KT4 - FP3 (1) PDF - Britain, 1625-1701

Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement KT4- Economy, trade and empire, 1625–88 Focus Point 3 - The impact of imperial expansion in North America and the Caribbean; the Navigation Acts and the development of mercantilist ideas; effects of Anglo-Dutch commerc...

Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement KT4- Economy, trade and empire, 1625–88 Focus Point 3 - The impact of imperial expansion in North America and the Caribbean; the Navigation Acts and the development of mercantilist ideas; effects of Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry; the role of the East India Company;; the significance of Britain’s control of the triangular trade. KT4 FP3 - The impact of imperial expansion The impact of imperial expansion in North America and the Caribbean the Navigation Acts and the development of mercantilist ideas effects of Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry the role of the East India Company the significance of Britain’s control of the triangular trade. Enjoy these introductory lectures on the development of the Stuart economy Key Notes and Questions for this Focus Point can be downloaded from this link. KT4 FP3 The significance of North America There is no doubt that imperial expansion had an important much of the trade was one-way, as imports of raw materials from the New World vastly outnumbered any exports. Columbus had discovered America in 1492, and much of the early interest in the continent was from the Spanish and Dutch. The defeat of the Spanish Armada and the growth of Puritanism in England created an atmosphere suited to expansion westwards, although it was the desire to find precious metals, particularly gold, that drove exploration further The Jamestown colony in Virginia, named after James I, had been established in 1607 and this marked the beginning of a lucrative tobacco trade with England. Tobacco was a quick “cash - crop”. Cash-crop is any crop that is considered profitable and easily marketable. The actual amount of tobacco imported is unknown however records state that it as a major cornerstone to the Stuart economy and allowed Britain to compete with other European powers in North America. It is difficult to estimate precisely how much tobacco was imported from Virginia, but it was particularly important because it enabled the British to compete with other European powers in North America. The Stuart economy was boosted as customs duties could be levied on tobacco when it was transported back to England, and would be crucial in funding William III’s military campaigns.  The significance of North America The slave trade had not yet become the dominant method of providing workers for the tobacco trade, although vagrants and indentured servants were regularly shipped over from Britain. This went some way towards solving the problems of unemployment and vagrancy in Britain, but the amount paid in poor relief was still high. The majority of settlers in Virginia and, later; Maryland (founded in 1632) were Anglican and Catholic refugees, although by 1680 there were enough Scots in the Virginia port of Norfolk to form a Scottish Presbyterian congregation. Further colonies in North and South Carolina were established after the restoration and, by 1700, 22 million lbs of tobacco were being exported from the North American colonies. Puritan colonies were established in the Americas such as the one established by the Providence Island Company in 1629 in present day Nicaragua. Prominent Puritans such as John Pym and John Hampden and the Earl of Warwick had financial interests in the company. North of Maryland and Virginia along the east coast, a number of other colonies developed with a markedly different focus. The Mayflower, carrying Puritan settlers, arrived at modern-day Massachusetts in 1620 and the Massachusetts Bay Colony, established in 1629, received around 20,000 Puritans in the 1630s, at the height of Archbishop Laud's persecutions. The Puritan New England colonies emerged as farming and fishing communities and were able to strengthen the British economy by creating markets for the trade of fur Although these colonies were established partly as a result of economic problems in Britain, the primary motive for the establishment of both Puritan and Catholic colonies was contempt for the religious policies of Charles I. Despite this, according to the historian Barry Coward, a desire to cure the problem of overpopulation in England and open up new markets were the two factors that lay behind all colonisation schemes in North America. The significance of North America The northern colonies, which continued to grow, included Rhode Island and Maine as well as Massachusetts. They were never as lucrative as Virginia and Maryland, although the population of the northern colonies was slightly smaller than the south in 1688. As well as farming and fishing, shipbuilding became an essential industry that fuelled further economic growth. Newfoundland, which was established as England's first colony in 1583, provided useful economic resources - especially fish -which were transported to England to be traded on the continent. Overall, the story of colonisation in North America between 1625 and 1688 is one of contrasts. On the one hand, High Church, Catholic and Anglican settlers were running large plantations for the export of tobacco and, on the other hand, largely Puritan colonies attempted to implement a deeply religious society where all were equal under the eyes of God. Both, however, had a generally positive impact on the Stuart economy. The significance of Jamaica As with South America, initial colonial success in the Caribbean was the result of Spanish conquest. The Spanish had a powerful navy and occupied the important islands of Cuba and Jamaica. Experimental expeditions to Bermuda being occupied in 1612 and a small number of settlers moving to St Kitts in 1624. The founder of the English colony of St Kitts, Sir Thomas Warner. began growing tobacco on the island and some limited trade with Europe took place. Spanish sea-power declined after the 1620s as a result of Regular incursions by Pirates and economic depression in Spain itself. This gave British colonists the opportunity to occupy Montserrat, Barbados and Antigua. Sugar became Antiguas primary crop after 1674, when Christopher Codrington established the Island's first sugar plantation. Other Caribbean islands followed suit and the large plantations needed to support the sugar trade led to the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade. The significance of Jamaica During the interregnum British interest in the Caribbean increased, as Cromwell's Protectorate committed itself to expanding foreign trade and Influence, in what became known as the grand Western design to disrupt the Spanish Monopoly on trade in the region. massive investment in the Navy resulted in 109 vessels being built and 111 captured by the British between 1646 and 1659. Although this investment was initially designed to counter the Threat of the Dutch and Spanish, it also gave the government the opportunity to intervene in the Caribbean. In order to rid the Caribbean of the Spanish, the navy attempted to capture Hispaniola in 1655. when this failed Jamaica was seized instead. Jamaica was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1494 and it was settled by the Spanish in 1509. here they benefited from the opportunity of controlling a safe natural Harbour. after the Invasion by the English, the Spanish, knowing that defeat was imminent, release their slaves and encourage them to attack the invaders. the Spanish will not defeated until 1660 once Jamaica was secure, the English government granted patents to wealthy merchants and members of the Gentry for most of the land that was fit for cultivation. The large estates that were created would eventually be farmed through the use of large- scale slavery. Although, in 1670, the Islands had a slave population of just 7,000 this would grow to 55,000 in 1713. The English expected Jamaica to be another colony on which to grow tobacco but it soon became clear that sugar was well suited to the climate and environment, and the price of tobacco had already been reduced by the success of the North American colonies. the abundance of tobacco being exported from the North meant it was not financially viable for Jamaican landowners to produce it, and the increasing taste for sugar in Britain and Europe made it a more lucrative prospect. The significance of Jamaica By 1662 there were 4000 British settlers in Jamaica, many of whom were English, but also included a number of impoverished Scottish and Welsh families. Well sugar dominated output, cocoa and coffee also became popular and production of these followed fresh demand from the London economy. overall Jamaica was important between 1655 and 1688 for two reasons as follows The English capture of Jamaica as well as the Cayman Islands led to the Treaty of Madrid with Spain in 1670. Spain recognised English possessions in the Caribbean and the English ships were permitted to sail freely between the Caribbean islands. The sugar trade became extremely successful, especially after slaves began to replace British indentured servants. This success was particularly dramatic after 1688, as Jamaica was not part of the previously established transatlantic trade routes. The Navigation Acts and the development of mercantilism The sudden growth of international trade may seem surprising considering the slow pace of development in the 16th century, although a number of factors working together can help to explain why this happened The Royal Navy which had been growing in influence since the early 16th century was able to enforce English supremacy at sea. A combination of War, the spread of protestantism and loss of territory lead to the gradual decline of the Catholic Spanish Empire. The navigation acts outlined below helped to reduce the trading strength of other naval powers. A policy of mercantalism developed whereby the state took a lead role in organising economic policy. This policy had been encouraged by all Tudor and Stuart merchants to an extent, but mercantile activity reached its peak during the interregnum. The transformation of trade in the 17th century had been described by the historian Ralph Davies as a commercial Revolution based on mercantile Shipping and the navigation acts did much to promote this. The first Navigation Act was passed by the Rump Parliament in 1651. According to the act, goods imported to England and it's territories had to be carried on English ships. This was designed to remove the Dutch Monopoly on freight trade across northern Europe and North America. it also required that all cruise of English ships had to be at least of English by nationality full stop the historian Christopher Hill as argued that the act was important because it represented the victory of a national trading interests over the separate interests of the various private trading companies, though the Levant Company found that it helped to boost their activity particularly. this was because their trade routes to the Middle East had been saturated by merchants from Holland, Spain and France, resulting in a decline in the share of trade. The act helped the English new draperies to dominate the textile trade instead of the Dutch, as well as reducing import of cheese and agricultural Staples. This exercise in mercantalism contributed towards Customs revenues increasing by three-and-a-half times between 1643 and 1659. The Navigation Acts and the development of mercantilism All Acts passed by the Commonwealth were repealed at the restoration, although a modified version of the navigation act appeared in 1660. The chief promoter of the new act, sir George Downing, had been Cromwell's ambassador to the Dutch Republic, which demonstrates the continued influence of a Republican anti Dutch faction after 1660. The new act confirmed the earlier legislation but also banned export as well as import from being carried in foreign ships. It also included a long list of goods including tobacco and sugar which could only be shipped to England and her colonies. The Navigation Act and associated staple act of 1663 which stated that all goods shipped from the continent to the colonies had to pass through England became the cornerstone of commercial expansion and success in the second half of the century. Both import and exports were now protected and the raw materials that came from the colonies could be re-export into the continent full stop as the Colonial populations grew the Empire became wealthier through the increased exports of raw materials. the navigation act was updated again by the Plantation Duty Act of 1673, which insured that captain's of English ships delivered specified goods to England only or faced a financial penalty. The effects of Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry The Navigation Acts were devised primarily to deal with the Threat of the Dutch who had a monopoly on much European shipping trade. Rivalry over international trade and manufacturing, as well as new world colonies, caused three Anglo-Dutch Wars in the period (1652-54, 1665-67, 1672-74). England and Holland were United by William of Orange in 1688, although William administered the two States as separate countries. This ended the political rivalry, but it did not stop Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry, which would continue for another century. Anglo-Dutch rivalry evolved through a number of major stages in the 17th century the 1st, from 1609-49 is marked by dominant and by the beginnings of a commercial rivalry. By the middle of the century England was stronger militarily but had become less efficient economically. In the next stage from 1649-74 further commercial rivalry developed into direct conflict and war. The third stage from 1674-88 involved a gradual declining rivalry as the two-states allied against France. Why then, did this rivalry last for so long? The historian Jack s Levy argues that it was due to fundamental differences between the economic policies followed by England and Holland. The effects of Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry Rivalry over trade with the East typifies the competition that existed between the two nations. The English East India Company was founded in 1600 and, two years later, the Dutch East India Company was formed. Both companies traded predominantly in spices, and received the same price and paid the same acquisition cost for their goods; however, the profits of the Dutch Company were higher This was for two reasons: first, the Dutch Company had closer ties with their own government, who were able to provide capital and assistance; second, they had more shareholders who expected dividends to be paid annually, thus leading to greater efficiency as the shareholders expected maximum returns for their investments. The Dutch soon began to overtake the English in terms of success in the East, returning 65 ships to England's 35 between 1615 and 1625. Considering this rivalry it is surprising that a commercial war did not break out until1652, although tensions often led to occasional hostilities, including the Dutch seizure of four English ships between 1617 and 1619. This early rivalry held the British economy back and the economic growth of London was slower in the first half of the century The effects of Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry Anglo-Dutch rivalry involved much more than just trade with the East. There was competition over American colonies, culminating in the English capture of New Amsterdam (renamed New York) in 1664. The finishing process of raw English cloth also created tensions, as the Dutch traditionally captured much of the profit when unfinished cloth was exported to Holland to be finished and re-exported to the rest of Europe. There was also rivalry over access to English fishing grounds, as one-fifth of the Dutch population were employed in fishing and relied on fisheries off the British coast. The issue of fishing provoked a particular challenge, as Charles I decided to make an exclusive claim to the seas around Britain in 1635, demanding all vessels make a salute to English ships in the English Channel and North Sea. As well as this, the English began to deliberately search out and seize Dutch ships in their waters, which posed a significant threat to the Dutch role as the carriers of international trade. The Anglo Dutch wars By 1649, the balance between the two nations changed, as the Dutch had ended their war with Spain in 1647, closing a longstanding Spanish embargo against them. The Dutch economy prospered, While the English economy hit a new low as a result of general depression, coupled with the impact of the Second Civil War, royalist uprisings in Ireland and Scotland, and the execution of Charles I. The new Commonwealth committed itself to enforcing English sovereignty on the seas once again. The Navigation Act of 1651 was designed to protect English trading interests, and the refusal of a Dutch ship to salute the English resulted in a short naval battle and the resulting First Anglo-Dutch War in July 1652. The Navigation Act was the most important development in the rivalry between the two nations. as it helped to strengthen the British economy by excluding the Dutch from trade. Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector in 1653 and, hoping for an alliance with the Dutch, ended the war on fairly lenient terms in the Treaty of Westminster in 1654. The Treaty failed to resolve the underlying causes of the war, which led to several crises later in the 1650s and 1660s. For example. the Anglo-Spanish War (1656-59) severely affected Dutch trade with Spain, bringing England and Holland close to war once again. War was also narrowly avoided in 1658, when both sides sent fleets to intervene in a war between Sweden and Denmark. The Dutch provided a force to assist the Danish and the English sent a fleet to fight for the Swedish king, Charles X. although they were forced to withdraw due to a combination of Dutch naval superiority and political crisis at home under Richard Cromwell. The Anglo Dutch wars After the Restoration, parliament passed another Navigation Act in 1660 that excluded all foreigners from British trade. A number of goods could only be shipped to England under the provisions of the Act, such as tobacco, sugar, rice and cotton. This strengthened the Stuart economy at the expense of the Dutch, and the tax revenue from these products was given to the English treasury rather than the colonies from which they originated, but the Dutch were able to continue trading with their own colonies and other European countries. Charles also insulted the Dutch by demanding that foreign ships did not fish within ten miles of the British coast and tensions escalated further when Mary Stuart, wife of the late William II, died. leaving Charles II as the guardian of the young William of Orange. The pro-Stuart House of Orange was strengthened and Dutch merchants feared that, if the House of Orange returned to rule Holland, trade policy would be centralised and their freedoms restricted. Colonial rivalry was also a factor in increased tensions. as Charles issued a Royal Charter in 1663, giving the Royal African Company a monopoly over West African trade. This brought the company into direct conflict with the Dutch, who had previously laid claim to the region. Pressure reached tipping point when an English captain seized a number of Dutch colonies in Africa in 1664 and, although Charles had the captain imprisoned. a skirmish followed in which the Dutch destroyed a number of English ships off the African coast. Charles ordered a blockade of Dutch ships using the English Channel in November 1664 and war was declared by Holland in January 1665. The Dutch were better prepared for this Second Anglo-Dutch War than they were in 1652 and they were able to pay for Denmark to join the war on their side. The English. demoralised by the effects of the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London, performed poorly and their humiliation was complete when the Dutch were able to sail up the Thames and capture the warship Royal Charles. The Dutch were then in a position to secure a relaxation of the Navigation Act as a condition of victory at the expense of the British economy This war had a profound effect on the City of London. and for a time it was difficult for merchants to find insurers willing to cover their voyages. The Anglo Dutch wars In 1670, the English negotiated the Treaty of Dover with France, which called for an offensive partnership agai nst the Dutch. The French king, Louis XIV was angered when he found out that the Dutch had formed an anti-French alliance with Sweden (and, to begin with, England). When the next war broke out in 1672. Charles' motivations were again clear: he resented Dutch republicanism. demanded that the seas around Britain be free of Dutch ships and wanted international trade to be more favourable to the English. The war that Charles entered into was part of the wider Franco-Dutch War, which continued until 1678, although parliament feared that Charles would resort to absolutism if he remained in a close alliance with the French and encouraged him to withdraw from the war. A second Treaty of Westminster was signed in 1674, which reverted relations between the two states to that of 1667. Throughout these years of rivalry, competition with the Dutch served to both help and hinder the British economy. When victories and peace treaties were gained, the British usually gained an advantage in international trade, but when the often long and drawn-out battles of the Anglo-Dutch Wars were taking place, the economy in London would often come to a standstill with merchants. insurers and bankers all feeling the knock-on effects. The historian Nigel Heard has argued that the British were able to survive the cycle of conflict and suspicion because of the strength of the colonies The end of Anglo Dutch rivalry Opinion in parliament and among the public by the 1670s was firmly against war and merchants had suffered greatly as a result of the disruption to trade brought about by the First and Second Anglo- Dutch Wars. In the end, however, the decline in rivalry between the two states had little to do with commercial interests and more to do with the political and religious situation faced at home. First. William III became Stadholder of the Dutch Republic in 1672 and married Mary, daughter of the future James II. in 1677. Charles promptly agreed to an alliance with William against France and sent the army and navy to fight with the Dutch. Louis revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685, which had provided protection for Protestants in France. A number of French Protestants migrated to England and Holland, leading to a mutual anti-French feeling in both states. The rivalry was entirely over when William was invited to take the English throne from the Catholic James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The role of the East India Company English rivalry with Spain culminated in the defeat of the Armada in 1588 and the gradual decline of Spanish sea power. Elizabeth I, and later James I. felt confident enough to develop trade with the East. The Portuguese and Dutch still had a monopoly on trade with the East at the beginning of the 17th century, although English ships made a number of voyages between 1590 and 1600 with limited success. In 1600, 242 London merchants agreed to found the East India Company and their fleet travelled to India for the first time in 1601, under the command of Captain James Lancaster, with funds totalling £68,000, including money for ships, as well as gold and silver to trade with. Lancaster established a trading post at Bantam. on the island of Java. The local rulers in the East Indies and India were reluctant to trade their commodities for British goods, which they did not have a use for, and asked to trade in silver, a request to which the company agreed. The English policy of mercantilism favoured accumulating gold and silver, therefore the strategy of the East India Company contravened official government policy, although due to its success the trading model was given the freedom to flourish. A number of further trading posts were established in the East Indies between 1601 and the 1620s, although Portugal still had a monopoly over trade with India and the first trading post there was not established until 1613. The role of the East India Company English activity in the East Indies ended abruptly when, in 1623, a number of company officials were executed by the Dutch for attempting to expel the Dutch from their base on the island of Ambon in present day Indonesia. This led to a change of direction for the company and it now focused its energies on India. The first shipment of saltpetre arrived from India in 1626, which was then re­ exported to the continent. Pepper was sold in bulk by the company from 1627 and the trading post of Madras was established in 1633. Madras grew quickly to become a centre for the trade of calico textiles, which were made from woven cotton. A lasting peace was made with the Portuguese, who controlled the Indian region of Goa, in 1635, improving trading conditions on the west coast of India. The role of the East India Company The company's success continued into the 1640s and it established a trading post at Basra to support Persian trade interests. However, the fortunes of the company would soon fall foul of Oliver Cromwell's suspicion surrounding its royalist sympathies. The company's charter was finally withdrawn by Cromwell in 1657 and, on his restoration, Charles II granted a new charter with the same privileges and returned capital assets totalling £740,000 back to the company: Relations with the Portuguese improved further when Charles II married Catherine of Braganza in 1662 and her dowry included the island of Bombay, which Charles allowed the company to use. There was a great demand for Indian textiles in the 1660s, and the company made loans to the Crown of £10,000 in 1660 and £50,000 in 1667. As Charles was indebted to the company, any financial irregularities regarding their practices were not investigated. The 1660s were also a successful decade for trade with India as the first shipments of tea arrived in 1664, although this success was briefly threatened when the Great Fire of London destroyed warehouses containing large quantities of pepper and other goods in 1666. The role of the East India Company The importance of the East India Company was highlighted in 1672, when it was given permission to mint coins in India, and in 1675 the mint began the production of the Indian rupee. All English subjects in India were subject to the authority of the company, and a private army was created to protect English citizens and trading interests, as well as new armoured ships from the 1670s, designed to a specialised set of specifications. By 1688, the company was a popular choice for investment by wealthy courtiers and profits equalled, and often exceeded, the Caribbean and North American tobacco and sugar trades. In the In the 1680s, it was normal for annual profits to exceed £600,000, compared to no more than £100,000 between 1600 and 1640. The company was, therefore, key to both the advancement of trade in a lucrative part of the world, and crucial in n ensuring the English were able to compete with other major European powers. The significance of British control of the triangular trade A basic system of transatlantic slave trade had existed since 1510, when the first 50 slaves were transported by the Spanish to Hispaniola. The Spanish and in particular the Portuguese dominated the trade in its infancy. The Portuguese had been trading with West African tribes in the 16th century and established outposts that would serve as collection points for the transportation of slaves across the Atlantic. A triangular trade soon developed, where slaves would be taken to Caribbean and North American colonies and sold for local produce such as tobacco, sugar; cotton or mahogany, which would then be taken to Europe. Merchants were attracted to the triangular trade because the profits made from the process could be significant; slaves were purchased from African chieftains in exchange for cheap European goods and the cargo they ultimately acquired in exchange for the slaves could be sold in Europe for a much higher rate than their original shipment to Africa. The first involvement of the British in what could be termed a triangular trade did not occur until later in the 16th century: In 1562, sea captain John Hawkins set sail from Plymouth in order to capture slaves on the Guinea Coast and then transport them to the Caribbean in exchange for commodities that could be used in Britain.  The significance of British control of the triangular trade Although British merchants had a role in the transportation of slaves, in 1640 there were no slaves in the English colonies of North America. By 1660, slavery was written into law in most American colonies and by 1700, there were nearly 120,000 slaves, primarily Caribbean colonies such as Jamaica and Barbados. The barbarity associated with slave labour was not acknowledged by the English government who still saw slaves as nothing more than property.This extraordinary expansion took place for a number of reasons Early in the 17th century, the Dutch controlled most of the major West African trading posts. As a result of English successes in the First Anglo-Dutch War; the Royal Adventurers of England Trading in Africa was set up in 1663. Th1s company was able to acquire a number of Dutch trading posts. After the Restoration in 1660, colonies such as Montserrat and Antigua were already experiencing severe labour shortages and the system whereby British migrants would settle m these colonies as indentured servants were no longer adequate. The triangular trade was therefore mutually beneficial for both English slave traders and plantation owners. The establishment of the Royal African Company in 1672 enabled the British to dominate the slave trade into the 18th century. This company was a restructured version of the one founded in 1663, although it now had the right to levy Its own army and set up military bases and trading posts. The company maintained control over slave ports along the entire West African coast with the use of this army, as well as ships that were more advanced than their rivals. The significance of British control of the triangular trade The significance of increased British control over the triangular trade is shown in the fact that the profits made from huge numbers of slaves transported after 1660 were able to add massively to the wealth of the City of London. The gold taken from Africa in this trade contributed to the Royal Mint, strengthening the economy and the Crown's hand further. Ports that had been involved in the North American trade, such as Liverpool and Bristol, became the primary centres of the slave trade: The slave trade continued to grow after the Glorious Revolution m 1688, although the monopoly that had been given to the Royal African Company was broken when William III allowed all English merchants to trade m African goods and slaves. The Royal African Company he right to supply slaves to the Spanish possessions in South America in 1713, resulting in Britain controlling approximately half of the entire transatlantic slave trade. The Royal African Company's strength in the City of London is also important. 15 Lord Mayors of London, 25 sheriffs and 38 aldermen were shareholders in the company between1660 and 1690. The 'Guinea' coin, named after the part of Africa, where Britain's gold and slave supply was located, was first minted in 1663. Conclusion Although Britain was yet to see the transformative change brought about by the commercial and industrial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries, it is clear that changes made between 1625 and 1688 provided the seedbed for further growth. Changes in agricultural techniques undoubtedly contributed to a growth in agricultural output, particularly in 'cash-crops' that could be used in the textile industry, such as hemp and flax. The crops grown in the colonies contributed to an improvement in economic conditions, as tobacco and sugar production became vastly profitable. London's newfound role as the centre of European trade and commerce ensured that there would be long-term prosperity in Britain. Finance was widely available for the first time and the chance to acquire credit meant that merchants were able to invest in new ventures and trading companies A clear theme that runs throughout the period is rivalry with the Dutch. The textile industry, once dominated by skilled workers from the Low Countries, had undergone a resurgence as a result of the 'new draperies' pioneered in the towns of East Anglia. The policy of mercantilism also enabled Britain to compete with Holland on the world stage, and one of the most important effects of this policy was undoubtedly the passing of the Navigation Acts. These Acts enforced English supremacy at sea and enabled North American colonies to prosper. The beginnings of a British monopoly of the triangular trade can also be seen in the period at the expense of other powers, such as Portugal and Spain. However, it has been argued that mercantile regulations were unnecessary in North America and the Caribbean, as in many cases England was the only trading partner of the newly settled colonies. Resentment towards mercantilism gradually developed in the colonies, as the government, based in London, that was giving direction and regulations was seen as distant and out of touch. In New England, colonists would routinely ignore the Navigation Acts by trading with other European powers. Conclusion Although economic development was generally strong, there is a clear correlation between the slowdown in population growth in n the second half of the 17th century and a slowing in economic progress. This coupled with a conservative approach to aspects of the rural economy such as the continuation of the 'putting-out' system for the production of cloth, as well as a lack of agricultural progress in some regions, meant that economic development was not felt by everyone. This lack of progress is most evident in Ireland, which saw little industrial investment and did not reap the benefits of improved agricultural techniques until later. The issue of land ownership in Ireland hampered progress, as English Protestant settlers were almost always favoured over the native Catholic population when land disputes broke out. Rivalry in Ireland came to a head during the rebellion of 1641 and the restoration monarchy failed to address these grievances further. Finally, although some changes were made to transport and industry, they were limited. The development of road transport was piecemeal, with turnpikes only appearing towards the end of the century, and water transport was often unreliable and easily disrupted by seasonal changes and the weather. Heavy industry, which would be the backbone of the industrial revolution, was virtually non­existent. Coal and tin mining were well-established industries, although the processes by which they were extracted were still slow and inefficient. Paper 1 Section B Questions. Section B. Understanding of the period in breadth and target content specified in the themes, questions may cross themes, questions cover periods of at least a third of the timespan of the themes covering any A01 concepts (causes and consequences, changes and continuity, similarity and difference, significance). 2017 4 Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on the significance of the role of the East India Company in the expansion of overseas trade in the years 1625-88. 2018 4 Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on the extent to which the growth of banking and insurance was responsible for the expansion of the Stuart economy in the years 1625–88. 2020 4 Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on the significance of British control of the triangular trade for the development of Britain’s overseas trade in the years c1650-88. 2021 4 Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on the significance of the Navigation Acts in the development of Britain’s trading empire in the years 1651-88. 2023 4 How significant were North America and Jamaica for the development of overseas trade 1625-88? 2024 4How significant was the growth of London in the development of the British economy in the years 1625-88?  Stretch and Challenge Resources Quizzes 1 Economy, trade and Empire 1625-88 KT4 FP3 - The impact of i Links mperial expansion in 1 UK agricultural History North America and the 2 Keith Wrightson Economy 1560-1640 3 Keith Wrightson Economy 1660-1720 Caribbean; the Navigation Acts and the Departmental Website 1 Britain 1625-1701 development of 2 Paper 1 Exam Tecnhnique mercantilist ideas; effects of Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry ; the role of the East India Company;; the