Psychology Notes PDF

Process of memory Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses , organizes and stores it away, and retrieves that information from storage. Sensory Memory - Iconic memory - visual sensory memory lasting only a fraction of a second. - Echoic m...

Process of memory Memory - an active system that receives information from the senses , organizes and stores it away, and retrieves that information from storage. Sensory Memory - Iconic memory - visual sensory memory lasting only a fraction of a second. - Echoic memory - auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds - Elaborative rehearsal - method of transferring data from STM to LTM by making that information meaningful in some way. - Procedural LTM - skills & procedures that one knows how to physically perform (i.e “muscle memory”). - Declarative LTM - factual information and knowledge that can be explained or described. - Episodic memory- recent activities and past events (visual) -Semantic memory - general knowledge learned in our formal education. Memory & the brain Hippocampus - area of the brain responsible for the formation of new LTM’s (mostly declarative) & conversion of information from STM to LTM. procedural memory is stored in the cerebellum. Memories of fear are stored in the amygdala. Memory retrieval Recognition - matching a stimulus to previously stored information. - External cues are available to help. - Example - multiple choice test.  Recall - information must be pulled from memory with very few (if any) external cues. - Reliant on memory alone - Examples - short answer, essay , and fill in the blank tests. Serial position effect Primacy effect - tendency to remember information at the beginning of a list/series better than the info that comes after it. Recency effect - tendency to remember information at the end of a list or series better than the info that comes before it. Interference Theory Proactive interference: occurs when old information interferes with the recall of new information. Retroactive interference: occurs when new information interferes with the recall of old information. Amnesia Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury/trauma backwards, or the loss of older memories. Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from the point of injury trauma forward, or the loss of new memories. Thinking Thinking (cognition): mental activity that occurs when someone is attempting to organize, understand, & communicate information. Concepts ○ Superordinate - the most general form of a concept (e.g. "animal" or "fruit.  ○ Basic level - an example of a superordinate concept (e.g. "dog" or "apple"). ○ Subordinate - the most specific example of a concept (e.g. "Pug" or "Red"). Problem-Solving ○ Trial and Error: method where one possible approach after another is tried until a successful one is found. ○ Algorithms: step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems (e.g. math formulas, recipes, etc.). Heuristics: an educated guess or short, based on past experiences that help narrow down the possible solutions to a problem (a k.a. "rules of thumb"). ○ Relatively quick and efficient, but not always accurate. Insight: sudden perception of the solution to a problem (i.e. "a-hal" moment), based on an understanding of a problem's components and their relation to each other. ○ Cannot be achieved through trial and error alone. Problem-Solving Barriers Functional fixedness: thinking about objects only in terms of their typical uses or functions often due to a lack of creativity. Mental set: a tendency to only use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. Intelligence Intelligence - the ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively when faced with problems, challenges, or new situations. Stemberg's "Triarchic' Theon  - Analytical intelligence: ability to break problems down into component parts for analysis (le."book smarts). - Practical intelligence: ability to effectively function & adapt to situational environmental demands in the real world (i.e."street smarts"). Applying common sense and good judgment Understanding social context & etiquette Creative intelligence: ability to understand new ideas, adapt to new situations, & come up with novel ways to solve problems (i.e. "divergent thinking"). IQ Tests Intelligence quotient (IQ) - measure of intelligence, resulting from dividing one's mental age by one's chronological age, then multiplying that number x 100 (MA/CA x 100 = IQ). Wechsler intelligence test - Most commonly used 1Q test in the U.S. - Different versions for different age groups. - Previously assigned a verbal, performance, and overall score of intelligence. - Current 5 Ed. organizes items into 4 scales: verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Special populations Gifted : top 2-3% of the population with an IQ of 130 ( or higher). Intellectual disability : condition where a person's social, cognitive, & behavioral skills exist at a much lower level than normal for their age (aka “developmental delay), and their IQ is at/below 70. Chapter 8 - Development across the lifespan Nature vs. Nurture Nature - genetics =, heredity, biology , etc. Nurture - environment, socialization, etc. Conception and twins Monozygotic twins : “identical” twins formed when one zygote (fertilized egg) splits into two separate masses of cells , each developing into a separate embryo/fetus (same DNA). Dizygotic twins: “fraternal twins” that form when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm resulting in 2 separate zygotes, each developing into a separate embryo/fetus (different DNA). Chapter 9 - Motivation and Emotion Motivation and Emotion Extrinsic motivation- motivated by external rewards, doing something because you're expecting something for it. EX- going to a job you hate for a paycheck. Intrinsic motivation- the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in an internal manner. You're not doing it for a reward, you're doing it because the act itself is the reward. EX- doing something fun or exciting or having a job you enjoy. Drive Reduction Theory Need- a physical requirement that's necessary for survival and sustaining well being. EX-food and water. Drive- a psychological tension and physical arousal that results from a need "driving" the organism to satisfy that need.  Needs-drives-action-satisfaction Homeostasis- tendency of the body to maintain a state of balance/ equilibrium (like a thermostat) Obesity Obesity- condition where a person's body weight is 20% or more over the ideal weight (for their height) Psychological needs - Need for achievement: the need or desire to succeed in accomplishing one's goals. (enjoys challenges and are results- oriented) - Need for affiliation: The need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others. (may also have a strong need for belonging. Approval, respect, admiration, and teamwork.) - Need for power: the need to have power, control, status, or influence over others. (may also seek out material wealth, fame, and prestige to feel superior or secure. Maslow's Hierarchy of needs Self- actualization: the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied all their needs and achieved their full human potential. Chapter 10 Sexuality and gender Sex - the physical aspects of being male or female.  - Primary sex traits : sexual organs, gonads, etc. - Secondary sex traits : puberty - related changes. Gender- the psychological aspects of being male or female. - Gender identity - one's subjective sense of being male or female. Gender roles : expectations of masculine or feminine behavior Sex and gender Gender stereotype : a concept held about a person or group based entirely on them being male or female. Traditional gender stereotypes: