potential for abuse Can lead to aggression Problems with punishment Longititudinal study: child temperament and parenting (2 years & 4 years) Social development sessions at both age points Sessions coded for how parent- child interaction (e.g., comforting, encouraging) and child behaviour (e.g., mood, activity level, reactivity, adjustment) Hemphill and Sanson (2001) Part 2 Summary Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Punishment Issues with punishment Part 3: Observational Learning Learning Part 3: Observational Learning Nicole Traynor Associate Lecturer, School of Psychology Western Sydney University [email protected] Acknowledgment of Country With respect for Aboriginal cultural protocol and out of recognition that its campuses occupy their traditional lands, Western Sydney University acknowledges the Darug, Eora, Dharawal (also referred to as Tharawal) and Wiradjuri peoples and thanks them for their support of its work in their lands in Greater Western Sydney and beyond. Mrs Janice Bruny - Tree of Knowledge MODULE OUTLINE 1. Part 1 What is learning? Classical Conditioning 2. Part 2 Operant Conditioning 3. Part 3 Observational Learning Treating anxiety and fear Observational Learning Social Observational Learning Observing the behaviour of another individual and the consequences of the model’s behaviour Vicarious reinforcement: the consequences of the model’s behaviour strengthens the observer’s tendency to behave in a similar way Vicarious punishment: the consequences of the model’s behaviour weakens the observer’s tendency to behave in a similar way Social Observational Learning Asocial Observational Learning An observer views an event and its positive and/or negative consequences Asocial Observational Learning ? Asocial Observational Learning in toddlers Model condition: model demonstrated how to pull on the mat that did not have the toy “Ghost” condition: mats and toy moved on its own due to hidden pulleys Performance in “ghost” condition significantly higher Thompson and Russell (2004) Observational Learning of fear Rhesus monkeys fear of snakes assessed Tested with: real snake toy snake model snake black cord yellow cord neutral object  Wild-reared monkeys = learned fear  Laboratory-reared monkey = no fear Mineka et al. (1984) Observational Learning of fear Laboratory-reared monkeys can learn to be afraid of snakes through observing the fear of another monkey Mineka et al. (1984) Observational Learning of fear Compared fears acquired through: 1. Conditioning 2. Observation learning 3. Verbal instruction Olsson and Phelps (2007) Treating Fear and Anxiety Theoretical mechanisms of exposure: Habituation: Reduction in responding with repeated exposure Extinction: inhibiting previously learned fear associations Emotional processing: developing new interpretations and meaning for fear stimuli and fearful responses Self-efficacy: Increased perception that one is capable of tolerating fear stimuli and responses Module Summary Learning is a change in behavior due to experience Classical Conditioning Observational Learning Observational learning of fear Treating anxiety and fear Next Week: Attention and Memory PSYCHOLOGY: BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 WEEK 6 TUTORIAL Classical and Operant Conditioning  Attendance Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning AGENDA In-tutorial quiz Background for today’s tutorial What do we mean by Learning? Learning is a change in behaviour due to experience Learning involves some sort of change The change involves behaviour The cause of the change is experience  Background for today’s tutorial - Classical conditioning relates to when we learn to identify a relationship between two different stimuli. It is focused on the strengths of naturally occurring drives and the development of new responses - Operant conditioning focuses on how simple behaviour chains are linked together through consequences from the environment. Thus, a behaviour comes with an environmental effect. Re-Cap Classical Conditioning A stimulus leads to a learned response through pairing of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) or learned reflex Any unconditioned response (UCR) is a response that does not have to be learned. A conditioned response (CR), such as taste aversion is a learned reflex that can produce both adaptive and maladaptive responses Stimulus generalisation occurs when an organism learns to respond to stimuli that resemble the CS with a similar response Stimulus discrimination occurs when an organism learns to respond to a restricted range of stimuli Re-Cap Classical conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs Before Conditioning UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation) Neutral Stimulus (Bell) No Response Classicalconditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs Before Conditioning UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation) Neutral Stimulus (Bell) No Response During Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (Bell) UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation) Classical conditioning: Pavlov’s Dogs Before Conditioning UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation) Neutral Stimulus (Bell) No Response During Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (Bell) UCS (Food) UCR (Salivation) After Conditioning CS (Bell) CR (Salivation)  Tutorial Activity Can you fill in the blank spaces?  Tutorial Activity Can you fill in the blank spaces? Food bell salivation salivation Demonstration Video1 Classical Cconditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction: The process by which a conditioned response (CR) is weakened by the presentation of the conditioned stimuli (CS) without the unconditioned stimuli (UCS). If a dog has come to associate the sounding of a bell with food, it will eventually stop salivating at the bell tone if the bell rings enough times without the presentation of food – so the process is weakened – but not obliterated Extinction doesn’t mean that the response is gone forever. The extinct response can reappear hours or even days later- through a process called spontaneous recovery Spontaneous Recovery: The re-emergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) However, the spontaneous recovery of a CR is typically short lived, and will rapidly extinguish again Re-cap Operant conditioning Operant conditioning: how an organism’s non-reflexive (voluntary) behaviours can be modified by experience Generally, the study of how responses are modified by their consequences Behaviour involved is instrumental in obtaining reinforcement OR Instrumental in avoiding punishment Behaviour to be reinforced may be either the production or the withholding of a specific response Consequences may be either a pleasant or an aversive event  Classes of Operant Conditioning There are four classes of operant conditioning Two that increase behaviour are: Ø Positive reinforcement: Makes a pleasant event consequent on the production (or withholding) of a specific response Ø Negative reinforcement: Makes the withdrawal of an aversive event consequent on the production (or withholding) of a specific response Classes of Operant Conditioning There are four classes of operant conditioning Two that decrease behaviour are: Ø Positive punishment: Makes an aversive event consequent on the production (or withholding) of a specific response Ø Negative punishment: Makes the withdrawal of a pleasant event consequent on the production (or withholding) of a specific response Group Activity: Classes of Operant Conditioning Fill in the gaps in the table below by using the word ‘increases’ or ‘decreases’ Positive reinforcement: person’s response causes a pleasant stimulus to arrive (ADDITION), therefore responding: Negative reinforcement: person’s response causes an unpleasant stimulus to be removed (SUBTRACTION), therefore responding: Positive punishment: person’s response causes an unpleasant stimulus to arrive (ADDITION), therefore responding: Negative punishment: person’s response causes a pleasant stimulus to be removed (SUBTRACTION), therefore responding: Classes of Operant Conditioning Fill in the gaps in the table below by using the word ‘increases’ or ‘decreases’ Positive reinforcement: person’s response causes a pleasant stimulus to arrive (ADDITION), Increases therefore responding: Negative reinforcement: person’s response causes an unpleasant stimulus to be removed (SUBTRACTION), therefore responding: Increases Positive punishment: person’s response causes an unpleasant stimulus to arrive (ADDITION), Decreases therefore responding: Negative punishment: person’s response causes a pleasant stimulus to be removed Decreases (SUBTRACTION), therefore responding: An example of operant conditioning: Big Bang Theory (Part 1) Watch this video Can you pick the error in the classification of the type of operant conditioning being used? (Part2) Watch this video Time for your Quiz! And some classical conditioning humour to help you remember some of things we have discussed today Thank you ! Next week’s tutorial is on Experiments and Demonstrations in Memory BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE BEHV1016 ATTENTION AND MEMORY DR ALINA EWALD  Part One - Attention Part Two - Memory Part Three - The Relationship Between Attention and Memory PART ONE Attention Sternberg (1996): “Attention acts as a means of focusing limited mental resources on the information and cognitive processes that are most salient at a given moment.” Attention Associated with: Arousal level Vigilance The ability to stay alert and concentrate Types of Attention Attention can be broken down into many different types; Focused attention Divided attention Vigilance Topdown (endogenous) Bottomup (exogenous) Covert attention Overt attention Modality specific  Research on Attention Broadbent’s Split-Span Studies Broadbent aimed to understand how people selectively focus their attention by deliberately overwhelming them with stimuli. To accomplish this, he presented one message to a person's right ear and a different message to their left ear at the same time. This method is known as a split-span experiment, or the dichotic listening task. Broadbent was interested in how these messages would be recalled. He discovered that people made fewer errors when repeating messages ear by ear (and typically preferred to do so in this manner). Broadbent theorised that humans can only process a limited amount of sensory information at any given time due to an attentional bottleneck.  Multi-tasking: The Fa