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Questions and Answers
What is the primary focus of functionalism in psychology?
What is the primary focus of functionalism in psychology?
What is the correct sequence of prenatal development stages?
What is the correct sequence of prenatal development stages?
Which age marks the beginning of significant myelination in brain development?
Which age marks the beginning of significant myelination in brain development?
What role do teratogens play in prenatal development?
What role do teratogens play in prenatal development?
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At what age does the limbic system primarily begin to develop?
At what age does the limbic system primarily begin to develop?
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Which process occurs after most neurons have formed in the brain?
Which process occurs after most neurons have formed in the brain?
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What aspect of brain development is affected by a lack of communication and a healthy environment during childhood?
What aspect of brain development is affected by a lack of communication and a healthy environment during childhood?
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What cognitive function is primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex during adolescence?
What cognitive function is primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex during adolescence?
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What is the central crisis of adolescence according to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development?
What is the central crisis of adolescence according to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development?
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What role do sensory neurons play in the nervous system?
What role do sensory neurons play in the nervous system?
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Which part of the neuron is primarily responsible for integrating information?
Which part of the neuron is primarily responsible for integrating information?
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What is the function of dopamine in the brain?
What is the function of dopamine in the brain?
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During puberty, what is primarily developed?
During puberty, what is primarily developed?
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What is a primary effect of aging on cognition?
What is a primary effect of aging on cognition?
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What is the primary function of myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the primary function of myelin sheath in neurons?
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What distinguishes polygenic inheritance from Mendelian inheritance?
What distinguishes polygenic inheritance from Mendelian inheritance?
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What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?
What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?
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Which part of the brain is responsible for the transfer of information between the left and right hemispheres?
Which part of the brain is responsible for the transfer of information between the left and right hemispheres?
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What does neurogenesis refer to?
What does neurogenesis refer to?
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The autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for regulating which of the following?
The autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for regulating which of the following?
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Which characteristic is crucial for a good scientific theory?
Which characteristic is crucial for a good scientific theory?
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During which period is the brain known to be exceedingly plastic?
During which period is the brain known to be exceedingly plastic?
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What type of research study examines how variables are naturally related?
What type of research study examines how variables are naturally related?
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What is the main purpose of the scientific method?
What is the main purpose of the scientific method?
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What is a primary limitation of correlation studies?
What is a primary limitation of correlation studies?
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Which aspect of a study does internal validity measure?
Which aspect of a study does internal validity measure?
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What does a positive correlation indicate?
What does a positive correlation indicate?
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How does random assignment improve a study's validity?
How does random assignment improve a study's validity?
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What characterizes reliability in research results?
What characterizes reliability in research results?
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What is the significance of a correlation coefficient of 0.8?
What is the significance of a correlation coefficient of 0.8?
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What is a potential drawback of experimental studies?
What is a potential drawback of experimental studies?
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What is observer bias?
What is observer bias?
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What is the primary difference between sensation and perception?
What is the primary difference between sensation and perception?
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What role does the thalamus play in the perception pathway?
What role does the thalamus play in the perception pathway?
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Which type of processing begins with sensory input without any preexisting knowledge?
Which type of processing begins with sensory input without any preexisting knowledge?
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What characteristic distinguishes fast pain fibers from slow pain fibers?
What characteristic distinguishes fast pain fibers from slow pain fibers?
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Which of the following describes the absolute threshold in sensation?
Which of the following describes the absolute threshold in sensation?
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Study Notes
Critical Thinking
- Involves systematically questioning and evaluating new information
- Relies on well-supported evidence
- Weighs facts, considers the source, uses logic and reasoning to see if information makes sense
- Considers alternate explanations
Nature vs. Nurture
- Ongoing debate surrounding the influence of biology and environment on development
Functionalism
- Concerned with the adaptive purpose or function of mind and behavior
- Largely attributed to William James
- Focuses on the brain as a whole rather than its individual components
Stages of Prenatal Development
- Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks
- Embryo: 2 weeks to 2 months, considered the most sensitive stage of development
- Fetus: 2 months to birth
Teratogens
- Agents that can harm a developing fetus or embryo
- Examples: alcohol, caffeine, drugs, viruses, and bacteria
- May impair development
- Can have long-lasting effects that occur years after exposure
- Known teratogen: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Brain Development
- Two key aspects of early brain growth:
- Specific areas mature and become functional
- The brain learns to communicate through synaptic connections
- The brain matures through myelination, wrapping axons in a fatty insulator
- At age 4, the brain is 80% of its adult size
- Synaptic pruning eliminates unnecessary connections
- A healthy environment and communication are crucial for brain development
Adolescence: Prefrontal Cortex and Limbic Systems
- Limbic system develops early (ages 10-12), regulating emotions
- Prefrontal cortex develops later (mid-to-late 20s), responsible for decision-making and reasoning
- This developmental imbalance often leads to teenagers acting based on their emotions
Puberty
- Marks the beginning of adolescence
- Process leading to sexual maturity and reproduction
- Timing varies based on individual biology and environmental factors
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
- Each stage of growth is marked by a central crisis
- Adolescence is characterized by the crisis of establishing a sense of identity
Effects of Aging on Cognition
- Steady decline in overall health and frontal lobe shrinkage occurs throughout adulthood
Nature & Nurture
- Genotype: Individual's genetic makeup
- Phenotype: Observable characteristics resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment
- Environment: Surrounding influences
- Epigenetics: How the environment can alter gene expression
Mendelian vs. Polygenic Inheritance
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Mendelian: Involves a dominant and recessive gene
- Dominant gene is expressed if present in at least one parent
- Recessive gene is only expressed when paired with the same recessive gene from the other parent
- Polygenic: In humans, inheritance is typically polygenic, meaning multiple genes influence traits
Types of Neurons
- Sensory (afferent): Detect stimuli from the environment and transmit information to the brain
- Motor (efferent): Responsible for muscle contractions and relaxations, enabling movement
- Interneurons: Act as intermediaries between sensory and motor neurons
Neural Structure, Function, and Communication (Synaptic Transmission)
-
Neuron: Basic unit of the nervous system
- Dendrite: Detects chemical signals from neighboring neurons
- Cell body: Integrates information collected from dendrites
- Axon: Transmits electrical impulses
- Myelin sheath: Fatty insulator formed by glial cells, accelerating information transfer along the axon
- Terminal buttons: Release chemicals
Serotonin and Dopamine
- Serotonin: Plays a role in mood regulation
- Dopamine: Associated with experiences of reward
Cerebral Cortex and Corpus Callosum
-
Cerebral cortex: Outer layer of the brain responsible for language, learning, memory, emotions, and more
- Occipital lobe: Responsible for vision
- Temporal lobe: Responsible for hearing and memory
- Parietal lobe: Processes touch sensations and spatial awareness
- Frontal lobe: Responsible for thought, planning, and movement
- Corpus callosum: Connects the left and right hemispheres, enabling information transfer
Autonomic Nervous System
- Regulates involuntary bodily processes like heart rate, digestion, breathing, blood pressure, and pupil dilation
- Carries signals from glands and organs to the central nervous system
Plasticity
- The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experiences
- Includes neurogenesis, the formation of new neurons
Critical Period
- A specific timeframe during which particular experiences must occur for normal development
- The brain is highly plastic during this period, allowing for reorganization in response to the environment
What Makes Good Theory
- Generates testable questions and variables that are measurable and repeatable
Scientific Method
- Procedure for observing and measuring phenomena to answer empirical questions
- Aims to be more objective than casual observation and free from bias
Three Elements of the Scientific Method
- Theory: Explanation or idea of how a phenomenon works
- Hypothesis: Specific, testable prediction about the outcome that supports the theory
- Research: Systematic and careful data collection
Three Types of Studies
- Descriptive: Observing and noting behavior to provide a systematic analysis
-
Correlational: Examining relationships between variables in the real world without manipulation
- Useful for identifying relationships
- Cannot establish causation
- External, unmeasured factors may influence relationships
-
Experimental: Testing a causal hypothesis by manipulating variables
- Provides strong evidence for cause and effect
- Highly controlled environment may not be applicable to the real world
- Can be costly and time-consuming
Reliability vs. Validity
- Reliability: Consistency of results
- Validity: Accuracy of results
- A result can be reliable but not valid if it is consistent but inaccurate
Internal vs. External Validity
- Internal Validity: Degree to which a study can establish a causal relationship without external interference
- External Validity: Extent to which the results can be generalized to other settings, populations, and times
Correlations
- Positive: Both variables increase or decrease together
- Negative: As one variable increases, the other decreases
- Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from -1 to 1, indicating the strength of the correlation
Observer Bias
- Errors that occur due to an observer's expectations or preconceived notions
Random Assignment vs. Random Sampling
- Random Sampling: Selecting participants from a population to be included in a study
- Random Assignment: Randomly allocating participants into different experimental groups
Significance Testing
- Determines whether study results are likely real or occurred by chance
Sensation vs. Perception
- Sensation: Detection of external stimuli by sensory organs
- Perception: Interpretation of sensory signals by the brain, influenced by past experiences, expectations, and context
Perception Pathway (and the Exception)
- Sensory receptors: Specialized cells that detect stimuli and send information to connecting neurons
- Connecting neurons transmit information to the thalamus, which relays it to the primary sensory cortex for interpretation
- Smell is the exception to this pathway
Sensory Thresholds
- Absolute threshold: Minimum intensity of stimulation required for detection 50% of the time
Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing
- Top-down processing: Using prior knowledge and context to interpret sensory data
- Bottom-up processing: Perception begins with sensory input, without prior experience
Visual Pathway
- Rods: Detect black and white, important for night vision
- Cones: Responsible for color vision, women tend to have more cones than men
Senses and Their Receptors
- Hearing: Vibration and movement cause hair cells to move, transmitting a signal to the auditory nerve
-
Touch: Various receptors detect temperature, pain, and pressure
- Fast fibers: convey sharp, fast pain for immediate detection and protection, more myelinated
- Slow fibers: convey chronic, dull pain for recuperation, less myelinated
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Description
Explore key concepts in psychology related to critical thinking, nature vs. nurture, functionalism, and prenatal development stages. This quiz covers important factors that influence human development, including the impact of teratogens. Test your understanding of these foundational topics in psychology.