Mi'kmaq Study Guide PDF

1. Land Bridge theory 2. Coastal theory 3. Mi’kmaq and European concept of land ownership 4. Seven Districts (just that there were seven-don’t memorize names) 5. Creation Story-Glooscap-three bolts of lightning for him to stand up 6. Food sources 7. Shelter 8. Tran...

1. Land Bridge theory 2. Coastal theory 3. Mi’kmaq and European concept of land ownership 4. Seven Districts (just that there were seven-don’t memorize names) 5. Creation Story-Glooscap-three bolts of lightning for him to stand up 6. Food sources 7. Shelter 8. Transportation 9. Clothing 10. European interaction-first contact-results and consequences 11. Vikings in Newfoundland 12. Early fishing by Europeans 13. Samuel de Champlain and Mathieu DeCosta 14. Port Royal-1605 15. Trade between the Mi’kmaq and Europeans 16. Jesuit missionaries begin converting the Mi’kmaq to Christianity (Catholic), Henri Membertou 17. Traditional three levels of government for the Mi’kmaq 18. Traditional ceremonies and sacred objects using these notes make me a study guide with all the topics on top: Local Chiefs (Lowest level) 1) There are local chiefs, selected according to clans/groups living within each district, who in turn elect a local chief. 2) Presides over the Council of Elders that was made up of the heads of families Responsibilities: Making decisions within local areas Take care of supplies, dogs, canoes, hunting, emergencies (providing for villages) Were teachers and role models for the young Training hunters Local Council Chief cont’d The Local Chief was always male and came from a prominent family. They were of good character and they were very good hunters. District Council Chief (Mid level) Total of 7, 1 for each of the 7 Mi’Kmaq districts. Presides over council of local chiefs. Responsible for several villages/communities within his district Met during spring, summer or fall to settle problems such as peace and war. Act as arbitrator - would listen to both parties and settle disputes. District Council Chief The responsibilities of the Chief included: Attending Local Council meetings. Take care of problems among villages.  District Chief was eldest male of large powerful family. Good hunters. Grand Council: What is it? The Grand Council is the traditional aboriginal government of the Mi’kmaq nation. It draws its membership from all parts of Mi’kmaq territory, has both political and spiritual authority. It unites the seven districts of Mi’kma’ki. The Mi’kmaq Grand council was the highest form of government before contact with the Europeans. Grand Council Chief (Highest level) Presides over Grand Council Responsibilities included: Defending territory Help with providing food and supplies The Grand chief had to have an exceptional character Was an excellent hunter Could be hereditary (unless the father did not feel they were worthy of the position).  THEORIES There are a number of different theories as to how humans came to be in the Americas. The following are the ones we will examine: Land bridge Pacific Coast First Nations oral traditions LAND BRIDGE The archaeological record indicates the migration routes flowed west to east across the land bridge. Peoples then moved south into North America by following unglaciated routes along the pacific coastline or through modern day Alberta. Scientists believe that the people  came for one of two reasons: ○ The first being food. The people would have either followed herds of animals that were constantly moving. ○ The second possible reason for migration is conflict. In this theory people were forced to move as other groups moved into their traditional lands. Beringia is the common term for the land bridge between Siberia (Russia) and North America. This bridge would form and disappear a number of times over the last 100 000 years. At the peaks of various ice ages the ocean levels would drop as much as 200 feet exposing land between the two continents possibly as much as a 1000 miles wide. The problem with this theory is two fold. First there is evidence of human existence in North and South America that does not  fit this timeline. Second there is very little physical evidence due to it either being destroyed by glaciers or still buried in those same glaciers. PACIFIC COASTAL MODELS Theory proposes that people reached North America following coastlines either by land or by boat. Support for this is comes from the fact that coastlines are extremely productive environments with a wide range of plant and animal life. Theory helps to explain how humans could reach all parts of the Americas by the time they did.  Like in the Land Bridge Theory this theory is supported by DNA evidence. Problem with this theory is that some scientists believe that too much of the Alaska and B.C. coasts were under ice to make this practical. Any landing sites that may have existed are now under water. One problem plagues this theory is that global sea levels have risen 100 meters since the last ice age period. This has submerged the ancient coastline and makes finding signs of coastal migration difficult. Introduction: Traditional Life The Mi’kmaq: Wigwam Could be built in a day and were put up by women Five spruce poles lashed together at the top with split spruce root and spread out at the bottom. Braced just down from the top with a hoop of moosewood shorter poles offered support to the birch bark cover. Birch bark sheets were laid over the poles starting from the bottom and overlapping as they worked up the wigwam. Birch bark was used because it was waterproof and portable (lightweight, easy to carry). The Mi’kmaq: Wigwam  Top was left open for smoke to escape A separate bark collar covered the top in bad weather Floor was lined with fir twigs, woven mats and animal fur A large hide acted as the door Painted with figures of animals and birds The largest wigwam housed 12-15 people (for larger families a longer style with two fireplaces was built) The Mi’kmaq: Clothing Made from the skins of mammals, birds and fish. The skins were tanned by using animal brains, bird livers and oil and by smoking.  Bone needles were used to make holes for sewing and animal muscle tissues were separated into fine strands for thread. Decorated with geometric patterns and designs of birds, beasts and humans The Mi’kmaq: Clothing Pigments used for painting were red and yellow ochre from the earth, charcoal and ground white shells. These were mixed with fish eggs or birds’ egg yolk. Animal teeth, claws, bone, feathers and quills were sewn into clothing. The Mi’kmaq: Tools and Weapons Made from animal bone or teeth, claws, hair, feathers, fur, leather, quills, shells, clay, native copper, stone, wood. For example axes – made from grinding stone to a sharp edge and a smooth surface. The Mi’kmaq: Transportation The Mik’maq canoe was wide bottomed and raised at both ends with the sides curved upwards in the middle. This design allowed them to canoe far  out to sea as well as in shallow streams and even in rapids Birch bark over a light wooden frame that is 3-8 meters long Could carry several hundred pounds but was light enough for one person to carry Toboggans were used in the winter to carry heavy loads over the snow; snowshoes were used as well. The Mi’kmaq: Food The Mi’kmaq spent about all but six weeks along the sea coast Salmon, sturgeon, porpoises, whales, walrus, seals, lobster, squid, shellfish, eels and seabirds and their eggs made up the bulk of their diet. They also ate moose, caribou, beaver, and porcupine as well as smaller animals like squirrels. Berries, roots and edible plants were gathered during the summer  Meat and fish were dried and smoked to preserve them The Mi’kmaq: Pastimes Storytelling – stories could last several days and included singing, dancing and feasting. Smoking – tobacco made from red willow bark, bearberry leaves and native tobacco plants. Waltes was a favorite dice game (played today) Contests of running, wrestling and shooting Various ball games Mi’kmaq: Cultural Survival  All cultures and societies change over time. However, few peoples have faced the deliberate and systematic attacks on their culture that the Mi’kmaq people have endured. The very survival of the Mi’kmaq language and culture is a testimony to the strength of the Mi’kmaq and their oral traditions, values and customs. Oral Tradition Storytelling has been an important way of teaching and learning in First Nations communities. Oral tradition provides cultural  continuity through the sharing of stories, songs, history, personal experiences and social commentary. Our Stories They reflect a unique world view and give meaning to the daily lives of individuals, families and the community. Oral Tradition  Key elements of oral tradition Provides cultural continuity Keeps the family and community strong Can relate to real life situations Can teach skill – cooking, building a house Source of cultural identity and personal pride What is a Pow Wow? The word “Pow Wow” is an Algonquin term meaning “Medicine Man” or “he who dreams.” A Pow Wow is a unique event signified by social exchanges, cultural sharing and ceremonious rituals. The Pow Wow is a time of teaching, learning, singing, dancing, feasting, sharing, and healing. Dancing Dancing has always been a very special part of First Nations traditions.  Dances express stories and feelings. They change over time as conditions change. Some Mi’kmaw dances seen today at Pow Wows have adapted and others have vanished. Various types of dances. Songs Original songs were in the Native language of the singers. Songs are many and varied; fun and festive; war and conquest; honour and family songs; spiritual songs; songs of joy and songs of mourning. Singers Pow Wow singers are a very important part of the Pow Wow. Without singers and the rhythm of the drum beat, there would be no dance. Singers tell stories and the drumbeat signifies the heartbeat of Mother Earth. Recognition of Heritage and Culture This is a time to renew thoughts of the old ways and to  preserve a rich heritage as well as getting to know more about their culture. Mi’kmaw Pow Wow In modern times, the term Pow Wow is universal amongst Indigenous tribes throughout North America (Turtle Island) and they are held various times throughout the year. First Nations people get together to join in dancing, singing, visiting, renewing old friendships and making new ones. Some Items of Mi’kmaw Spirituality Feathers (Eagle) Sacred Pipe Sweet Grass Drums  Sweat Lodge Smudging Feathers – The Eagle feather is especially sacred. The eagle is the only creature that is said to have touched the face of God – The highest honour that can be bestowed on anyone is the presentation of the eagle feather. – Presented to someone who has given themselves unselfishly in order to benefit the community. Sacred Pipe Referred to as the “peace pipe”  Used in Sweat lodge ceremonies. The pipe is broken into two pieces, symbolizing a man and a woman. When the two pieces are joined, symbolizing unity it becomes a sacred part of the ceremony. Sweet Grass A sacred herb which has the property to bring the positive energies of love. A sweet grass ceremony is a cleansing and purification healing process in and of itself. Participating people are  energetically cleansed as well. Drums Represents the center of all life – the heart. For centuries and centuries,Native people have held on to the belief that the heart and the drum share the same purpose and responsibility – providing life through its beat Eastern Eagle Drumming Group Smudging Ceremony Clipping of dry herbs are burned (such as sage)  The ceremony serves as the opening process for prayer circles, gatherings as well as higher ceremonies Rub your hands in the smoke and gather the smoke and bring it to your body – rub it on yourself on any area that needs spiritual healing. Sweat Lodge A method of spirtiual cleansing used by many First Nations Teaches – Respect, patience, endurance, and to speak your mind freely. Accommodates 4-12 people  seated around a central dugout where preheated rocks (grandfathers) are put to generate heat and steam inside the lodge for the ceremony. Participants are cleansed or spiritually healed. Mi’kmaq Petroglyphs History written in stone The most noticeable traces left by the early Mi’kmaq are the engravings they created in the glacially polished slate outcrops found at several locations around lakeshores. Referred to as ‘petroglyphs’ (carvings in stone),  these images are an invaluable resource for understanding the history and lives of the Mi’kmaw ancestors. There are over 500 individual petroglyphs within Kejimkujik National Historic Site, making it one of the largest collection of such images in eastern North America. These petroglyphs are a unique and important component in the cultural landscape. What do the symbols mean? On careful examination of the symbols, one can distinguish between some of the original Mi'kmaw symbols, each of which represented a whole sentence or verse, and a large number of arbitrary designs that have been added to express ideas and words which were not Native American. Early Relations Between Mi’kmaq/French/British  First European contact may have been as early as 11th Century with with Vikings in Newfoundland and Labrador The British arrived in 1497 with John Cabot This was the first RECORDED arrival of Europeans Cabot disappeared during his next journey. By 1501 Trade between Mi’kmaq, Basque, Spanish, French and Irish fishers was routine French: Jaques Cartier, 1534. Explored west coast of Newfoundland, discovered PEI, sailed through Gulf of St. Lawrence. Mi’kmaq beaver furs helped create a fashion craze in France for beaver hats. The French felt that Jacques Cartier’s voyages of “discovery” gave them the right to claim Mi’kmaq territory even though England and Spain also claimed it. 1527 Basque fishers set up a temporary whaling station.  1541 Cartier attempted to set up a permanent settlement on the St. Lawrence River, but it failed because of starvation and cold. By 1578 more than 400 European fishing boats were working every summer around Mi’kmaq territory. By 1581 the organized fur trade had started. Despite the lack of permanent European settlements, outbreaks of European diseases struck between 1564-1570 and in 1586. 1588 the destruction of the Spanish Armada (fleet of ships) ended Spain’s ability to control trade in the “New World.” Fur Trade was now overwhelming Mi’kmaq supply. They began to trade with other First Nations in the interior to get furs to trade with the French. Mi’kmaq warriors protected this trade with the help of metal weapons acquired through trade with Europeans. 1604 Samuel Champlain and Pierre DeMonts set up a settlement between Maine and New Brunswick - Most of the settlers died. Port Royal was established in 1605 in Nova Scotia.  By 1610 Jesuit missionaries began converting Mi’kmaq to Christianity (Catholic) In 1611 Chief Membertou was the first to convert. Mathieu Da Costa is credited with being the first to arrive as part of an expedition that founded Port Royal in 1605 (De Champlain). He worked as a translator for the French and the local Mi’kmaw population. He was the first recorded free black man to arrive in North America. European diseases devastated the Mi’kmaq and by 1620 only 4000 Mi’kmaq were still living (out of 20,000). By 1613 the Mi’kmaq were getting caught up in the wars between France and England to control North America. In 1632 the French officially claimed the Maritime provinces. After this more and more French settlers came to Acadia (Nova Scotia) where they lived side by side with the Mi’kmaq.  The French supported the Wabanaki confederacy, which was formed to fight against the British. 1688 the Wabanaki forced the British to abandon most of their frontier settlements. War continued off and on until 1713 when the control of NS and NFLD went to the British although Cape Breton remained in French hands. By 1720 the French built the Fortress of Louisbourg. Despite a treaty signed between the Mi’kmaq and the British war continued. At the same time New England settlers began to move into Wabanaki lands in Maine. More or less open warfare continued until the Treaty of 1725 was signed. The Seven Years War First European contact may have been as early as the 11th Century (1,000 years ago) with the Vikings First recorded contact, however, was in 1497 with John Cabot (on behalf of England)  At this time, Europe abided by mercantilism. In this economic system, a mother country gets raw materials from its colonies (CHEAP) and uses those raw materials to produce goods in its country. The mother country then sells these goods (AT A HUGE PROFIT) at home and abroad to make mad money $$$ The early explorers who landed in North America realized that, here, there were resources to be exploited. The want for these resources brought Europeans into contact with many First Nations, including Mi’kmaq. In the late 1400s, Europe was facing a crisis. The demand for fish exceeded what was available ○ Europe had a large Roman Catholic population. Their faith required that fish be eaten on Friday’s Needless to say, John Cabot was PUMPED to discover the abundance of fish on this side of the Atlantic England, however, did not have a monopoly on the fishery. English fishing fleets were soon joined by French, Portuguese, Dutch, and Spanish fleets. ○ Although it was competitive, England and France were the dominant players. By 1578 more than 400 European fishing boats were working  every summer around Mi’kmaq territory. John Cabot discovered the abundance of fish on behalf of the English, it was Jacques Cartier that discovered the abundance of fur on behalf of the French. In 1534, Jacques Cartier discovered the interior of what is now Canada and claimed land on and around the St. Lawrence River for France ○ He named it New France. Upon meeting First Nations, Cartier discovered how lucrative animal furs and pelts could be. ○ The beaver was the most desireable. Its fine, felt-like inner fur was used to make stylish hats. Obtaining furs was a challenge, though. Europeans had little experience in hunting and trapping animals for furs. As such, they depended on Aboriginal peoples to hunt and trap beavers for them. In exchange, they would give aboriginal peoples European goods such as iron, knives, cauldrons, rifles and ammunition, fabric, flour and other grains, tea, tobacco, and alcohol. The English also appreciated the lucrative fur trade and wanted their share of the wealth. In 1670, the English King created the Hudson’s Bay Company and granted it a  monopoly over all fur trading in all territories surrounding Hudson Bay. The Hudson’s Bay Company actively rivalled the French fur traders of the St. Lawrence Valley. By the late 1500s, the Mi’kmaq were major players in the fur trade They traded with First Nations in the interior to get furs to trade with the French on the Atlantic coast Mi’kmaq warriors protected this trade from other First Nations groups with the help of metal weapons acquired through trade with Europeans By 1607 fur trade rivalries caused an 8 year war to break out between the Mi’kmaq and the Penobscot of Maine By 1615 Mi’kmaq warriors had defeated their Penobscot enemies It wasn’t long before both the French and English established permanent settlements in North America  The Mi’kmaq primarily interacted with and lived side by side the French, who established settlements on their territory 1604 Samuel Champlain and Pierre DeMonts set up a settlement between Maine and New Brunswick - most of the settlers died Port Royal (the capital of Acadia) was established in 1605 Indeed, Indigenous peoples prospered materially from the fur trade. They obtained European goods that they valued. However, there were negative consequences as well. 1. Jesuits (1610) The Jesuits were a group of Catholic missionaries who came to New France to convert the indigenous population to Catholicism. They viewed indigenous spirituality as sinful and barbatic. ○ Thus, the Jesuits threatened indigenous spirituality  and way of life. 2. Disease Europeans and their goods they were infested with illnesses and viruses to which indigenous peoples had no immunity. ○ The result was death for much of North America’s indigenous population. The most deadly and impactful disease was smallpox. ○ Spread mainly through European blankets and clothing. ○ Smallpox begins with a backache and fever. It is followed by a rash that affects the face and limbs in particular. During this time, an infected person is likely to infect 3 to 5 close contacts. The rash eventually leaves pitted scars or pocks. The disease itself eventually leads to death. Diseases devastated the Mi’kmaq and by 1620 only 4,000 Mi’kmaq were still living (out of 20,000) 3. Pawns in an Imperial Battle  By 1613 the Mi’kmaq were getting caught up in the wars between France and England to control North America ○ Mi’kmaq captured in English raids against French settlements were sold as slaves In 1654 a British fleet from Boston captured Port Royal leaving Acadia under British control until 1667 In 1688, war started again and Mi’kmaq warriors fought alongside the French, forcing the British to abandon most of their frontier settlements War continued off and on until 1713 when the Treaty of Utrecht gave control of NS and NFLD to the British, although Cape Breton remained in French hands The French supported and encouraged their allies to resist the new British settlements ○ More or less, open warfare continued until the “Peace and Friendship” Treaty of 1725 was signed between the British and the Mi’kmaq Despite this treaty, things between the Mi’kmaq and the British remained tense The Impact of Contact Independence – Freedom from the control of another authority Interdependence – The mutual reliance of groups of people on one another Dependence – Reliance on a group or institution for support Aboriginal Peoples and the Fur Trade At first Aboriginal technologies (canoes and food preservation) and knowledge (survival skills and navigation) greatly influenced economic and social interaction with Europeans. European technologies (guns, kettles, and knives) changed the manner in which traditional Aboriginal tasks were performed. Contact led Aboriginal peoples from a lifestyle of independence to one of interdependence and finally one of dependence Aboriginal Peoples and the Fur Trade First peoples became more dependent on European manufactured goods leading to irreparable social and economic disruptions to Aboriginal society. Conflicts increased between First Nations societies as each sought to dominate the most fur bearing regions and monopolize fur trade. First peoples exhausted fur supplies and moved to new regions displacing other groups. Traditional economies and way of life (sustainability) were hampered by depletion of animal resources. Aboriginal Peoples and the Fur Trade No immunity to new infectious diseases (smallpox, measles, and influenza) was disastrous as populations were decimated. Introduction of alcohol and subsequent addictions created devastating and long-term implications for Aboriginal societies. Impact on Europeans New foods (corn, potatoes, squash) discovered in America's spread throughout the world. Aboriginal peoples taught Europeans how to plant and harvest these crops. Potatoes became a staple food in Europe and helped to eliminate famine and improve overall nutrition.  Europe was transformed into a capitalist society – a global trading network controlled by European powers emerged as the new world order. Impact on Europeans Corn was used to feed livestock resulting in healthier animals and greater supply of protein rich foods (milk, eggs, cheese, meat). Smoking became a recreational habit in Europe resulting in high demand for tobacco. Demands for tobacco and sugarcane created the rich plantation economies to thrive in American South and Caribbean. A global economic revolution turned Europe’s mercantile economy upside down from wealth generated from goods from colonies. Old trade routes to Africa and Asia were forgotten because of wealth generated from exploitation of colonies.