Unit 1: The British Empire PDF

Unit 1 Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) The British Empire © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Index Schema 3 Key Ideas 4 1.1. Introduction and Objectives 4 1.2. The British Empire 4 1.3. Theories of the Empire 8 1.4. British People during the Emp...

Unit 1 Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) The British Empire © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Index Schema 3 Key Ideas 4 1.1. Introduction and Objectives 4 1.2. The British Empire 4 1.3. Theories of the Empire 8 1.4. British People during the Empire 15 1.5. Bibliographical References 18 In Depth 20 Test 22 © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Schema Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Schema 3 Key Ideas 1.1. Introduction and Objectives Why is English the most widely spoken language in the world today? This first class aims to provide a fundamental understanding of how English —a language that dates back to the 4th century in England— spread across the globe. We will learn the history, politics, and cultures of English-speaking countries by studying their past in order to understand their present. Explaining how English became the first global language is an exercise in world history (Northrup 2013, 2). As such, this unit presents a history of Britain as a global power in the 19th century until the breakout of World War I in 1914. By the end of the unit you should have developed a critical understanding of:  The development of the British Empire.  The British Empire through the lens of the time of conquest, as well as how it can be viewed in the present.  The link between conquest, trade, and the spread of the English language. 1.2. The British Empire © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) The British empire, the largest empire to have existed in history so far, is said to have been motivated by three things: trade, money, and adventure. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. Britain is an island, making it very hard to invade and impelling the country to develop an advanced naval presence. As a consequence, The Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 4 British Royal Navy had gained significant maritime power by the 18th century, as a result of the Crown’s large investments into ships and weapons. Figure 1. English, Dutch, and Danish ships at Mocha (Yemen). Mocha is famous for being the major marketplace for coffee (arabica coffee) from the 15th century until the early 18th century. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Mocha_Dapper_1680.jpg Britain's imperial exploits began with the Elizabethans and the North American colonies. The Elizabethan age (1558–1603) is named after the reign of England’s last Tudor monarch, Queen Elizabeth I. Some English settlers saw the mastery of a continent as providential; the fulfilment of their God-given destiny over geography, adversity, and other peoples (Northrup 2013, 49) These colonies were largely considered the centre of the British empire until the American Revolutionary War. The British lost their thirteen American Colonies in 1783 and so were forced to turn their attention to their remaining territories in the Pacific, Asia, and Africa. The British defeated Napoleonic France in 1815. This meant that Britain gained territories © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) in large parts of India and Africa and also eliminated their last remaining serious international rival. Unchallenged, and with naval supremacy, Britain became the global police force, using its supreme power to establish a Pax Britannica, and was able to rapidly build a second empire centred on Britain's Asiatic “possessions”. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 5 Figure 2. A map of the world in 1886: areas under British control are highlighted in red. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Imperial_Federation,_Map_of_the_World_Showing_the _Extent_of_the_British_Empire_in_1886_(levelled).jpg Between 1815 and 1914 —a period referred to as Britain's "imperial century"— around 10 000 000 square miles (26 000 000 km2) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire (Parsons 1999, 3). Britain's Royal Navy controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged power over the seas. British merchants, shippers and bankers had such an overwhelming advantage over everyone else that, in addition to its colonies, it had both a formal and "informal" empire. The © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Empire was ruled over by the British Crown. The next era in British history was the Victorian era, corresponding roughly —but not exactly— to the period of Queen Victoria’s reign (1837–1901). This period was characterised by a class-based society, with a growing percentage of the population eligible to vote, a growing state and economy, and Britain’s status as the most powerful empire in the world. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 6 TIMELINE 1837-1936 1837 The 18-year-old Victoria comes to the throne in Britain, beginning the long Victorian era 1839 The Opium Wars between China and Britain begin, resulting from the trade of opium which also led to widespread addictions. As a result, the trade was forbidden in China and any opium found was destroyed. The British viewed this as an attack on free trade and the destruction of British property; war ensued. 1840 Victoria marries Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. They have nine children. 1841 Britain occupies the island of Hong Kong. 1861 Prince Albert dies of typhoid, plunging Victoria into forty years of widowhood and deep mourning. 1843 The Maori people revolt against Britain in New Zealand. 1853 Construction of Railways in India begins. 1876 India becomes the “jewel in the crown” of Queen Victoria when Benjamin Disraeli secures for her the title Empress of India. 1889 The outbreak of the Second Boer War in South Africa between Britain and two Boer States over the profits of gold mines. c. 1897 Diamond Jubilee bonfires and fireworks all around Britain celebrate Victoria's sixty years on the throne. 1901 Queen Victoria dies at Osborne House, on the Isle of Wight after 63 years on the throne. © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Edward VII is already 59 when he succeeds his mother, Victoria, as Britain's monarch. 1903 Edward VII, the first British monarch to travel to India, holds a coronation durbar in Delhi. 1910 Edward VII dies in London, after just nine years on the throne. 1911 The British monarch George V holds a durbar in Delhi to celebrate his coronation as Emperor of India. 1931 The Statute of Westminster awarded the British Dominions constitutional autonomy. 1932 George V reads the first royal Christmas address to be broadcast on the radio (written by Rudyard Kipling), beginning an annual royal tradition. 1936 George V dies and is succeeded on the British throne by his eldest son Edward VIII. Table 1. Timeline 1837-1936. Based on: https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737695.timeline.0001 Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 7 Video. Victorian Era and Empire Watch the video through the virtual classroom. Some might say that Britain made the modern world, although the impact that the Empire has had on today’s world is contested. Given the long period of its development and contemporary controversies, one of the few things that historians can agree on is that the story of the British Empire is complex. In order to understand why, this Unit will look at two aspects of the Empire. Firstly, what motivated the expansion and, secondly, how the regular British people perceived the Empire at the time. 1.3. Theories of the Empire The Empire had a great influence on its colonies. Generally speaking, historians © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) disagree on the extent to which the British Empire was formal or informal, driven by government or independent trading and scientific interests. It is generally accepted, however, that the second half of the 19th century saw a shift from scientific inquiry to more overtly political and material concerns, culminating in the “high imperialism” of the 1870s and 1880s (Youngs 2014). Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 8 We will explore the following:  Economic theories.  Linguistic influence.  Participation in British War efforts.  Human Rights and slavery. There are several economic theories of imperialism. Economic theories Industrial capitalism What Hobson (1902) and others perceived in late nineteenth-century British imperialism was the rise of a few very powerful industrial capitalists who drove imperial expansion in order to obtain raw materials for their growing industries, notably, iron, rubber, and cotton. It also enabled financial industrial monopolies to exploit cheap labour and create new markets for their surplus goods and capital. According to this interpretation, when their investments were threatened by rival imperial powers, the financiers could take advantage of a large informal empire that afforded unrivalled trading power. Policy Makers and free trade Robinson and Gallagher (1961) contended that British policymakers were the "official © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) mind of British imperialism”. They favoured the informal expansion of the Empire and looked to project their influence into Africa, Asia, and South America through free trade. Diplomacy, coercion, and “gunboat diplomacy” would be exerted in order to impose free trading conditions on weaker societies against their will, although more formal imperial methods would be used if necessary. They argued that the formal accrual of territory in the second half of the 19th century was not a change in Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 9 imperial policy, but simply one of a number of means used to secure the continuation of free trading conditions. Gentlemanly capitalists Cain and Hopkins’ (1993) so-called gentlemanly capitalists resided in the city of London and focused on commerce. Like Hobson, they stress that capitalism was key, but they did not recognise British industrialists as the main drivers behind imperial expansion. Instead, they argue that the Empire, particularly the old dominions — Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa— depended heavily on British capital and investors in order to expand. What do these three theories about the economics of imperialism tell us about the making of imperial policy? Perhaps that there was no single driving force behind the expansion, but rather a number of individual influences:  Investors with interests.  Policy makers with national interest.  Vast industries who could profit from monopolies, cheap labour and new markets. Examples of linguistic influence: the origin of English Pidgin and Creole With the Empire, cooperation with local people inevitably required communication. With this, English has had a significant influence on shaping language in Africa. Historically, Pidgin dialects arose in colonial situations where the representatives of © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) the particular colonial power —officials, tradesmen, sailors, etc.— came into contact with native populations. These interactions forced people to develop a jargon when communicating. This resulted in a language based on a combination of English and the naïve language (or languages). It was restricted in its range as it served only for basic communication with colonists. Over the course of several generations, education and Christian missionaries further developed the language, and it developed into the mother tongue of a group of speakers. This latter stage is referred Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 10 to as “creolisation”. Creoles are much expanded versions of Pidgin languages, and have arisen in situations in which there was a break in the natural linguistic continuity of a community, for instance, in the early stages of slave plantations. Figure 3. English language influence of imperialism in Africa. Source: https://www.unidue.de/SVE/VARS_PidginsAndCreoles.htm  Pidgin is a language formed when two individuals having different native languages start communicating with each other. © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)  Creole is a language spoken by offspring of Pidgin speakers. Video 1. Africa News Special on Colonialism and Creole Access the video through the virtual classroom or through the following website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vsy1WCmFplU Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 11 British Wars: soldiers of the Empire The number of soldiers mobilised throughout the Empire from Canada to New Zealand to fight British wars are striking. More than a million soldiers came from India, for example, during WWI which had been a very powerful manifestation of imperial unity.With Britain’s major enemies defeated, the Empire was not only intact, but had actually grown during the war. It is in the 1920s, in fact, that the British Empire occupied its greatest area of territory. Figure 4. Sikh Soldiers in serving the British Army in WWI. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/40365317@N06/4882587463 Human Rights and slavery © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) The slave trade became the basis of the Empire in the West Indies, and serves as an important reminder that the prosperity it brought to Britain came with a heavy human cost. Some historians in the 21st century have explored the relationships between the Empire, international government and human rights. They have focused on British conceptions of the imperial world order from the late 19th century until the Cold War (Grant 2013). Like many other European countries who possessed colonies Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 12 abroad, historical periods are often viewed as ‘Golden Eras’ at the time, but are viewed differently through a human rights lens today. In the later stages of the British Empire, British intellectuals and political leaders felt that they had a duty to protect and promote the human rights of native populations and "help pull them from the slough of traditionalism and cruelties” (such as Sati in India and foot binding in China). In the 1780–1840 era these kinds of moralistic ambitions to improve conditions in the colonies annoyed efficiency-oriented colonial administrators and profit-oriented merchants (Gilbert and Tiffin 2008). One of the most controversial aspects of the Empire has been its role in first promoting and then ending slavery. Whilst slavery formed a cornerstone of the British Empire in the 18th century, the British also abolished slavery in 1833. Britain gained immense moral capital from its actions, but at significant economic cost (Guardian 2007). It effectively ruined the sugar economy of the British traders, and compensatory money paid to slave-owners years after the abolition continued to be paid through taxes until recently. This is demonstrative of the enormous profit integral to the capital that made the industrial revolution possible. The Great Irish Famine The Great Irish Famine helps us to understand the economics of Empire. Like other colonies, the Irish case is an example whereby a British-ruled economy was forced to serve imperial markets over its own needs. Religious conflict and social inequality, namely the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of British 'plantation © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) settlers', would continue to shape Ireland's development into modern times. The great Irish famine of 1845 to 1849 was a period of mass starvation and disease. The most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland were areas in which the Irish language was dominant. The famine exposed the weaknesses of economic union with a colony. Like the disaster following the great drought in India in 1876 to 1878, Ireland's famine began as a natural catastrophe but was exasperated by the continued export of grain to England and inadequate government relief measures. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 13 During the famine, about one million people died and a million more emigrated and, as a result, 80 million people worldwide claim Irish ancestry today. Historically, the diaspora's key destinations, the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, have also been former colonies. The legacy of this mass emigration will be explored later in this course. The diversity and ambiguity of the British Empire is therefore evident even at its very heart in the complex relationship between Britain and its closest neighbour, Ireland. © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Figure 5. The Emigrants' Farewell, engraving by Henry Doyle (1827–1893). Source: Mary Frances Cusack's Illustrated History of Ireland, 1868. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 14 Video. Ireland and the famine. Watch the video through the virtual classroom. 1.4. British People during the Empire The British Empire was a cultural project as well as a set of political and economic relationships. Empire building shaped the cultures of both colonised peoples and Britons themselves. How did the British people think at the time? How would regular British people have felt about the Empire at the time? The upper class had titles, wealth, and, together, owned most of the land in Britain, exerting © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) significant control over local, national, and imperial politics. Three out of four people during the Victorian era, however, were working class. The middle class, on the other hand, which received its income from salaries and profit, grew rapidly during the 19th century, from 15 to over 25 percent of the population, becoming the moral leaders of society. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 15 Britain saw the colonial explorers, such as Sir Francis Drake, as heroes, on account of their daring spirit and quest for greatness. The Empire, throughout history, has been handed down to rulers according to a sacred trust which they dare not breach. In this way, arguably, the language of duty has helped to rationalise the pursuit of selfinterest throughout history. Figure 6. Stanley safe out of the dark continent. Explorers would write books for readers at home. These late nineteenth-century works of fiction reflect feelings of instability and apprehension. Source: British Library Around 1900, Queen Victoria governed one in five people on the planet. There was a sense of optimism in Britain about the potential of new technologies like electricity and the car. There was a clear vision of a new age and a sense that there was a more righteous period ahead of them. This new world was also to be recorded on film for the first time. Contemporary political commentators say that, while there existed an extreme level of © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) racism and imperialism, there was an “attractive silver stream of optimism running through life, which we don't have now" (The History Room 2013). In Britain, there was also a moral movement taking place, at this time, against the ruling class towards mass politics and social democracy. You can watch the document by The History Room (2013) in the In Depth section. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 16 Anti-imperialism appealed strongly to Marxists and liberals across the world. Theories such as Hobson's theory of Industrial Imperialism, which expressed loathing for monopolies and the opacity of elite decision making, caused widespread distrust throughout the British Empire. It is difficult, however, to tie the everyday people of Britain to the pursuit of Empire. Most theories relate the Empire to the ruling elites of the time: industrialists, government and investors. On 22nd July 1901, the British Labour Party was created. The Labour Party originated in the late 19th century, meeting the demand for a new political party to represent the interests and needs of the urban working class, a demographic which had increased in number, and many of whom only gained suffrage with the passage of the Representation of the People Act 1884. In 1901, the Labour Representative Committee —a socialist federation formed in 1900— convinced the trade unions that the political representation of labour was now essential. This organisation later evolved into the Labour party. Many people of the British Isles emigrated to the colonies, at the time, and some were even sent as prisoners to countries such as Australia. From there, they profoundly shaped the cultures as a diaspora. This important influence will be explored in further units. The British Commonwealth The Commonwealth is a political association that continues to exist today, consisting of fifty-four member states, nearly all of which are former territories of the British Empire. In 1926, a document called the Balfour Declaration was signed, marking the official start of the British Commonwealth of Nations (World Population Review 2020). The Balfour © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Declaration brought to light the consensus that all British Empire countries were on par with the United Kingdom, which had not been the case beforehand. While the UK used to be viewed as greater than all other countries in the British Empire, this was a symbolic step for equality between countries in Europe, hence the word “commonwealth”. Today, Britain is shaped by the legacy of its past empire. This will be a recurring theme in this course, and you will later come across themes of de-colonialism, and Britain’s Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 17 contemporary relationship with other countries, especially those in the “Anglosphere”, or English-speaking world. Figure 7. Commonwealth Games Opening Ceremony 2010. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Commonwealth-Games-2010-Opening-Ceremony.jpg The Commonwealth Games is an international multi-sport event involving athletes from the Commonwealth of Nations. The event was first held in 1930, and has taken place every four years since then. During the Commonwealth Games, which were known as the British Empire Games from 1930 to 1950, seventy-one Nations compete, demonstrating the scale of the Commonwealth to this day. It serves as an example of creating unity between the countries of the Commonwealth through a © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) process of soft power. 1.5. Bibliographical References Gilbert, Helen & Chris Tiffin (eds.). Burden or Benefit? Imperial Benevolence and Its Legacies. Indiana: Bloomington, 2018. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 18 Grant, Kevin. "The British Empire, International Government, and Human Rights". History Compass 11 (2013): 573–583 Hobson, John A. Imperialism: a study. New York: Gordon Press, 1975. https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/jan/19/britishidentity.leadersandreply Parsons, Timothy H. The British Imperial Century, 1815–1914: A World History Perspective. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. The Guardian. “Cost of abolishing the slave trade”. The Guardian (2007). Accessed August 25th 2020: The History Room. Britain in 1900. Accessed August 25th 2020: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EGAcDMSX-s World Population Review. “British Commonwealth”. World Population. Accessed August 25th 2020: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/britishcommonwealth-countries Youngs, Tim. “Echoes of Empire”. British Library (15th May 2014). Accessed 25th August 2020: https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/echoes-of- © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) empire# Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Key Ideas 19 In Depth Britain in 1900 The History Room. Britain in 1900. Accessed August 25th 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EGAcDMSX-s Exploring the lives and environment of our immediate ancestors around 1900. There is some excellent footage of the period, some perceptive comments from experts, and some charming recollections of people who were alive at the time. Empire Trade © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Great Britain. Empire Trade. Accessed August 25th 2020. http://www.colonialfilm.org.uk/node/1312 A film on the National Government's aims to boost Britain's trade with the Empire: Though nerve-centre of the Empire, Britain is too small to be self-supporting. Scenes of industry, furnaces, ship building. A journey around the Dominions to see the importance of Empire from point of view of trade and employment at home. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. In Depth 20 Universal Mean Time (GMT) Pong, Beryl. “The Globalisation of Time”. The Cambridge Quarterly 41 (2012): 389-395. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/486021 The United Kingdom was also the first country to introduce a 'time zone' in 1847, 'Greenwich Mean Time'. In 1884, Greenwich was cemented as ‘the Earth’s prime meridian’ as 72 % of the world’s industry at the time was already operating according to GMT. It was a win that marked a historic victory for British commercial power, empirical science and pragmatic imperialism. Universal standard time was thus part of a gradual synchronisation of international activity in the commercial and military spheres which took place from the 1880s to the 1930s –the period typically associated with high modernism. Echoes of Empire Youngs, Tim. “Echoes of Empire”. British Library (15th May 2014). Accessed 25th August 2020: https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/echoes-of-empire# Professor Tim Youngs considers how Victorian authors chronicled and questioned Britain’s imperial expansion. © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) Australia and New Zealand New Zealand History. “British Empire”. New Zealand History. Accessed 25th August 2020. https://nzhistory.govt.nz/keyword/british-empire This class will not cover the history of Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. If you are interested, this source from the New Zealand government has several good resources. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. In Depth 21 Test 1. Where was the British Empire focused before 1783? A. The Americas. B. Australia. C. South Africa. D. India. 2. What was key to enabling its expansion? A. Its weaponry. B. Its allies. C. A strong navy. D. Its geographical position. 3. What happened in 1815 that meant that British were granted even more territory? A. A victory in the Australian Colonies. B. Defeat of Napoleon. C. A treaty with the thirteen colonies. D. None of the above. 4. Whose economic theory portrays the Empire as driven by individual British ‘gentleman’ investors?’ A. Cain and Hopkins (1993). B. Hobson (1902). © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) C. Robinson and Gallagher (1961). D. All the options are correct. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Test 22 5. How many people claim to have Irish ancestry worldwide today? A. 50 million. B. 10 million. C. 80 million. D. 1 million. 6. What was most ordinary people’s role in the British Empire up until 1950? A. Soldiers. B. Emigrants to colonies. C. Decision making through voting. D. Agriculture. 7. What role did Britain have in the Slave Trade? A. It set up the trade of slaves. B. It participated but also lead the abolition. C. It did not have any role. D. Britain always stood against slavery. 8. How many states are in the British Commonwealth? A. 70. B. 10. C. 54. D. Over a hundred. 9. What is the importance of the Commonwealth Games? © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) A. To create a sense of union without formal political power. B. To see who the best country is at sport. C. To learn from each other. D. None of the above. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Test 23 10. To what political group did ‘anti-imperialism’ appeal to after 1900? A. The Monarchy. B. The middle class. C. Marxists and liberals. © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR) D. The high classes. Historia, Política y Cultura de Países de Lengua B (Inglés) Unit 1. Test 24