UTS - 1st Exam PDF

Socratic Period Socrates - (469/470-399 BCE) - Father of Ancient Western Philosopher Socrates is one of the most influential thinkers of all time. He is a prominent figure that shaped the intellectual world. He claims that he knows nothing and only wants to seek the Truth. He claims to be an ignor...

Socratic Period Socrates - (469/470-399 BCE) - Father of Ancient Western Philosopher Socrates is one of the most influential thinkers of all time. He is a prominent figure that shaped the intellectual world. He claims that he knows nothing and only wants to seek the Truth. He claims to be an ignorant person who wants to understand the self; because of his philosophical endeavor, He claims that life is not worth living without examining oneself. This implies that examining one\'s life is essential to finding happiness and meaning in the world. One can be happy if the person learns something about themselves. In Socrates\' words, KNOW THYSELF. The Socratic Method is his means of endeavoring to understand the world through the lens of philosophy. It involves questioning a person without answering. The other term used for this is the midwifery method. It is related to the job of the midwife during birth. In the Theaetetus, He considered himself a midwife (150b-151b). The Socratic method aids the person to reach an authentic answer through a series of questions that always end with the phrase \"I do not know.\" Unlike the other famous philosophers, Socrates did not write anything for his words and wisdom to be remembered forever. Plato wrote about him in books such as The Republic and The Apology. His daily endeavors are to go to the marketplace AGORA to ask questions, for he believes that the gods call him to do so, so he talks to the learned and challenged opinions of people in Athens. Unfortunately, at the age of 70, he was sentenced to death for questioning the existence of the gods and accusations of corrupting the youth. Hence, he died by drinking the Poison hemlock. Socrates was deemed critical in unquestioningly accepting the existence of the gods and myths, for he believed that a \"divine is benevolent, truthful, authoritative and wise, for him, divinity operates with the standards of rationality\" (Ambury). Socrates needs to take care of the soul, for the soul is more important than wealth, and reputation, fame, influence, and other external factors cannot bring out the excellence of man in terms of virtue. Virtue is the most crucial factor for Socrates (Crito 46c,47d and Apology 30b, 31b). One can only achieve a virtuous life by examining oneself and living a moral and righteous life. When Socrates was sentenced to death, he proclaimed the most famous line in history: The unexamined life is not worth living as a man (Apology 38a). This line marks the heart of people beyond Athens. It implies that the greatest good of the self is knowing more about oneself and learning more about being a virtuous man, for virtue is necessary to attain happiness. By examining your life, man opens his eyes to your true nature free from the enslavement of the body, and the soul sees the value of self-knowledge that sets to determine the quality of life of a person, for the primary goal of man in this world is to be happy. To achieve this, man must live a virtuous life with moral excellence by taking care of the self beyond wealth and reputation and asking the right questions to examine one\'s life. Plato (428-348 BCE)- Theory of Form and Matter Plato is one of the famous followers of Socrates. He came from an influential and wealthy family in Athens. He is the son of Ariston and Perictione and has siblings, namely, Glaucon and Adeimantus. He founded a school in Athens, namely the Academy. In his many books, he is a writer who uses Socrates as the main character who seeks the Ultimate Truth. He is famous for writing the Apology and the Republic. He became the teacher of Aristotle, who formed the golden era of Ancient Greek thinkers. Plato presented his philosophical idea by presenting his teacher, Socrates, as the principal messenger of wisdom. It is famously known as the Platonic Dialogue. It is an attempt to extract the views of Socrates through conversations with other thinkers and scholars of Athens. Because of this, many scholars doubt his philosophical endeavors. They are asking if Plato is a mere mouthpiece of Socrates that represents Socrates\' view on life, ethics, and virtue, and they are also asking if Plato developed his philosophical point of view. To answer this, Platonic Scholar (Kraut, 2022) presented that Plato began his early works by presenting his teacher, subsequently developing the idealist view of the Theory of Form and Matter. Afterward, Plato developed the positive doctrines of justice and virtues, and the late dialogues were only remnants of the non-existent view of Socrates. This implies that though Plato began his Philosophical endeavor by presenting Socrates\' philosophical point of view, he utilized his teacher\'s opinions to create his innovative ideas on the questions concerning man. Theory of Form and Matter Plato is best known for his theory of Form and Matter. It is an idealistic concept. Plato asserted that the Physical World, the World of Matter, is inaccurate. It is not the real world but a mere imitation of the perfect world, namely the World of Form. The world of form is perfect and ultimately exists beyond matter. Let us take, for example, a chair. In the World of Matter, a chair has many forms. It has many designs, and it is presented in different ways. Some chairs have four legs; others are made of wood, others are plastic, and more. Men can show a chair from various perspectives and help to avoid coming up with a chair that can be considered perfect. It is because matter has limitations, and our chair is a mere imitation of the perfect chair in the world of form. Hence, our chair is an imperfect copy of the perfect chair in the world of form. The world of form, or the world of ideas, is far beyond matter. Man can know it through his mind. The mind holds the key to understanding the world of form with reason. However, One can never fully comprehend the world of form. Parts of the Soul Plato considers the self, soul, and mind as one. They can be interchanged, and to come up with a sound understanding of the self, it is good to see the reason behind man\'s action based on his soul\'s composition. The soul is divided into three parts, each designed with specific functions. These three parts of the soul/ psyche make man who they are and are responsible for their attitude. The concept of Plato attempts to rationalize the action of man. Hence, awareness of the psyche puts man in a vantage point for making better decisions and improving behaviors in their life. Parts of the Soul Representation in the Body Virtue Vice Drive Rational Brain Wisdom Pride/Sloth Logic Spirited Heart Courage Moderation Anger/Envy Feelings Appetitive Stomach/Genitalia Greed Desire The Appetitive is the sensual part of the soul. It is the element of desire that seeks experiences fulfilling a person\'s sensual needs, like food, water, and more. Moving higher in order, the Spirited is more focused on the feelings and emotions of the self. It is where man\'s courage is the measurement to perceive the best action to be done. The last is Rationality, which is represented by the brain of man. It is a symbol of man\'s capacity to reason. It is the highest part of the soul, driven by logic, to achieve the virtue of wisdom Plato presented his philosophical point of view differently from his teacher, Socrates. It is a manifestation of growth on his part and, at the same time, a display of his wit and wisdom that showcases his intelligent, political point of view and provocative stance on understanding the self through his ideological Theory of Forms and the parts of the soul without neglecting the influence of his mentor. Aristotle (384-322) - Father of Western Logic Aristotle is an ancient Greek philosopher who contributed significant knowledge in many fields of science. In addition, he is a prominent figure in Philosophy who unlocks philosophical inquiries on the comprehensive understanding of the self, ethics, and metaphysics and is known as the Father of Formal Logic. He is one of Plato\'s most influential students who chose a different path, and the difference between his philosophical endeavors and those of his mentor, Plato, is recognizable. Though his philosophical endeavor does not explicitly provide an extensive presentation on the analysis of the self, his ideas on understanding the self are embedded in his reflections by presenting the gap of self- awareness by presenting the nature of the self, the pursuit of virtue, and the quality of the human soul. Nature of the soul Aristotle conceptualizes the soul (psyche). According to him, \"All that exists has a soul\" The primary foundation for understanding it is the concept presented by his mentor Plato in the World of Forms and Matter. The form for Aristotle is the soul, and the Matter is the body. Provided that the being (a thing that exists) is alive, it has a soul within. Aristotle assumes that to have a soul is to have the function and property of the form. Hence, according to Aristotle, \"the soul is the actuality of the body that has life.\" It means that the soul is defined by the very essence of its relationship with the organic matter. It implies that all living things have souls and should be seen in a hierarchical order. The plants are the vegetative or nutritive soul. It has the power of growth, nutrition, and reproduction; though it is not animate, growth is visible and inevitable. While the animal soul is added with motion and perception, possessing a sensitive faculty that is common to every animal. Finally, the human soul is the rational soul that is driven not only by philosophy but also by science. Hence, man is a rational animal. The Flourishing \"THE GOOD LIFE\" The concept of Eudaimonia is also present in Aristotle\'s philosophy. The idea is that everyone has a purpose, and in understanding oneself, one must find a way to discover their purpose in life. It is often translated as the \"flourishing\" or \"the good life\". One can reach the flourishing of life by realizing one\'s potential and fulfilling one\'s purpose in life. This will significantly contribute to a deeper understanding of the self in finding the meaning of life and achieving authentic happiness or Eudaimonia. Hence, man\'s potential must be put to good use, and he must be aware of his potential before his actions and decisions in life. This statement is the message of Aristotle\'s writings in the book De Anima, which emphasizes self-reflection and contemplation as tool to understand oneself. Through exploring one\'s capacity and faculties, a person will significantly present oneself as a complete person. It practically reveals the reality and the potential of a person. Virtue and Development Aristotle believed that moral character is essential in understanding the self. Like his predecessors, he emphasized cultivating virtue as critical for reaching eudaimonia or human flourishing. But how is this achieved? It is through repetitive and correct consistency, or HABIT. Hence, Aristotle conceptualizes the self as part of society or a community. The self cannot be determined to be correct in Its actions without the community. This means that the connections of the soul towards others are necessary to understand the self. However, a holistic understanding of the individual must be considered by understanding its potentiality. recognizing the existence of the other souls, and the goal of flourishing oneself to reach the desired potentiality that will have a harmonious and dynamic relationship in understanding the self and the others in an interplay of existence. Medieval Period The Medieval Period is better known in Western Philosophy as the Christian Philosophical Era. The primary thinkers of the era also came from their religious perspectives, and many tried to prove their faith with reason or philosophy. The Medieval Period sought to unravel the origin of the self and the purpose of oneself by delving into the essence of man through the intricate interplay between the Supreme Being and man. This exploration is guided by the pillars of medieval thought. St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, who shape the understanding of man, his soul, and the relationship of man, nature, and the Divine. Thus, this timeless and classical pursuit of wisdom seeks to understand the self by understanding the soul and essence of man in its existence. St. Augustine (354-430)-Bishop of Hippo The life of St. Augustine best reflects his philosophical endeavor. He is a convert, traditionally believed with the prayers of his mother, Saint Monica. He is a philosopher- theologian and a doctor of the Roman Catholic Church who contributed to and protected the Church in Hippo from heresies as a bishop. He wrote many works in his life, but one that stands out is his book The Confessions (400 AD) (O\'Donnell, 2023). He explores various means of understanding the self until he realizes the importance of the Esse Purum (Pure Essence), The book presents his journey of self-discovery and conversion to Christianity. It presents his reflection on the nature of sin and his attempts and failings in understanding life, and it considerably presents the transformative grace of God in the process of authentic search for life. St. Augustine emphasizes the importance of introspection and the examination of conscience to contemplate the nature of man\'s memory, intellect, and deliberate actions, and whether they are aligned with the will of the Divine. Freedom of the Will The will is explained as the faculty of the mind to decide on its own based on reason and rational actions. Man can decide on his own. On the other hand, whether a man is free is on the table. St. Augustine attempts to answer this question by presenting the pressing struggle of man to become better. The choice of being good or bad is always in the hands of the individual. The role of shaping oneself is personal; thus, the individual decides to be good or bad, which is within his control. The Platonic Influence The philosophical thought of St. Augustine is adapted from the Platonic Tradition. This makes him a follower of Plato and one of the most influential figures in Christian Platonic Philosophy. One of the Platonic ideas adopted is the Theory of Forms. He believed that the final authority of determination is the use of reason in faith. In addition, the Tripartite Self of the Platonic is used by St. Augustine to explain further the self by discussing how these faculties interact with each other and contribute to the understanding of the self. In the earlier part of the lesson, you have learned that Plato presented his Tripartite by dividing the soul into three distinct parts, namely the Rational, Spirited, and Appetitive. of which the desire and function of the person is best explained through the Psyche in his book the Republic. On the other hand, although adapted from Platonic Philosophy, St. Augustine\'s Tripartite Self presents it differently. He delves into the human psyche to see the interconnectedness of the following faculties to reveal the self. They are the Memoria, Intellectus, and Voluntas. Memoria is way beyond the memory that one has; it is an important aspect that contributes to one\'s identity. It encompasses past experiences and the lessons learned from them. The man also learns some life lessons, making the lesson more valuable and creating a meaningful connection with his personal and future aspirations while at the same time longing for the Pure Essence. The other is Intellectus or the Intellect. For St. Augustine, it is the faculty of man to reason, understand and contemplate the Truth. He argues that man is always in search of the Truth. The perennial, unchanging Truth and its finality will always be directed towards the Supreme Being. This Intellectus is in constant search of it, but at the same time, the intellectus is in constant battle with the distractions of the world, worldly desires, and temptations. The last part is the Voluntas or the Will. The faculty is responsible for man\'s decision- making, whether to follow the intellect or be tempted. It is the part of the Tripartite of Augustine that is crucial to every man, and that is the choice. It is the choice to decide, the choice to do, and the choice not to do. It is the inviolable gift the Supreme Being gives man to determine his fate. On the other hand, man\'s desire to relate to the Supreme Being is always present. Hence, his judgments and reasoning can be clouded by his memories, experiences, and intellect. Therefore, the decision to follow or connect with the creator is available, yet it always remains in man\'s hands, whether to be in communion with God or not. The Tripartite model of Augustine tries to unravel the complexities of man\'s soul and the connection between its creator by explaining its connectedness. It is man\'s longing to be connected to his creator and find the meaning of all he has been doing without violating man\'s will or free will. It is the harmonious and longing relationship with the Creator that man seeks. This longing to relate to the Creator is why St. Augustine, in his Confession, said. \"My heart is restless unless it rests unto You.\" summarizing the importance of connecting towards the Divine to find meaning in life. St. Thomas of Aquinas (1224-1274)-Scholastic St. Thomas Aquinas is a doctor of the Church and philosopher. He christianized the works of Aristotle. Aristotle greatly influenced his philosophical point of view, in fact, analysis of his writings refers to Aristotle as \"The Philosopher.\" The main focus of St. Thomas in his philosophical endeavor is to understand human nature, the soul, and the relationship between faith and reason (fides et ratio) with the belief that one can reach an understanding and trust through reason and better understand the Word of God. He wrote the Summas with the intention of directing people to faith. The first is the Summa Contra Gentiles, written between 1259 to 1265 AD. It is a book of treaties presenting the truths of the Catholic faith against the errors and non-believers. Meanwhile, the Summa Theologica was written between 1266 and 1273 AD. It is the book that explains the theology of the Christian Faith to those who are studying sacred theology. View of the Self The critical aspect of St. Thomas Aquinas philosophical point of view of the self is View base The the perfection of the nature of man. Following Aristotle, man is the unity of the body and soul. The soul is the form of the body but added that the soul is immortal and has its theological dimension, for God creates it. Hence, man can achieve perfection by fulfilling one\'s purpose of union with God. St. Thomas Aquinas argues that man is also inclined to mistakes and sin due to the fall of man to sin. Thus, the soul journeys toward perfection by seeking God through a life of virtue and morality. St. Thomas Aquinas presents the relevance of the intellect and will in this matter. He believes that in understanding the self, the intellect allows man to contemplate the truth, enabling him to choose the good, an essential faculty for moral and rational decisions that will result in spiritual maturity and, hopefully, communion with God. This creates a harmonious relationship between faith and reason. Reason provides insights into the world, while faith guides toward ontological truth. Thus, the self reaches harmony with faith and reason. Modern Philosophy In the trajectory of philosophical thought, Modern Philosophy makes a profound shift in the search for the Ultimate Truth by challenging traditional thinking that paved the way for the Enlightenment period. They approach questions about knowledge, reality, and the self from different angles, offering a distinctive perception of the origin of knowledge, focusing on the nature of man that unveils the self\'s view based on what a man knows about himself rather than introspections and self-examination. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) The Cartesian Self and Methodic Doubt Rene Descartes is known as the father of Modern Philosophy. He initiated a new means of inquiring about the Truth through methodic doubt, away from the Socratic and Scholastic Philosophical Inquiry. The famous declaration of Descartes, \"Cogito, ergo sum\" (I think, therefore I am), directs towards an epistemological stance of rationalism of doubting what one knows and only believing knowledge that is proven true by authentic philosophical inquiry and rationalization. Asserting that knowledge begins with certainty and that the foundation of knowledge must be scrutinized for errors, for the senses can be deceived in many means, intentionally or unintentionally. In the inquiry on how to reach certain conclusions, Descartes suggested starting with the things we can be sure of, which are our existence. The fact that one cannot doubt our existence. Descartes realizes the importance of not doubting your existence, for one knows man\'s essence as a thinking entity. Hence, the human self is a thinking substance that doubts, reflects, understands, and reasons out. If a man reasons out truthfully, one can reach certainty. Man will realize the self as a dualistic entity, the self as a thinking substance, and, at the same time, material through the physical body. Making the mind or the soul the thinking substance while the body is a matter governed by the law of nature. Hence, the self is the composition of the body (material) and soul (thinking substance), functioning in different means but cannot exist without the other, as explained in the concept of dualism. His assertion that knowledge begins at a level of self-awareness creates an implication on the usefulness of methodological doubt in the epistemological framework of knowing oneself. David Hume (1711-1776). The Bundle Theory The Scottish philosopher David Hume presented a different outlook in explaining the self through experience. He emphasizes the role of the senses in building knowledge. He rejects the notion of man\'s innate nature to learning and the concept that prior knowledge must be rejected for experience is the means of learning. Hume proposed the bundle theory to represent the self. It sees the self as a collection of perceived experiences. The self collects experiences through impressions and creates ideas to explain the phenomenon. Thus, impressions are the first-hand sensations of experiences that let the self-learn. Therefore, knowing that self-experiences are processed establishes the idea of certainty in the subject matter. This implies that impressions are a continuous process of learning through experiences. Consequently, it claims that the perceived personality and self-identity are mere perceptions of the mind. John Locke (1632-1704) (The Tabula Rasa) John Locke proposed the concept of tabula rasa (blank slate) as the basis of the self. John Locke argues that the self\'s development begins at birth when the mind is empty and nothing is present. The reason is apparent from any innate knowledge and ideas for learning. and knowledge comes from sensory experiences. With this claim, Locke\'s perception of the self-implicates the understanding of the self because of all recorded experiences of the self. Consequently, the self is the collective consciousness of an individual from his past experiences, memories, and discernment. It implies that reason and experience are vital in understanding the self. It presents a powerful application of empirical observation of the self through introspection that enables the person to know about their personality and shape his/herself in the process. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). The Unity of The External And Internal Self The German philosopher Immanuel Kant claims that knowledge is gained through experience and rationalization. The self-categorizes knowledge as empirical (understanding) and rational (intrinsic). This calls for a transcendental deduction of the self, commonly known as the Transcendental Self. The self is an organized process of the external and internal self. The external self is concerned with empirical experiences, and those experiences enter the process through the senses. The sensual inputs of the self are raw. These experiences are subjective and cannot be argued wrong, as they are directly received by the external senses. The external inputs of the person are processed in the mind but not to be accepted to be a universal reality. Furthermore, Kant accepts the abstract reality of the world. It is a reality that posits universality and perennial truth, depicting accepted and realized principles without necessarily experiencing the situation or reality. In other words, the self is transcendental, for it goes beyond accepting empirical reality and abstract truth, creating a unified perception of Truth and the self through harmonious and continuous epistemological process. Post-Modern Existentialism is one of the post-modern disciplines that tries to study the reason for man\'s existence in the world. Whether man has the ultimate purpose in this world or needs to create his essence or reason for existence, it is a philosophical endeavor that all man must encounter to find meaning in one\'s life. As Kuhn stated, Existentialism is within the realms of man\'s reality. The touch of a living mind presents its rationalization based solely on its mental capacity and will. Telling that Existentialism is obedient in understanding all existential happenings in man\'s existence based on reason alone. Philosophical thinkers differ from Jean-Paul Sartre to Maurice Merleau-Ponty Albert Camus, Gabriel Marcel, Emmanuel Levinas, and many more. It has been perceived as a cultural movement in which the categorical moral imperative of authenticity is discussed to present the humanistic and authentic search for meaning. Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973). Primary and Secondary Reflection Gabriel Marcel presents his existential idea through reflections. It is commonly known as Christian Existentialism, for he based his philosophical and existential endeavors on answering relevant questions with the touch of the Christian perspective. With this, Marcel presented his idea of the primary and secondary reflection as a problem and mystery one encounters. The primary reflection focuses on perceiving the breaks and examines the object of abstraction of which actions and results of man\'s action have initially been acted upon. On the other hand, the secondary reflection recuperates or heals the action and unifies the action, hence finding a more profound meaning of why an action occurs (Stanford: Marcel Primary and Secondary Reflection). Therefore, one must refrain from permanently dwelling on the breaks or the primary reflections of the actions. Marcel rejected idealism, and one must deconstruct based on the breaks to respond to it. This epistemic moment grounded the ethical view of the self, or \"ethical self,\" that person can go beyond the limits of the primary reflections and sustain its existential meaning (Hernandez). As cited in Stanford, there is nothing extraordinary about secondary reflection. Unlike ordinary reflection, it is a critical reflection of a man\'s thoughts. The secondary reflection ends in a discovery of mystery and motivates man to act appropriately in the world. It aids a person in recovering something from the experience of the break. Hence, it is a dual critique aspect and allows a rational, objective, and recovering personal experience. This experiential insight into different non-conceptual or conceptual experiences can only fully express itself through more profound reflections on the events. (Sweetman, 2008, pp. 55-60). Enonanuel Levinas (1906-1995), The Face of the Other Emmauel Levinas presented the importance of the ego as the intrinsic identity of the self. It is naturally self-centered, honly focuses and acts to its advantage, as it acts to preserve and sustain its existence. It is the part of the human person struggling to protect life, every living being fights for itself and follows the rule of the strong. The idea of responsibility, respect, and love towards the other is nothing, primarily as a person discovers it, the concept of the struggle for life is vivid in the ego. The \"ego\" or \"I\" is a person\'s identity, which is a person\'s independent and primal identity. It is developing and will never remain the same from the start of man\'s existence. It is free and real, However, the \"I\" does not stay the same from the beginning of his existence. One has the primordial identity that gives an identity to a person, which comes from the ego, for the ego is natural and free. Indeed, the ego is free and authentic. In the action of the ego, it senses liberty, but the ego\'s existence does not remain there; the ego will continue to be in the world. Thus, change is present as it lives. The primordial value of the ego, which gives identity to existence, provides signs of growth and development as the ego gradually changes and improves the ego upon encountering others. As Levinas said in his book Totality and Infinity, \"The face speaks\... it renders possible and begins all discourse. I have just refused the notion of vision to describe the authentic relationship with the Other, it is discourse and, more precisely, response or responsibility which is this authentic relationship (Levinas, 1985, p.88),\" The other man\'s discourse should realize that the Other is higher himself. It implies that upon encountering the other, it is explicit that the Other will be discovered as more significant and higher than I am. With this, one is tempted to say yes. However, the other man realizes he cannot be without the other in the encounter. It is this encounter that develops an interest in the other. Hence, others will realize that to defeat the crisis, everyone must act by encountering the other Face to Face and realize its irreducibility as the Other. Maurice Merleau-Ponty (Embodied Subjectivity) Maurice Merleau-Ponty is a French Philosopher who argues that all knowledge is a phenomenon. The self is a realization of a person\'s experiences in the process. He articulated that people examine their learnings and knowledge and come to know the self through direct experiences. This experience level carries objectivity, but simultaneously, the realization and acceptance of the phenomenon are subjective. According to his book on the Phenomenology of Perception, people\'s awareness will always be contained through an objective factor. However, understanding the factor will always be subjective, as the self perceives the factors differently. In other words, the body experiences and embodies the objective world but has a different perspective, understanding. and relative experience, creating an embodiment of subjective experience based on an objective reality. Contrasting Western and Eastern Tradition Western Philosophical Tradition (Epistemological in Nature) As Price mentions, Western philosophy originates from Greece. It developed towards its maturity in Western Europe, where many thinkers such as St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Augustine, Descartes, and others used the Greek philosophers\' ideas as the basis to further their studies. The epistemological nature of Western philosophical tradition paves the way for the desire of the philosophers to learn the origin of knowledge that is a consequence of the sense of awe. Its concern for knowledge leads to scientific methods discerning whether something is true. Since the Western tradition is characterized by its scientific advancement and methods, it presents the ability to learn. It uses intellect to rationalize this while simultaneously becoming assertive and sometimes selfish, which an individualistic mentality is prominent, and self-development is much. On the other hand, Eastern philosophical traditions, originating in Asian regions tend to have a different perspective from those of the West. Eastern traditions see the connection of everything to understand life. The interconnectedness and collective consciousness of the world are important factors to consider. They see philosophy as part of their life and belief system, a guiding principle of life, and religious practices such as Buddhism. This implies that it firmly denies the existence of an individualistic self, for it would only cause suffering and pain (Dimikov, 2020). In addition, Eastern philosophy deals with the main idea of how to live in harmony with the world. It sees man\'s intellectual capacity as a guiding light to understand the essence of existence and the importance of the collective consciousness that creates order and harmony. Without these basic concepts, man will struggle and be in pain, for man only sees his importance in becoming self-centered. Hence, the self is an essence that does not exist. Giving importance to the self is equivalent to suffering and ignorance of the nature of the world. Hence, the following philosophical difference between the East and West Eastern Western Communal Development Egoistic Development Collective Individualistic Interdependence and connectedness Materialist and Rationalistic Life is a cycle (birth-death-rebirth) Linear (birth-death) Collective Autonomous The Eastern Thoughts Confucianism (Self-Cultivation) and The Tao (Way) Confucianism influenced Eastern Asia in terms of practices and philosophizing. Confucius, as the critical figure, presents his ideas through the Analects. As a culturally symbolic figure Before the Common Era (B.C.E.), he explained the way of life and suggested the importance of recognizing the social aspect of man\'s existence through self-cultivation. The \"Self,\" according to Confucianism, focuses on the importance of family and society\'s approval. The self is conceived and realized through interaction with the people and society. Hence, the self depends on society and others as a requirement to be better rather than following its desires and needs. Therefore, it is ideal for the self to be in harmony with society rather than going against the flow. In self-cultivation, the following concepts and qualities are presented to help people better understand how to cultivate themselves. Ren (Jen) presents the person\'s empathy towards the other by demonstrating the quality of Yi (I) in their actions. Hence, the question that must be answered is, \"How men treat one another.\" The following guides are suggested for cultivating the self The first is to know your intention (Zhi). Knowing the purpose and reason why you are doing things will give you an understanding why you are doing things. The second is learning (Xue). After learning the purpose, the learning itself becomes easier. Afterward, reflecting on the mandate is coming from heaven (Tianming), your desire (Yu), and the right thing to do (Yi) are checked to present if the way is correct and can lead to self-cultivation through self-reflection (Shu). Taoism or Daoism is a religious and philosophical practice that spread during the Han dynasty in China. The Tao promotes universality, and the way of life is to follow the flow that manifests the self in the process. Everything is part of the whole, and one must understand the importance of the flow (wuwei), the effortlessness of flowing the way. With Huawei, the natural inclination to nature (ziran) reveals the way (dao) to the self. With the explanations of Laozi in his writings, the Tao is one with nature. The Tao is the way and the manifestation of life\'s essence and the universe. This presents the self as a non-entity. There is no self at all, for man, as a perfect man, has no self, and achievements are just an illusion that makes the self \"selfish.\" Therefore, the self in Taoism is the way of selflessness, and the true sage (learned) has no title. Hinduism and Buddhism Hinduism is commonly known as a religious practice that originated in India. Though it is considered a philosophical movement, Hinduism is regarded as a philosophy and, at the same time, a spiritual practice based on their sacred texts, the Vedas. Most of the Vedas\' texts are religious in context, but they are considered contributive to philosophy and understanding of the concept of the self. Hindus believe in the Caste System. It is divided into four categories: The Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The categories are class structures in Indian society that are determined at the birth of the person, of which the birth of the person is based on their belief of re-incarnation, that your next life will be dependent on your actions. The Caste system is integrated into the society to determine the purity of its class. The Brahmans are the highest in the social class and are considered the priestly class capable of performing vital religious tasks. The Kshatriyas are the second social class, considered the warrior class. The Vaishyas are the third social class, considered merchants, and the Shudras are the fourth social class, considered laborers and artisans. The concept of karma is associated with Hinduism. Karma means action. The concept is explained as an action that will result in reciprocation in the same result in due time. Hence, the events in the person\'s life are determined by their past life and present actions, which will determine your future as you are incarnated. Siddhartha Gautama Buddha is the founder of Buddhism. Buddhism is considered a religion, but it is appropriately known as a movement or a lifestyle. Buddhism teachings do not have the concept of a god but rather focus on a person who reaches enlightenment. Buddhism believes that everyone can attain enlightenment and has the potential of becoming a Buddha if it is nurtured and cultivated. In cultivating the self. Learning the basic principle of life, commonly known as the Four Noble Truths, is needed. (1) There is suffering in life. (2) Suffering comes from the desire of the self. (3) Suffering can be ended. (4) Suffering can be eliminated. This noble truth suggests how to live a life commonly known as the Eightfold Path, which presents the right thing to do given (view, aspirations, speech, actions, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration). In Buddhism, the self is non-existent. The self is an illusion that causes suffering. The self is part of interdependence and is holistic. Hence, there is no god, no soul, and no self. Therefore, to reach nirvana, the person must realize that he/she is empty, and the self is just an illusion.