Psychology Chapter on Developmental Theories

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of functionalism in psychology?

The study of cognitive processes in isolation

The adaptive purpose and function of mind and behavior (correct)

The analysis of behavior through classical conditioning

The differentiation between normal and abnormal psychology

What is the correct sequence of prenatal development stages?

Zygote, Fetus, Embryo

Embryo, Zygote, Fetus

Fetus, Embryo, Zygote

Zygote, Embryo, Fetus (correct)

Which age marks the beginning of significant myelination in brain development?

At birth

During adolescence

At the age of 4 (correct)

After the age of 25

What role do teratogens play in prenatal development?

They can harm the developing fetus or embryo. Signup and view all the answers

At what age does the limbic system primarily begin to develop?

Around 10-12 years Signup and view all the answers

Which process occurs after most neurons have formed in the brain?

Synaptic pruning Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of brain development is affected by a lack of communication and a healthy environment during childhood?

Underdeveloped brain functions Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive function is primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex during adolescence?

Decision making and reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What is the central crisis of adolescence according to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development?

Establishing a sense of identity Signup and view all the answers

What role do sensory neurons play in the nervous system?

Detect stimuli from the environment Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the neuron is primarily responsible for integrating information?

Cell body Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of dopamine in the brain?

Facilitating reward experiences Signup and view all the answers

During puberty, what is primarily developed?

Sexual maturity Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary effect of aging on cognition?

Shrinking frontal lobes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of myelin sheath in neurons?

Speed up information transfer Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes polygenic inheritance from Mendelian inheritance?

Multiple genes influence the trait Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?

Responsible for vision Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is responsible for the transfer of information between the left and right hemispheres?

Corpus callosum Signup and view all the answers

What does neurogenesis refer to?

The formation of new neurons Signup and view all the answers

The autonomic nervous system is primarily responsible for regulating which of the following?

Involuntary bodily processes Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is crucial for a good scientific theory?

Generation of testable questions Signup and view all the answers

During which period is the brain known to be exceedingly plastic?

Early childhood Signup and view all the answers

What type of research study examines how variables are naturally related?

Correlational study Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the scientific method?

To observe and measure phenomena objectively Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary limitation of correlation studies?

They cannot determine if one variable causes changes in another. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of a study does internal validity measure?

The accuracy in determining cause-and-effect relationships. Signup and view all the answers

What does a positive correlation indicate?

Both variables increase or decrease together. Signup and view all the answers

How does random assignment improve a study's validity?

It minimizes the impact of external factors by evenly distributing variables. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes reliability in research results?

Results are consistent across different studies. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of a correlation coefficient of 0.8?

It shows a strong positive correlation. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential drawback of experimental studies?

They may not simulate real-world conditions effectively. Signup and view all the answers

What is observer bias?

When the observer's expectations skew the results. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between sensation and perception?

Sensation is the detection of external stimuli, while perception is the interpretation of those stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the thalamus play in the perception pathway?

It serves as a relay station for sensory information before it reaches the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of processing begins with sensory input without any preexisting knowledge?

Bottom-up processing Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic distinguishes fast pain fibers from slow pain fibers?

Fast pain fibers are more myelinated, allowing for quicker signal transmission. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the absolute threshold in sensation?

The minimum intensity of stimulation that leads to a sensation 50% of the time. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Critical Thinking

Involves systematically questioning and evaluating new information
Relies on well-supported evidence
Weighs facts, considers the source, uses logic and reasoning to see if information makes sense
Considers alternate explanations

Nature vs. Nurture

Ongoing debate surrounding the influence of biology and environment on development

Functionalism

Concerned with the adaptive purpose or function of mind and behavior
Largely attributed to William James
Focuses on the brain as a whole rather than its individual components

Stages of Prenatal Development

Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks
Embryo: 2 weeks to 2 months, considered the most sensitive stage of development
Fetus: 2 months to birth

Teratogens

Agents that can harm a developing fetus or embryo
Examples: alcohol, caffeine, drugs, viruses, and bacteria
May impair development
Can have long-lasting effects that occur years after exposure
Known teratogen: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Brain Development

Two key aspects of early brain growth:
- Specific areas mature and become functional
- The brain learns to communicate through synaptic connections
The brain matures through myelination, wrapping axons in a fatty insulator
At age 4, the brain is 80% of its adult size
Synaptic pruning eliminates unnecessary connections
A healthy environment and communication are crucial for brain development

Adolescence: Prefrontal Cortex and Limbic Systems

Limbic system develops early (ages 10-12), regulating emotions
Prefrontal cortex develops later (mid-to-late 20s), responsible for decision-making and reasoning
This developmental imbalance often leads to teenagers acting based on their emotions

Puberty

Marks the beginning of adolescence
Process leading to sexual maturity and reproduction
Timing varies based on individual biology and environmental factors

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Each stage of growth is marked by a central crisis
Adolescence is characterized by the crisis of establishing a sense of identity

Effects of Aging on Cognition

Steady decline in overall health and frontal lobe shrinkage occurs throughout adulthood

Nature & Nurture

Genotype: Individual's genetic makeup
Phenotype: Observable characteristics resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment
Environment: Surrounding influences
Epigenetics: How the environment can alter gene expression

Mendelian vs. Polygenic Inheritance

Mendelian: Involves a dominant and recessive gene
- Dominant gene is expressed if present in at least one parent
- Recessive gene is only expressed when paired with the same recessive gene from the other parent
Polygenic: In humans, inheritance is typically polygenic, meaning multiple genes influence traits

Types of Neurons

Sensory (afferent): Detect stimuli from the environment and transmit information to the brain
Motor (efferent): Responsible for muscle contractions and relaxations, enabling movement
Interneurons: Act as intermediaries between sensory and motor neurons

Neural Structure, Function, and Communication (Synaptic Transmission)

Neuron: Basic unit of the nervous system
- Dendrite: Detects chemical signals from neighboring neurons
- Cell body: Integrates information collected from dendrites
- Axon: Transmits electrical impulses
- Myelin sheath: Fatty insulator formed by glial cells, accelerating information transfer along the axon
- Terminal buttons: Release chemicals

Serotonin and Dopamine

Serotonin: Plays a role in mood regulation
Dopamine: Associated with experiences of reward

Cerebral Cortex and Corpus Callosum

Cerebral cortex: Outer layer of the brain responsible for language, learning, memory, emotions, and more
- Occipital lobe: Responsible for vision
- Temporal lobe: Responsible for hearing and memory
- Parietal lobe: Processes touch sensations and spatial awareness
- Frontal lobe: Responsible for thought, planning, and movement
Corpus callosum: Connects the left and right hemispheres, enabling information transfer

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary bodily processes like heart rate, digestion, breathing, blood pressure, and pupil dilation
Carries signals from glands and organs to the central nervous system

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experiences
Includes neurogenesis, the formation of new neurons

Critical Period

A specific timeframe during which particular experiences must occur for normal development
The brain is highly plastic during this period, allowing for reorganization in response to the environment

What Makes Good Theory

Generates testable questions and variables that are measurable and repeatable

Scientific Method

Procedure for observing and measuring phenomena to answer empirical questions
Aims to be more objective than casual observation and free from bias

Three Elements of the Scientific Method

Theory: Explanation or idea of how a phenomenon works
Hypothesis: Specific, testable prediction about the outcome that supports the theory
Research: Systematic and careful data collection

Three Types of Studies

Descriptive: Observing and noting behavior to provide a systematic analysis
Correlational: Examining relationships between variables in the real world without manipulation
- Useful for identifying relationships
- Cannot establish causation
- External, unmeasured factors may influence relationships
Experimental: Testing a causal hypothesis by manipulating variables
- Provides strong evidence for cause and effect
- Highly controlled environment may not be applicable to the real world
- Can be costly and time-consuming

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability: Consistency of results
Validity: Accuracy of results
A result can be reliable but not valid if it is consistent but inaccurate

Internal vs. External Validity

Internal Validity: Degree to which a study can establish a causal relationship without external interference
External Validity: Extent to which the results can be generalized to other settings, populations, and times

Correlations

Positive: Both variables increase or decrease together
Negative: As one variable increases, the other decreases
Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from -1 to 1, indicating the strength of the correlation

Observer Bias

Errors that occur due to an observer's expectations or preconceived notions

Random Assignment vs. Random Sampling

Random Sampling: Selecting participants from a population to be included in a study
Random Assignment: Randomly allocating participants into different experimental groups

Significance Testing

Determines whether study results are likely real or occurred by chance

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation: Detection of external stimuli by sensory organs
Perception: Interpretation of sensory signals by the brain, influenced by past experiences, expectations, and context

Perception Pathway (and the Exception)

Sensory receptors: Specialized cells that detect stimuli and send information to connecting neurons
Connecting neurons transmit information to the thalamus, which relays it to the primary sensory cortex for interpretation
Smell is the exception to this pathway

Sensory Thresholds

Absolute threshold: Minimum intensity of stimulation required for detection 50% of the time

Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing

Top-down processing: Using prior knowledge and context to interpret sensory data
Bottom-up processing: Perception begins with sensory input, without prior experience

Visual Pathway

Rods: Detect black and white, important for night vision
Cones: Responsible for color vision, women tend to have more cones than men

Senses and Their Receptors

Hearing: Vibration and movement cause hair cells to move, transmitting a signal to the auditory nerve
Touch: Various receptors detect temperature, pain, and pressure
- Fast fibers: convey sharp, fast pain for immediate detection and protection, more myelinated
- Slow fibers: convey chronic, dull pain for recuperation, less myelinated

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Description

Explore key concepts in psychology related to critical thinking, nature vs. nurture, functionalism, and prenatal development stages. This quiz covers important factors that influence human development, including the impact of teratogens. Test your understanding of these foundational topics in psychology.