Philosophy Notes PDF

PHILOSOPHY immortality. 3) Aristotle (384–322 BCE) 1.1 Introduction to the Philosophy of - Aristotle studied under Plato and the Human Person...

PHILOSOPHY immortality. 3) Aristotle (384–322 BCE) 1.1 Introduction to the Philosophy of - Aristotle studied under Plato and the Human Person became a tutor to Alexander the Great. - His works span many disciplines. He developed a systematic approach to WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? logic, which became the foundation of - The term "philosophy" has its roots in Western logic. two Greek words: "philos" and "sophia.“ - His "Nicomachean Ethics" delves into - Philos: In Greek, "philos" (φίλος) refers virtue ethics and the pursuit of to love or friendship. It is often used to eudaimonia (flourishing). denote a strong affection or affinity for - Aristotle's "Metaphysics" explored the something or someone nature of reality, and his empirical - Sophia: "Sophia" (σοφία) translates to approach laid groundwork for natural wisdom or knowledge in Greek. It sciences represents a state of profound 4) Thales of Miletus (c. 624–546 BCE) understanding, insight, and clarity. - Thales is considered one of the first - When combined, "philosophy" literally philosophers because he sought natural means the "love of wisdom." explanations for phenomena instead of - relying on myths. MOST NOTABLE ANCIENT GREEK - He proposed that water was the PHILOSOPHERS fundamental substance from which all 1) Socrates (469–399 BCE) things arise, which was an early attempt - Socrates is known primarily through the at explaining the material world using a accounts of later classical writers, unified principle. particularly his student Plato. 5) Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BCE) - He engaged in a method of dialectical - Pythagoras founded a mystical and questioning to stimulate critical thinking philosophical school known as and self-examination. Pythagoreanism. - He believed in the pursuit of ethical - He believed in the importance of virtue and the importance of knowing mathematics and that numbers were the oneself. foundation of reality. - Socrates was put on trial and sentenced - The Pythagorean theorem is attributed to death for "corrupting the youth" and to him, although it likely emerged from "introducing new gods." He willingly the school he founded. accepted his punishment, drinking 6) Heraclitus (c. 535–475 BCE) hemlock, a poison. - Heraclitus is known for his doctrine of 2) Plato (427–347 BCE) change, emphasizing that everything is - Plato was a prolific writer and his in a state of flux. dialogues feature Socrates as the main - He famously said, "You cannot step into character in many of them. the same river twice." - He explored a wide range of subjects, - He believed that change was from ethics to metaphysics. fundamental to the nature of reality and - His theory of Forms suggests that there that unity is found in the tension of is a realm of perfect, unchanging opposites. concepts or forms that underlie the 7) Parmenides (c. 515–450 BCE) imperfect physical world. - Parmenides proposed that reality is - Plato's "Republic" discussed justice and unchanging and that change is an the ideal state, while his "Phaedo" illusion explores the nature of the soul and COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 1 PHILOSOPHY - He argued that the true nature of reality 1.1 Why is there a need to is a single, unchanging, and eternal being. His ideas were presented in a philosophize? poem called "On Nature." 8) Empedocles (c. 490–430 BCE) Critical Thinking: Philosophy - Empedocles introduced the concept of encourages critical examination of four classical elements (earth, water, air, beliefs, leading to a deeper fire) as the building blocks of the understanding of concepts and ideas. physical world. - He believed that these elements were Questioning Assumptions: It influenced by two cosmic forces: love challenges assumptions and (attraction) and strife (repulsion). preconceived notions, fostering 9) Democritus (c. 460–370 BCE) intellectual growth and openness to new - Democritus is known for his atomic perspectives. theory, which proposed that everything Ethical Reflection: Philosophical is composed of indivisible and inquiry helps individuals develop a indestructible particles called atoms. coherent ethical framework and make - He believed that reality could be well-reasoned moral decisions. explained through the interactions of Clarity of Thought: Philosophy refines these atoms in an infinite void. 10) Epicurus (341–270 BCE): communication skills and helps express - Epicurus founded Epicureanism, a complex ideas with clarity and precision. philosophy that emphasized seeking Metaphysical Exploration: It delves happiness (ataraxia) through the into questions about reality, existence, avoidance of pain and the cultivation of and the nature of the universe, simple pleasures. expanding our understanding of the - He believed that gods existed but were world. distant and uninterested in human Self-Understanding: Philosophical affairs. reflection aids in understanding personal 11) Zeno of Citium (334–262 BCE): values, beliefs, and motivations. - Zeno founded Stoicism, a philosophy that stressed living in accordance with Cultural Insights: Philosophical nature, cultivating virtue, and practicing exploration of cultural and historical self-control. ideas enhances cross-cultural - Stoics believed in enduring hardships understanding. with dignity and embracing challenges Resolving Conflicts: Philosophical as opportunities for growth. methods can aid in resolving conflicts by 12) Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BCE): fostering rational dialogue and empathy. - Diogenes was a Cynic philosopher who Guidance in Life: Philosophical rejected social norms and material frameworks offer guidance in navigating possessions. life's challenges and complexities. - He sought to live a simple life in accordance with nature and challenged Advancing Knowledge: Philosophy conventions through his actions and contributes to the advancement of teachings. human knowledge by addressing fundamental questions and promoting intellectual curiosity. COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 2 PHILOSOPHY Narrow Scope: Philosophers practicing partial thinking might delve deeply into a particular topic while neglecting its 1.2 HOLISTIC AND PARTIAL connections to other areas of THINKING IN PHILOSOPHY philosophy. Interconnectedness: Holistic thinking in Analytical Depth: Partial thinkers often philosophy involves considering the bring analytical depth to a specific issue, interconnected nature of various examining it from various angles and philosophical concepts, theories, and providing intricate details. perspectives. It recognizes that different Specialization: Philosophers engaged in aspects of philosophy can influence and partial thinking may specialize in a illuminate each other. particular branch of philosophy, such as Synthesis of Ideas: Holistic thinkers in ethics, metaphysics, or philosophy of philosophy aim to synthesize diverse mind, becoming experts in that specific philosophical viewpoints to create a area. more comprehensive understanding of Thematic Analysis: They may focus on complex issues. They seek connections and relationships between different themes that recur throughout theories. philosophical history and analyze how Systemic Approach: Philosophers different philosophers have approached using holistic thinking might adopt a these themes in isolation from each systemic approach, exploring how other. various philosophical ideas interact to Partial Thinking in Philosophy: form a coherent worldview or - Imagine a Puzzle Piece: Think of partial understanding. thinking like focusing on just one puzzle Integration of Disciplines: Holistic piece instead of looking at the whole philosophy often involves integrating picture. You're really good at insights from various disciplines like understanding that one piece, but you metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology might miss how it fits with the rest of to construct a unified perspective on the puzzle. fundamental questions. - Specialized Expertise: It's like becoming Emphasis on Context: Holistic thinkers an expert in a specific topic, like consider the historical, cultural, and superheroes or dinosaurs. You know a intellectual context in which lot about that one thing, but you might philosophical ideas emerged, not think about how it connects to other recognizing the impact of these factors things in the world. on philosophical thought. Holistic Thinking in Philosophy: 1.3 Partial Thinking in Philosophy - Picture the Whole Puzzle: Imagine looking at the entire puzzle, all the Focus on Specific Issues: Partial pieces put together. Holistic thinking is thinking in philosophy involves like understanding how all the pieces fit concentrating on specific philosophical and work together to create the big issues, theories, or arguments without picture. fully exploring their broader implications. COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 3 PHILOSOPHY - Seeing the Bigger Picture: It's like thinking about not just one part of a story, but how the whole story fits together. You try to understand how different ideas in philosophy connect to give us a better overall understanding of things. - Putting Pieces Together: Holistic thinking is like being a detective, trying to solve a mystery by collecting clues from different places and seeing how they all relate to figure out what's really Philosophy - etymologically going on. Philo – to love Sophia – wisdom So, partial thinking is about being really Philosophy – “love of wisdom” good at one thing but possibly missing Wisdom – is the goal of Philosophy how it fits with everything else. Philosophy – the science that by natural Holistic thinking is about understanding light of reason studies the first causes or how everything fits together to give us a highest principle of all things. better understanding of the world. Both Pythagoras – the first who introduced ways of thinking are important in the term, simply wanted to call himself a philosophy lover of wisdom. 2.0 The early Greek Philosophers/ Thinkers Pursuing Wisdom and Facing called themselves wise men out of Challenges in the Twenty-First humility Century Science - The investigation is systematic. - It follows certain steps or it employs certain procedures. 1.1 1.1 The Meaning of Philosophy - An organized body of knowledge Natural light of reason - Not using any other laboratory instrument or investigative tools - Not on the basis of supernatural revelation (Theology) - Philosopher is only using his natural capacity to think or simply human reasons - Unaided reason Study of all things - Other sciences concern only with a particular object of investigation Anthropology – the study of human beings in relation with the society Sociology – the study of society COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 4 PHILOSOPHY Philosophy studies human beings, - Aesthetics (The criteria of beauty) society, religion, language, and God, Special Branches of philosophy among other concerns. - Philosophy of Science Study of all things - Philosophy of state - Philosophers question almost anything - Philosophy of politics - It is multidimensional or holistic - Philosophy of mathematics First Cause or Highest Principle - Philosophy of education - Principle – is that from which something - Philosophy of law proceeds in any manner whatsoever. - Philosophy of language A) Principle of identity – whatever is “is”. How to attain wisdom? And whatever is not “is not”. Everything Through emptying is what it is. Everything is its own being, - Intellectually – simplicity and humility and non being is not being. - Empty cup is more useful than the full - e.g Chair is a chair. It cannot be a table. one. (Taoism) Everything has its own essence, an - Attain knowledge through docta identity different from others. ignorantia- knowing that I do not know B) Principle of Non- Contradiction – it is - True learning is not a blind obedience to impossible for a thing to be or not to be a master at the same time, and at the same Spiritually – poverty in spirit means respect. compassion. (Christian Philosophy) C) Principle of excluded Middle – a thing is Physically –refrain from the misuse of either is or is not; everything must be the senses, thereby emphasizing a either be or not be. Between being and unified whole. (Buddhism) not-being, there is no middle ground 1.2 Origin of Philosophy possible. Philosophy traces its roots in Ancient - e.g Devil – Angel; Evil-Good, Greece in the 6th Century BCE. - dead – alive Traditions had it that the word - Honest- dishonest Philosophy was first coined by D) Principle of Sufficient Reason – nothing Pythagoras, a Greek mathematician. exists without a sufficient reason for its He used this term to classify three being and existence. classes of people who attended the E) Domains of Philosophy, certain basic ancient Olympic Games as lovers of problems gain, lovers of honor; and lovers of - Nature of universe knowledge or wisdom (Caraan 2016, 2). - The standard of justice He favored the third class for not being - The validity of knowledge driven by profit nor honor. - The correct application of reason Instead, they sought ways to arrive at - The criteria of beauty the truth. He then called these people as philosophers. Among the ancient Five Branches of Philosophy Greeks, philosophers became pioneers - Metaphysics (Nature of universe) in history, biology, medicine, - Ethics (The standard of justice) mathematics, astronomy, and even - Epistemology (The validity of physics. knowledge) Greece is the birthplace of philosophy in - Logic (The correct application of reason) the West. To be more precise it is the COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 5 PHILOSOPHY ancient Greek city of Miletus in the Western coast of what is now Turkey that gave birth to philosophy. It is in this city that the first philosopher in the West, Thales, lived Thales is the Father of Philosophy in the Western civilization. He lived between 624 and 546 BCE, a contemporary of the Lydian king Croesus and the statesman Solon (Stumpf and Fieser,2008). What made Thales a philosopher is his desire to know the ultimate stuff that makes up the different things we Socrates went further not just asking perceive. questions for himself but poses He believes that there is One in the questions to people which is the Many. Thales was the first individual beginning of series of questions and who tried to reduce the multiplicity into a responses from participants. unity (Jones,1969). His method is called dialectics. The But his explanation of natural Socratic Method, also known as method phenomena is devoid of gods and of elenchus, elenctic method, or goddesses of the old religion of Greece. Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative It is completely rational. It represents a argumentative dialogue between departure from the mythological religion individuals, based on asking and of Greece. answering questions to stimulate critical Thales' approach highlights the thinking and to draw out ideas and difference between religion and underlying presuppositions. philosophy. Dialectics is a term used to describe a Religion rests on faith while philosophy method of philosophical argument that rests on reason.osophy involves some sort of contradictory process between opposing sides. 3.0 Why Become a Philosopher? As a dialectical method, it is a discourse between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to establish the truth through reasoned arguments. 1.1 Philosophical Tools and 18th century philosopher Georg Wilhelm Processes Friedrich Hegel expounded dialectics which later influenced Karl Marx, the father of communism. COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 6 PHILOSOPHY 2. Logical Reasoning. In philosophy reasoning is the process of thinking about something in a logical way in order to form a conclusion or judgment. It has been the method institutionalized by the triumvirate Greek philosophers specially Aristotle. Philosophy is about answering questions. Reasoning is the method we use in doing philosophy. 1.2 How is holistic different from partial thinking? 1.4 Why Do We Need Philosophy? The basis of the branch of Philosophy called Metaphysics. 1.3 Why does philosophy value Plato, Socrates’ student- draws the questioning? sharpest possible between reality and appearance. Nothing we experience in physical world without our five senses is real. According to Plato; COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 7 PHILOSOPHY Reality is unchanging, eternal, ❖ Truth immaterial, and can be detected only by ❖ language the Intellect. ❖ Science Plato calls these realities as ideas of ❖ Scientific knowledge forms. ❖ How do we acquire reliable knowledge? 1) Induction 2)Deduction How do we acquire reliable knowledge? ❖ 1. Through the senses. This method is called Induction and philosophers who feel that knowledge is acquired in this way are called empiricists. ❖ Empiricism – is the view that knowledge can be attained only through sense experience. Induction ❖ Particular things seen, heard, and touched are more important. ❖ General ideas are formed from the examination of particular facts which can be learned through the senses. ❖ Philosophers who feel that knowledge is acquired in this way are called How do we tell GOOD from evil or right from empiricists. (John Locke) wrong? ❖ Empiricism is the view that knowledge ❖ ETHICS – is the branch of Philosophy can be attained only through sense that explores the nature of moral virtue experience and evaluates human actions. How do we acquire reliable knowledge? ❖ It is generally a study of the nature of 2) Deduction Method moral judgements. ❖ To find a general law according to which Greek Triumvirate particular facts can be understood or ❖ SOCRATES, PLATO AND ARISTOTLE judged ❖ WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE HAPPY? ❖ Its advocates are rationalists. ❖ FOR SOCRATES, TO BE HAPPY, A ❖ What distinguishes real knowledge from PERSON HAS TO LIVE A VIRTUOUS mere opinion? LIFE. ❖ Real knowledge should be based on ❖ VIRTUE – is not something to be taught logic, the laws and the methods that or acquired thru education, but rather, it reason develops. is merely an awakening of the seeds of Deduction good deeds that lay dormant in the mind ❖ Other philosophers think it is more and heart of a person important to find a general law Epistemological problems according to which particular facts can ❖ Reliability, extent, and kinds of be understood or judged knowledge COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 8 PHILOSOPHY ❖ Its advocates are called rationalist ❖ This could be reasoning in science and (Rene Descartes) medicine, in ethics and law, in politics ❖ There is a distinction between real and commerce, in sports and games, knowledge from mere opinion. and in the affairs of everyday living. ❖ Real knowledge is based on the logic, ❖ Logic comes from the Greek word the laws, and the methods that reasons “logike” develop. ❖ Its concern is the truth or the validity of ❖ Example of this is Mathematics our arguments regarding such objects. Third approach (Pragmatism) ❖ A person who has studied logic is more ❖ Pragmatists, such as William James and likely to reason correctly than another. John Dewey, believe that value in use is Aesthetics the real test of truth and meaning. ❖ The meaning and truth of an idea are tested by its practical consequences. What is good reasoning? ❖ Reasoning is the concern of the logician. ❖ This could be reasoning in science and medicine, in ethics and law, in politics and commerce, in sports, and games and in mundane affairs of everyday living. ❖ Greek word: logike was coined by Zeno, the Stoic, a treatise on matters pertaining to human thought Logic ❖ Aristotle understood truth to mean the agreement of knowledge with reality. ❖ Truth exists when the mind's mental representations, known as ideas, correspond with things in the objective world. ❖ Logical reasoning makes us certain that our conclusions are true , and this provides us with accepted scientific proofs of universally valid propositions or statements. ❖ We are human beings possessed with reason. ❖ We use it when we make decisions or when we try to influence the decisions of others or when we engage in argumentation and debate. ❖ Reasoning is the concern of the logician. COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 9 PHILOSOPHY - Reflection is never exercised on things that are not worth the trouble of 4.0 Philosophical Reaction reflecting about. Philosophical Reflection ❖ Reflection is an activity that requires a ❖ When we venture into philosophizing we person to examine his or her thoughts, see the greater perspective of all things feelings and actions and learn from and see the ultimate purpose or reasons experience. (Abella, 2016). for our existence. ❖ Its trajectory is to see the bigger picture ❖ Reflection is the process that would aid about everything. This process is called in understanding the holistic point of philosophical reflection. view of what is going on around us. ❖ According to Gabriel Marcel, ❖ Socratic Method: The unreflected life is philosophical reflection is the act of not worth living. giving time to think about the meaning 1. Attain knowledge through docta and purpose of life. ignorantia- knowing that I do not know True learning is not a blind obedience to a master 2. An insight into reality - We need to know what it means to philosophize.It means able to think well that allows grasping the meaning of reality. An insight is a kind of seeing with the mind (Fr. Roque Ferriols) 3. Marcelian Reflection (Gabriel Marcel) 2 Levels of Reflection - The reality of human life puts us to task A. Primary Reflection in terms of questioning how and why = the act of deriving clear concepts from the things come to be. process of abstraction - We ask about meaning because it is = Abstraction refers to the analysis of concepts important. to look into the various aspects of an experience. Primary Reflection The attributes of objects are examined COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 10 PHILOSOPHY We do so by means of observation. world in his book Sex, Ecology, The different aspects of objects become Spirituality. manifest to the senses. Primary Reflection- which is the ability to think logically. The ability of the mind to construct and evaluate arguments. It examines its object by abstraction, by analytically breaking it down into its constituent parts. It is concerned with definitions, essences and technical solutions to problems. B) Second reflection - An attempt to go beyond what is physical Deals with reality that is truly felt from the inside This type is Introspective. ( from within) By it, we see life holistically. It refers to the innermost judgment about the holistic meaning of our experiences. - According to Marcel this type of reflection enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of reality. It integrates the fragmented and compartmentalized experience into a whole. It is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as whole, not merely as a collection of parts. - In order to reflect philosophically we need to use a framework. A framework is a conceptual map consisting of our views and beliefs which affects the way we view the world (Abella 2016). The framework we're going to use is called AQAL. It is an acronym that stands for All Quadrants All Levels first formulated by an American philosopher/psychologist Ken Wilber. Wilber first introduced AQAL to the COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 11 PHILOSOPHY - Example: Knowing that fire is hot through touch and reasoning. ❖ Rationalists like René Descartes (right) and Baruch Spinoza(left) believe that reasoning helps us understand things beyond sensory experiences. ❖ Perception and Concept Formation Perception: Experiencing reality through senses. Recognizing entities (dog, tree), qualities (colors), quantities (measurements), 4.0 Methods of Philosophizing relationships (in front of), and actions (running). Concepts: Grouping similar things to form concepts. ❖ What is Epistemology? Example: Seeing different people and - Epistemology is the study of how we recognizing them as "humans." acquire and validate knowledge. ❖ Propositions and Inferences Purpose Propositions: - Acquisition of Knowledge: How we gain Statements that assert or deny something. knowledge. Example: "Men are mortal." - Validation of Knowledge: Methods to Inference: check if our knowledge is true Using arguments (premises and conclusion) to - "Epistemology is a science devoted to demonstrate truth. the discovery of the proper method of Example: acquiring and validating Premise: All men are mortal. knowledge.“-Ayn Rand Premise: Socrates is a man. ❖ Nature of Knowledge Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. - Understanding Reality: ❖ The Nature of Truth Knowledge is awareness of reality Validating Knowledge: through observation or reasoning Determine if what we know is true knowledge. - Examples: Key Question: Knowing your friend’s behavior. "How did I come to this belief?" Understanding the movement of ❖ Validating Knowledge Process planets. Reduction: ❖ How We Acquire Knowledge Trace steps back through perception, concept, 1) Empiricism proposition, and inference. - Gaining knowledge through senses True knowledge rests on sense perception. (seeing, hearing, touching). Example: - Example: Knowing the table is brown by Confirm "I am alive" by feeling your seeing it. pulse or breathing 2) Rationalism ❖.Methods to Determine Truth - Using reason and logic to understand 1. Sense Perception: concepts. Directly observe through senses. COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 12 PHILOSOPHY Example: Feel your heartbeat to confirm individuals. Different people may have you're alive. different opinions about his leadership. Sports Achievements 2. Proof: Truth: Carlos Yulo won a medal Logical process based on sensory evidence. in gymnastics at the 2024 Olympics. Example: Belief in the right to life Evidence: This fact can be confirmed by supported by humans being rational animals. official Olympic records and news 3. Consensus: reports detailing the event and results. General agreement (with limitations). Opinion: "Carlos Yulo is the greatest Example: False belief in racial inferiority gymnast in Filipino history." in Nazi Germany. This statement reflects a personal belief 4. Testing Through Action: and may vary depending on one's Test beliefs in practice. criteria for greatness and knowledge of Example: Approach someone to see if other Filipino gymnasts. they are friendly. Religion Truth: The Philippines is predominantly a Catholic country, with over 80% of the 5.0 TRUTH VS OPINION population identifying as Roman Catholic. Evidence: This fact can be verified ❖ Truth refers to statements or facts that through demographic studies and are objectively verifiable and consistent surveys. with reality. They are not influenced by Opinion: "Catholicism is the true personal feelings or interpretations and religion." can be confirmed through evidence. This is a personal belief and varies Truths remain constant regardless of among people. Different individuals may personal beliefs or opinions. hold different religious beliefs. ❖ Opinion, on the other hand, refers to Why Distinguishing Between Truth and personal beliefs, interpretations, or Opinion Matters judgments. Opinions are subjective and Critical Thinking: It helps in evaluating can vary from person to person. They information critically, ensuring that one's are based on individual perspectives beliefs and decisions are based on facts and experiences and are not necessarily rather than unfounded opinions. supported by objective evidence Effective Communication: It fosters POLITICAL ISSUES clearer communication by distinguishing Truth: The Philippines held its factual statements from personal beliefs, presidential election on May 9, 2022. reducing misunderstandings. Evidence: This fact can be verified by Respectful Dialogue: Recognizing checking official election records and opinions as subjective encourages news reports. respect for differing perspectives and Opinion: "Bongbong Marcos is the best promotes constructive discussions. president for the Philippines." Informed Decision-Making: Decisions, This statement reflects a personal belief especially in public policy, law, and or judgment and varies among COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 13 PHILOSOPHY personal choices, are better made when ❖ Summary of Plato’s “Allegory of the grounded in verified truths. Cave” THEORIES OF TRUTH - Some prisoners are chained in a Correspondence Theory of Truth cave, facing the wall. Behind - A statement is true if it accurately them, there's a fire and people describes reality. passing by, casting shadows on - True: "The jeepney is a common mode the wall. The prisoners have of transportation in the Philippines." been chained like this their - False: "The Philippines experiences whole lives and can only see winter snow every year.“ and hear these shadows and - Paradox:"I am lying." If true, it's false; if echoes. false, it's true. - One day, a prisoner is freed and Paradox: taken outside. At first, the bright "I am lying." If true, it's false; if false, it's true. light blinds and confuses him, but eventually, he adjusts and Coherence Theory of Truth sees the real world and the sun. - A belief is true if it is consistent with He realizes that the shadows in other beliefs or knowledge systems. the cave were just illusions and - Examples: that life outside is much better. - Test: "All Filipinos speak Tagalog" vs. He feels sorry for the other known diversity of languages. prisoners still in the cave. - Assumption: A person wearing a barong - When he returns to share his Tagalog is attending a formal event. discovery, the other prisoners Pragmatist Theory of Truth ridicule him because he - A belief is true if it proves useful or struggles to see in the dark works in practice. cave. They resist being freed - Examples: and even try to kill him. - Useful Belief: Using organic fertilizers improves harvest. - Pamahiin (Superstition): Not sweeping 6.0 PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS the floor at night to avoid bad luck. - Note: Values practical outcomes, not (METHODS OF always aligned with objective truth PHILOSOPHIZING PART II) ❖ Summary: ❖ Correspondence Theory: Truth matches The Dialectic Method reality. -Created by Socrates, a Greek ❖ Coherence Theory: Truth is consistent philosopher. with other beliefs. This method involves asking and ❖ Pragmatist Theory: Truth is what works answering questions to stimulate critical in practice. thinking and illuminate ideas. ❖ Applicability:- Different theories may Socrates used disciplined conversation apply in different situations to to challenge and refine people's understand the truth. understanding of concepts, leading COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 14 PHILOSOPHY them to realize their ignorance and - Husserl emphasized setting aside correct mistakes. biases to understand pure experience, a - Although Socrates was eventually process he called "bracketing." executed for his ideas, his method - This method focuses on how we influenced many, including the German experience things directly, without letting philosopher Hegel, who adapted it into a biases or preconceived notions get in process of evolving ideas (thesis, the way. antithesis, synthesis). - Example: Think about the experience of - Example: Imagine you’re in a debate drinking coffee. A phenomenologist about justice. Someone says, “Justice is would ask, “What does the taste of giving people what they deserve.” Using coffee feel like in the moment, without the Socratic method, you might ask, thinking about caffeine or health “What does ‘deserve’ mean?” or “Can benefits?” The focus is purely on the someone deserve something bad?” immediate experience—how the coffee Through this questioning, you reveal smells, tastes, and feels contradictions or unclear definitions, Primary and Secondary Reflections pushing the person to think deeper and - Linked to existentialism, influenced by refine their understanding of justice. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche. The Pragmatic Method - To explore the self and existence. - Developed in 19th century America by - Gabriel Marcel distinguished between philosophers like Charles S. Pierce and primary reflection (surface level William James. understanding) and secondary reflection - To make philosophy practical by solving (deeper understanding that unites the real-life problems, rather than just self and the world). forming beliefs. - These reflections involve different levels - Pragmatists test ideas by their practical of thinking about an experience or outcomes—whether they solve concept. problems or create success. - Example: Suppose you lose your phone. - Example: Suppose you’re deciding Your primary reflection is practical: between two diets. One diet promises “Where did I last see it? Was it in my health benefits based on scientific bag?” You retrace your steps, trying to research, while the other is popular but find it. But then you have a secondary lacks scientific backing. A pragmatist reflection: “Why do I feel so anxious would ask, “Which diet has helped more without my phone? Does it define a part people achieve lasting health?” The diet of who I am?” This deeper thinking that shows better real-world results helps you understand the broader would be considered the better choice. significance of the object. Phenomenological Method The Analytic Method - Created by Edmund Husserl in the 19th - Developed by philosophers like century. Wittgenstein and Russell. - To understand experiences without - To clarify language and thought, rather preconceived notions, focusing on how than creating new systems of ideas. things appear to us. - Analyzes how words are used in different contexts, emphasizing that COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 15 PHILOSOPHY language follows specific rules, much - Example: "I’m sure you want to have an like games. iPhone. Almost 80% of your - Example: Consider the word “freedom.” schoolmates are using it." An analytic philosopher might ask, ❖ Argumentum ad Tradition (Appeal to “What does ‘freedom’ mean in different Tradition) contexts? Does it mean freedom from - Description: Arguing that something is oppression, freedom to do anything you right because it has always been done want, or something else?” By analyzing that way. how the word is used, they clarify its - Example: "All of us in the family have meaning. been devout Catholics, so it is only right that you will be baptized as a Catholic." ❖ Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance) 7.0 Fallacies - Description: Claiming something is true because it hasn't been proven false. - Example: "According to Zecharia ❖ Fallacies are errors in reasoning that Sitchin, Adam was the first test tube undermine the logic of an argument baby. Since nobody proves otherwise, it ❖ Argumentum ad Hominem (Attacking must be true." the Person) ❖ Petitio Principii (Begging the - Description: Attacking the person Question/Circular Reasoning) instead of addressing the argument. - Description: Assuming the conclusion - Example: "How can we believe him within the premises; circular reasoning. when he talks about social distancing? - Example: "God exists because the Bible He is a lawyer who is a liar." says so. The Bible is inspired. Therefore, we know that God exists." ❖ Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to ❖ Hasty Generalization Force) - Description: Reaching a general - Description: Using threat or force to conclusion based on insufficient advance an argument. evidence. - Example: "TV Patrol is the best news - Example: "Our neighbor who is a police program on TV. If you don’t believe me, I officer was convicted of being a drug won’t let you watch TV." dealer, therefore, all police officers are ❖ Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal drug dealers." to Pity) ❖ Cause and Effect (Post Hoc Ergo - Description: Using emotions such as Propter Hoc) pity to persuade someone. - Description: Assuming that because two - Example: "Forgive me, officer. We don't events occur together, one caused the have food, so I had to go out. I didn't other. violate the Bayanihan Act." - Example: "My teacher didn’t collect the ❖ Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to the homework two weeks in a row when my People/Bandwagon Fallacy) friend was absent. Therefore, my friend - Description: Suggesting that something being absent is why my teacher didn’t is true because it is popular. collect the homework." COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 16 PHILOSOPHY - ❖ Fallacy of Composition - Description: Assuming that what is true of a part is true of the whole. - Example: "You are a doctor, therefore you came from a family of doctors." ❖ Fallacy of Division - Description: Assuming that what is true of the whole must be true of the parts. - Example: "Your family is smart, therefore you are smart." ❖ Fallacy of Equivocation - Description: Using a word in different contexts with different meanings to create a misleading argument. - Example: "Humans walk by their legs. The table has legs. Therefore, the table walks by its legs." COURSE / YEAR LEVEL | SEMESTER # | QUARTER # | SUBJECT NAME | PROFESSOR’S NAME PAGE 17