Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior (Psychology) PDF

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Why do we learn biology in a psychology course? How does knowledge of the connection between biological systems and mental processes help us live healthier lives? How much...

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS Why do we learn biology in a psychology course? How does knowledge of the connection between biological systems and mental processes help us live healthier lives? How much of who you are is determined by what’s in your brain? Topic Learning Objective Textbook Pages 1.1 Interaction of Heredity & Explain the relationship between heredity and environment in shaping behavior and mental processes. 3-19 Environment 1.2 Overview of the Differentiate among the subsystems of the human Nervous System 22-24 nervous system and their functions. 1.3A- Structures and Functions of Typical Neurons Explain how the structures and functions of typical neurons in the central nervous system affect behavior 25-29 and mental processes. 1.3B.1- Neural Firing 1.3B.2- Neurotransmitters & 28-32 1.3 The Neuron & Hormones Explain how the basic process of neural Neural Firing transmission is related to behavior and mental processes. 32-37 1.3C- Psychoactive Drugs Explain how psychoactive drugs affect behavior and 39-52 mental processes. 1.4A- The Brain 1.4B- Tools of Discovery & Neuroplasticity 1.4 The Brain Explain how the structures and functions of the brain 55-85 apply to behavior and mental processes. Explain how the sleep/wake cycle affects behavior 1.5 Sleep and mental processes throughout the day and night. 87-113 1.6A- Basic Concepts Explain how the process of sensation is related to 115-122 behavior and mental processes. Explain how the structures and functions of the following sensory systems relate to behavior and mental processes: 1.6B- Visual Sensory System: 124-132 1.6 Sensation □Vision 1.6C- Auditory Sensory System: 135-141 □Hearing 1.6D & E- Chemical Sensory Systems: □Taste 148-152 □Smell 1.6F & G- Bodily Sensory Systems: 143-148, □Touch □Pain 152-155 Balance □Bodymovement □  Interaction of Heredity & Environment Heredity & Environmental Factors Na tur e: Nur ture: The genetic and biological influences on behavior and The genetic and biological influences on behavior and development, such as inherited traits and instincts. development, such as inherited traits and instincts. Genetic predisposition: an increased likelihood of developing a particular trait or condition based on an individual's genetic makeup. It suggests that genetics play a role in shaping behaviors or health risks, but environmental factors can also influence outcomes. Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary perspective: behaviors and mental processes have developed over time due to their survival and reproductive advantages. It emphasizes how traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed down through generations. Natural selection: the process by which traits that enhance an organism's survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to the next generation, while traits that are less advantageous tend to diminish over time. Mate selection: People tend to prefer traits in potential mates (e.g., physical attractiveness or social status) that historically signal health, What are some examples within fertility, or resources, enhancing reproductive success. the evolutionary psychology Fear of snakes or spiders: Humans may have an evolutionary perspective? predisposition to fear certain animals that posed threats to survival, promoting cautious behavior to avoid danger. Discriminatory Application of Psychological Concepts Eugenics: the study and practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding individuals with desirable traits and discouraging reproduction among those with undesirable traits. It has been associated with unethical practices, including forced sterilizations and discrimination. Research Twin studies: Family studies: Adoption studies: Research studies that compare the Examine the similarities and Compare the traits of adopted similarities and differences differences in traits or behaviors children with those of their between identical (monozygotic) among family members to explore biological and adoptive parents to and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to the role of genetics and determine the influence of genetics understand the influence of environment in shaping those (from biological parents) versus genetics (nature) versus traits. They often look at how traits environment (from adoptive environment (nurture) on various are passed through generations. parents) on behavior and traits and behaviors. characteristics.  Overview of the Nervous System Fill out the chart below regarding the breakdown of the Nervous System. Add details about the function of each part. Central Peripheral Somatic Autonomic Sympathetic Parasympathetic  Structures & Functions of Typical Neurons Provide the function for the parts of the neuron. You will not be tested over these parts, but you will need to know them to better understand later topics over which you will be tested.  Neural Cells Neurons: the basic building blocks of the nervous system, specialized cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the body. They communicate with other neurons, muscles, and glands to control various functions and behaviors. Glial cells: non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that provide support, nourishment, and protection to neurons. They also play a role in maintaining the blood-brain barrier, repairing tissue, and assisting in signal transmission. Neurons are responsible for transmitting signals, allowing communication within the nervous system, and enabling cognitive functions, movement, What value do these neural cells and sensory processing. have within the nervous system? Glial cells support neurons by providing structural support, nutrient supply, waste removal, and insulating neurons (through myelin) to enhance signal transmission, contributing to overall brain health and function. The Reflex Arc Reflex arc: the pathway followed by a nerve impulse during a reflex action. It typically involves a sensory neuron detecting a stimulus, which triggers an immediate response via a motor neuron, bypassing the brain for a quick reaction. For example, pulling your hand away from a hot surface. sensory motor interneurons (Be sure to label and include the function of the sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons).  Neural Firing Communication Within Neurons Neural transmission: the process by which electrical impulses travel along a neuron and are passed to other neurons or target cells. It involves the generation of an action potential, the release of neurotransmitters into synapses, and their binding to receptors on the next neuron or target cell, allowing signals to be communicated across the nervous system. Electrochemical communication What type of communication do neurons use? Within a neuron, communication is electrical. It occurs via an action What type of communication is potential, which is an electrical impulse that travels down the axon from the used WITHIN the neuron? cell body to the axon terminals. Resting potential: the electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane when it is not actively sending a signal. The inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to the outside, typically around -70mV, and this state is maintained by ion channels and pumps. Threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. Once the membrane potential reaches this threshold (typically around -55mV), an action potential is initiated, leading to the neuron firing and transmitting a signal. Action potential: an electrical impulse that travels down a neuron, triggered when the membrane potential reaches the threshold. It involves a rapid change in the neuron's electrical charge, with sodium ions rushing in and potassium ions flowing out, allowing the signal to move along the axon. Depolarization: the process during an action potential when the neuron's membrane potential becomes more positive. This occurs as sodium ions (Na+) flow into the neuron, reversing the negative charge inside the neuron relative to the outside. It is a key step in initiating the action potential. All-or-nothing principle: once a neuron's membrane reaches the threshold, an action potential will always occur with the same intensity, regardless of the strength of the stimulus. If the threshold is not reached, no action potential is fired. Refractory period: the brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential. It consists of two phases: the absolute refractory period, where no new action potential can be initiated, and the relative refractory period, where a stronger-than-usual stimulus is required to trigger another action potential.  Illustrate resting potential, examples of not meeting the threshold, action potential, and refractory period. Neurotransmitter: a chemical messenger that transmits signals across the synapse from one neuron to another or to a target cell (like a muscle or gland). Examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. They bind to receptors on the receiving neuron to initiate or inhibit a response. Reuptake: the process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after they have transmitted their signal across the synapse. This process helps regulate the amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse, ensuring that signals are not overstimulated. Disruptions to Neural Transmission Multiple sclerosis: a chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath that covers nerve fibers, causing inflammation and damage. This disrupts nerve signal transmission, leading to symptoms like muscle weakness, coordination problems, and vision issues. Myasthenia gravis: an autoimmune disorder where the body's immune system attacks and damages the acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, impairing communication between nerves and muscles. This results in muscle weakness, particularly in areas like the eyes, face, and throat.  Neurotransmitters & Hormones Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter: a chemical substance that transmits signals across the synapse between neurons or from neurons to other cells, such as muscle or gland cells. Examples include dopamine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the receiving cell, affecting its activity. What type of communication chemical communication occurs. Neurotransmitters are used to transmit occurs BETWEEN neurons? Why signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. are neurotransmitters used in the communication process? FUN FACT: The particular area of the brain impacted by the deficit or surplus of a neurotransmitter is also a major factor for the particular outcomes. For example, if the neurotransmitter is impacting the motor cortex, the effects will be based on the function of what occurs there (purposeful movement). This is why a neurotransmitter can have very different outcomes even when dealing with the same deviation from normal levels. Excitatory: neurotransmitters or signals that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential. These signals cause depolarization, making the inside of the neuron more positive and closer to the threshold needed to trigger an action potential. Examples include glutamate. Inhibitor y: to neurotransmitters or signals that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential. These signals cause hyperpolarization, making the inside of the neuron more negative and farther from the threshold required to trigger an action potential. An example is GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). Neurotransmitters Hormones Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses Chemical messengers produced by glands in the between neurons or from neurons to other cells. They endocrine system. They travel through the play a key role in brain function, mood regulation, and bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions, bodily functions. including growth, metabolism, mood, and reproduction. Hor mones Hormones: chemical messengers secreted by glands in the endocrine system. They travel through the bloodstream to target organs, regulating processes like metabolism, growth, mood, and reproduction. Adr enaline: a hormone and neurotransmitter released by the adrenal glands during stressful or emergency situations. It triggers the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy levels, preparing the body to respond quickly to a threat. Leptin: a hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate energy balance by signaling the brain to reduce appetite and increase energy expenditure when fat stores are sufficient. It plays a key role in controlling hunger and body weight. Ghr elin: a hormone produced primarily in the stomach that stimulates appetite. Often referred to as the "hunger hormone," it signals the brain to increase food intake and promote fat storage, especially when the body is in a state of energy deficit. Mela tonin: a hormone produced by the pineal gland in the brain that regulates the sleep-wake cycle. It is released in response to darkness, promoting sleep, and its levels decrease with exposure to light, helping signal the body to wake up. Oxytocin: a hormone and neurotransmitter produced by the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland. It plays a key role in childbirth, stimulating uterine contractions, and in lactation, promoting milk release. Oxytocin is also involved in social bonding, trust, and emotional connections. Neurotransmitt Agonist, Antagonist, or Reuptake Function Effect of Deficit Effect of Surplus er Inhibitor? Acetylcholine Enables communication Low levels are linked to Muscle spasms, cramps, Botulin & curare cause paralysis by (ACh) Connection: between nerve cells and Alzheimer's disease, or even paralysis, as well blocking ACh receptors involved in muscles, plays a role in memory loss, and muscle as potentially affect heart muscle movement attention and memory. weakness. rate and respiration. Dopamine It plays a role in feelings of Low levels are associated with High levels can be linked to Anti-psychotic meds like those for schizophrenia, causing symptoms Connection: pleasure and reinforcement, Parkinson's disease, causing like hallucinations and delusions. It schizophrenia block dopamine at the helps regulate motor control, tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with may also contribute to addictive synapse and is crucial for learning and movement. It can also contribute to behaviors. depression and lack of motivation. attention. Serotonin It helps regulate mood, Low levels are associated Excess serotonin can lead Prozac stops serotonin from being Connection: anxiety, happiness, sleep with depression, anxiety to serotonin syndrome, reabsorbed thus flooding the cycles, and appetite. disorders, insomnia, and causing symptoms like receiving neuron with more serotonin irritability. agitation, confusion, rapid heart rate, and muscle spasms. Nor epinephrine It helps regulate attention, Low levels are linked to Excess norepinephrine can lead Drugs like Ritalin and Adderall work Connection: focus, heart rate, and blood depression, lack of focus, to anxiety, increased blood to increase the levels of pressure. It also prepares the low energy, and reduced pressure, heart palpitations, norepinephrine & dopamine body for fight or flight during and stress-related disorders. stressful situations. stress response. GABA It reduces neuronal excitability, Low levels are associated Excess GABA can lead to Alcohol and anti-anxiety drugs act Connection: promoting relaxation, reducing with anxiety, seizures, excessive sedation, drowsiness, like GABA and further inhibit anxiety anxiety, and helping to regulate insomnia, and other mood and impairments in memory sleep. disorders. and motor skills. Endorphins They reduce pain, stress, and Low levels can contribute Excessive endorphins can lead to a Injections of morphine following a Connection: promote feelings of pleasure and to increased pain decreased ability to sense pain, surgery help reduce a patient’s well-being, often released during which may result in risky behaviors experience of pain exercise, laughter, or pleasurablesensitivity, depression, or a reduced perception of injury. activities. and anxiety. Substance P It plays a key role in Low levels can result in Excessive substance P is associated Spantide II occupies the receptor with chronic pain, inflammation, Connection: transmitting pain information to reduced pain sensitivity and conditions like fibromyalgia. It sites where substance P would the brain, as well as influencing normally bind, reducing sensitivity to inflammatory processes and and impaired ability to may also contribute to anxiety and mood disorders. pain mood regulation. respond to pain. Glutama te It enhances the transmission of Low levels are associated with Excessive glutamate can lead to Used after TBI to prevent memory Connection: signals between neurons and plays cognitive impairments, learning neurotoxicity, contributing to loss, Namenda® prevents abnormal a key role in cognitive functions difficulties, and may contribute to conditions like seizures, stroke, and such as learning and memory neurodegenerative diseases like neurodegenerative diseases, as it amounts of glutamate from formation. Alzheimer's disease. can overstimulate neurons and activating the next neuron cause cell damage.  Psychoactive Drugs Functions of Drugs Psychoactive drugs: substances that alter mood, perception, consciousness, or behavior by affecting the brain's activity. Agonist: a substance that binds to a receptor and activates it, mimicking the effect of a neurotransmitter or other signaling molecule. Illustrate and explain two different ways in which an agonist can carry out its intended action Mimicking the neurotransmitter Increase the release of neurotransmitters or block their reuptake, enhancing the effects of the natural neurotransmitter. Antagonist: a substance that binds to a receptor but does not activate it, effectively blocking or reducing the effect of a neurotransmitter or other signaling molecule. Blocking the receptor: An antagonist can bind to a receptor, preventing the natural neurotransmitter or agonist from binding and activating the receptor. For example, naloxone acts as an antagonist at opioid receptors, blocking the effects of opioids like heroin. Illustrate and explain two Inhibiting neurotransmitter release: An antagonist can interfere with the different ways in which an release of neurotransmitters, reducing their activity. For instance, certain antagonist can carry out its medications can block the release of acetylcholine, leading to reduced intended action muscle contractions and used in treatments like botulinum toxin (Botox) for muscle relaxation. Reuptake inhibitor: a substance that blocks the reabsorption (reuptake) of neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the amount of neurotransmitter available in the synapse and enhancing its effects.  Illustrate and explain how a reuptake inhibitor can carry out its intended action Normal reuptake Reuptake inhibition S Effects: drugs that C Caffeine is a stimulant found in coffee, tea, and various other beverages and foods. It works by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain, which promotes wakefulness and alertness. ti increase the a ff m activity of the central ei u nervous n l system, e a leading to heightened C What are some of the effects of cocaine? - intense feelings of euphoria, energy, and alertness. n alertness, o c t energy, and focus. a What neurotransmitter is impacted by cocaine and how? - Cocaine primarily impacts the neurotransmitter dopamine. s i It works by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, preventing it from being taken back into the presynaptic neuron. This leads to an accumulation of dopamine in the synapse, enhancing its effects on the postsynaptic neuron and resulting n in feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and heightened pleasure. e D Effects: slow down the How does alcohol impact our inhibitions? - Alcohol impacts inhibitions by depressing the activity of the central nervous system, particularly affecting the brain regions responsible for decision-making and impulse control. e activity of the p central What two parts of the brain are most impacted by alcohol and what functions are altered because of it? - Alcohol nervous r system, primarily impacts the frontal lobe and the cerebellum. Decision making, judgement, coordination, balance e leading to A How does alcohol influence one’s ability to react or perform a task? - slows down brain activity, particularly in areas lc s calming effects. o responsible for motor coordination and decision-making. This impairs one's ability to react quickly, process s h information, and perform tasks that require concentration or precise movement. What are some examples of how alcohol reduces self-awareness? - Lowered social inhibition, riskier behavior, a o diminished self-criticism, increased focus on immediate pleasure n l t How does expectation play a role in the impact of alcohol? - Expectation plays a significant role in how alcohol affects a person. The placebo effect can cause individuals to experience the effects of alcohol even if they have consumed a s non-alcoholic beverage, simply because they expect to feel the typical effects What neurotransmitters are involved with this drug? - GABA, Glutamate, Dopamine, Endorphins  H Effects: alter perception, What are some of the effects of marijuana? - The effects of marijuana include euphoria and relaxation, altered perception of time, increased appetite, impaired memory and concentration, altered motor coordination, and a mood, and anxiety or paranoia. ll thought. What are some of the effects of marijuana that surprised you or were new to you? - Its potential to cause u M altered motor coordination, which can impair tasks like driving, and the increased appetite known as the a "munchies." Additionally, marijuana can sometimes lead to anxiety or paranoia, which is not experienced by c ri everyone but can be unsettling for some users. i j n u o a g n a e n s Effects: Opiates are used to treat: pain, including acute and chronic pain, as well as to manage cough and diarrhea in O euphoria H certain cases. pi and pain e What neurotransmitter is connected to opiates and how? - Opiates are connected to endorphins, as they oi relief, r mimic the effects of endorphins by binding to opioid receptors in the brain, which leads to pain relief. d drowsiness o What are some long-term effects of opiates? - Long-term effects of opiates include addiction, tolerance and s sedation, i (requiring higher doses for the same effect), physical dependence, impaired cognitive function, weakened etc. n immune system, liver damage, respiratory issues, and increased risk of overdose. What is tolerance and how does it impact one’s drug use? - When the body becomes less responsive to a drug over time, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect. It impacts drug use by potentially leading to increased consumption, which raises the risk of dependence, addiction, and overdose. How does addiction differ from tolerance? Based on the effects and possibility of addiction, why would it make sense that most of these drugs impact our levels of dopamine and serotonin? - Addiction differs from tolerance in that tolerance refers to the diminished effect of a drug over time, while addiction involves compulsive drug use despite negative consequences, often due to physical or psychological dependence. It makes sense that most of these drugs impact dopamine and serotonin because both neurotransmitters are involved in the brain's reward system; dopamine is associated with pleasure and reinforcement, while serotonin regulates mood and emotional well-being. Drugs that affect these neurotransmitters can lead to euphoria, reinforcing the desire to continue using, which can contribute to addiction. What is withdrawal? What symptoms could be demonstrated in someone experiencing it? - Withdrawal is the physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using a drug after becoming dependent on it. Symptoms can include anxiety, irritability, fatigue, nausea, sweating, shaking, headaches, depression, and cravings for the drug. In severe cases, withdrawal can lead to seizures, hallucinations, or even life-threatening complications.  The Brain Brainstem (including the medulla): responsible for basic life functions such as heart rate, breathing, swallowing, and blood pressure regulation. The medulla specifically controls autonomic functions like respiration, heart rhythm, and reflex actions such as coughing and vomiting. Reticular activating system and the brain’s reward center: Regulating wakefulness, attention, and arousal by filtering incoming sensory information and sending it to the higher brain centers. The brain's reward center, which includes structures like the nucleus accumbens, is involved in processing rewarding stimuli and reinforcing behaviors associated with pleasure, often through the release of dopamine. Cer ebellum: responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, motor control, and posture. It helps ensure smooth, precise movements and plays a role in learning motor skills. Cerebral Cortex Limbic System Thalamus: acts as a relay station for sensory information, directing it to the appropriate areas of the brain for processing. It also plays a role in regulating sleep, alertness, and consciousness. Hypothalamus: regulates vital functions such as body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and hormone release. It also controls the pituitary gland and helps maintain homeostasis in the body. Pituitary gland: often referred to as the "master gland" because it secretes hormones that regulate other endocrine glands, controlling processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Hippocampus: primarily involved in the formation of new memories, learning, and spatial navigation. It helps convert short-term memory into long-term memory and plays a role in emotional regulation. Amygdala: involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. It plays a key role in emotional responses, memory formation related to emotional experiences, and the regulation of emotional behavior. Corpus Callosum Corpus callosum: a thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing for communication and coordination between both sides. Lobes Occipital lobes: located at the back of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing visual information, including recognizing shapes, colors, and motion. Temporal lobes: located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation. They also play a role in emotion regulation. Parietal lobes: located at the top and back of the brain and are responsible for processing sensory information related to touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness. They also play a role in coordinating movement and understanding spatial relationships. Somatosensory cortex: Wernicke’s area: Is located in the parietal lobe and is responsible for processing located in the left temporal lobe and is responsible for the sensory information from the body, including touch, temperature, comprehension of speech. Damage to this area can result in pain, and proprioception (awareness of body position). difficulty understanding language and producing meaningful speech, a condition known as Wernicke’s aphasia. Frontal lobes: located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, planning, problem-solving, emotional regulation, and voluntary movement. They also house Broca's area, which is responsible for speech production. Motor cortex: Broca’s area: located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for initiating and located in the frontal lobe, typically in the left hemisphere, and is responsible for speech production and language expression. Damage to this area can coordinating voluntary muscle movements. It sends signals result in Broca’s aphasia, which is characterized by difficulty speaking but to different parts of the body to control motor activities. relatively preserved comprehension.  The Brain: Neuroplasticity & Tools of Discovery Biopsychology: the branch of psychology that studies the relationship between the brain, nervous system, and behavior. It explores how biological processes influence thoughts, emotions, and actions. The Brain’s Adaptive Ability Neuroplasticity Plasticity: the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections, especially in response to injury or learning. This ability allows the brain to compensate for damaged areas or adjust to new experiences. Tools of Discovery Case Studies Phineas Gage H.M. a 19th-century railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain a man who underwent brain surgery to treat severe epilepsy, resulting in the injury when an iron rod was driven through his skull, damaging his frontal removal of his hippocampus. After the surgery, he was unable to form new lobes. His case provided early evidence of the role of the frontal lobes in long-term memories, providing key insights into the role of the personality and behavior, as he experienced significant changes in hippocampus in memory formation. His case contributed significantly to our temperament and social behavior after the accident. understanding of memory processes. Imaging Techniques EEG fMRI a test that measures electrical activity in the brain a brain imaging technique that measures brain using sensors placed on the scalp. It is commonly activity by detecting changes in blood flow. It is used to diagnose conditions like epilepsy and sleep used to observe and map brain function, showing disorders and to study brain wave patterns. which areas are active during specific tasks or mental processes. Surgical Procedures Lesioning: a technique used in research where specific areas of the brain are damaged or destroyed to study the effects of the damage on behavior and function. It helps scientists understand the role of particular brain regions. Split-Brain Research Split-brain research: involves studying individuals who have had their corpus callosum severed, often as a treatment for severe epilepsy. This research provides insights into how the two hemispheres of the brain communicate and function independently, revealing the specialization of each hemisphere. To treat severe epilepsy that does not respond to other treatments. The procedure, Why would someone have their known as a corpus callosotomy, helps reduce the frequency and severity of seizures corpus callosum severed? by preventing them from spreading between the two hemispheres of the brain. Cortex Specialization Left hemisphere Right hemisphere Primarily responsible for language, logical reasoning, Mainly responsible for spatial awareness, creativity, analytical thinking, and controlling the right side of the visual and musical processing, and recognizing faces. It body. It is also involved in tasks such as reading, writing, controls the left side of the body and is also involved in and mathematics. intuition and emotional processing. What two association areas do Prefrontal cortex and the parietal association areas. we learn about in this course? What is the term for damage Agnosia. This condition involves difficulty processing or recognizing sensory information, such to an association area? as objects, faces, or sounds, despite the sensory systems being intact. Contralateral hemispheric organization: The idea that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body. For example, the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side.  Sleep Consciousness Consciousness: refers to our awareness of ourselves, our thoughts, and our surroundings. It includes both our immediate thoughts and perceptions as well as our deeper awareness of internal states, emotions, and the external world. Sleep: a natural, recurring state of rest for the body and mind, characterized by reduced consciousness, inactivity, and lowered responsiveness to external stimuli. It plays a vital role in physical health, cognitive function, and emotional regulation. Wakefulness: the state of being alert and aware of one's surroundings, in contrast to being asleep or unconscious. It involves active brain processes and the ability to respond to stimuli. The Sleep/Wake Cycle Circadian rhythm: The body's internal 24-hour cycle that regulates various physiological processes, including sleep-wake patterns, hormone release, and body temperature. It is influenced by external cues like light and darkness. If human beings have no Without external cues, such as light or darkness, human beings typically operate on an internal indication of external cues, how cycle of about 25 hours. This is slightly longer than the typical 24-hour day, but the body’s many hours do we operate on in a circadian rhythm can be reset by environmental factors like sunlight. daily cycle? The hormone melatonin plays a key role in regulating our circadian rhythm. It What hormone contributes to our is produced by the pineal gland in response to darkness and helps signal to circadian rhythm? the body that it is time to sleep. Disruptions Jet Lag Shift Work A temporary sleep disorder that occurs when a person’s a work schedule that involves hours outside the internal circadian rhythm is out of sync with the time zone traditional 9-to-5, often including night shifts or rotating they have traveled to, typically after long-distance air shifts. This type of schedule can disrupt the natural travel. It can cause fatigue, difficulty sleeping, and other circadian rhythm, leading to sleep disturbances, fatigue, symptoms as the body adjusts to the new time zone. and other health issues. Stages of Wakefulness & Sleep A polysomnograph is used to measure sleep stages. It monitors brain waves (via EEG), eye movements (via EOG), and muscle activity (via EMG) to determine the different stages of sleep. By analyzing these signals, it identifies whether a person is in stages like REM sleep, What tool is used to measure this light sleep, or deep sleep. and how does it determine what sleep stage someone is in?  Non-REM Sleep the lightest stage of sleep, lasting for a few minutes. It is characterized by a decrease NREM Stage 1 in heart rate and muscle activity, along with slow eye movements. During this stage, people may experience the sensation of "falling" or brief muscle contractions. Hypnogogic sensations: brief, vivid experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep, often during NREM Stage 1. These can include sensations of falling, floating, or hearing sounds that aren't actually there. a deeper stage of sleep characterized by a further decrease in heart rate, body temperature, and NREM Stage 2 muscle activity. It is marked by the presence of sleep spindles (short bursts of rapid brain activity) and K-complexes (large, slow brain waves), and it typically lasts for about 20 minutes. a deep sleep stage where the body and brain experience the most restorative rest. It is characterized by slow delta waves and is crucial for physical recovery, immune NREM Stage 3 function, and growth. This stage is harder to awaken from, and people may feel disoriented if woken during it. REM Sleep REM sleep: a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity, and vivid dreaming. During REM sleep, the body experiences temporary paralysis of most muscles to prevent acting out dreams. It is important for cognitive functions like memory consolidation and emotional processing. Non-REM Benefits REM Benefits Particularly beneficial for physical restoration, REM sleep is more focused on What benefits does Non-REM as it promotes muscle repair, tissue growth, sleep have compared to REM and immune system strengthening. It also cognitive functions like learning, sleep? plays a key role in consolidating memories memory processing, and and clearing brain waste. emotional regulation. Adequate sleep improves memory, enhances cognitive function, boosts mood, What benefits does adequate strengthens the immune system, and promotes physical recovery. In contrast, sleep sleep have versus sleep deprivation can impair concentration, memory, and decision-making, increase stress deprivation? and irritability, weaken the immune system, and raise the risk of health problems like heart disease and obesity. after being deprived of REM sleep, the body compensates by spending What is REM rebound? more time in REM sleep during subsequent sleep sessions. This often leads to more intense and longer periods of REM sleep. despite the brain being highly active and similar to wakefulness, the What makes this stage body experiences muscle paralysis. This combination of intense brain considered paradoxical sleep? activity with physical immobility creates the paradox.  The need for sleep varies among individuals due to factors such as How does the need for sleep vary among individuals and why? age, genetics, lifestyle, and overall health As sleep progresses, the frequency of NREM Stage 3 and REM sleep cycles changes. Early in What do you notice about the the night, deep NREM sleep (Stage 3) dominates, while REM sleep periods are shorter. Later in frequency of stages as sleep the night, REM sleep increases in duration, while deep NREM sleep decreases, and the cycles progresses? between the two stages become more frequent. Sleep Theories Memory Consolidation Restoration The process by which short-term memories are the process by which the body and mind recover during transformed into long-term memories, primarily during sleep. This includes physical restoration, such as muscle sleep. Both NREM and REM sleep play vital roles, with repair and immune system strengthening during NREM NREM sleep aiding in the stabilization and storage of sleep, as well as cognitive restoration, such as memory information, and REM sleep helping with integrating and consolidation and emotional processing during REM reinforcing learned material. sleep. Disordered Patterns of Sleep Insomnia: a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early and not being able to go back to sleep. It can lead to daytime fatigue, mood disturbances, and impaired cognitive function. Narcolepsy: a sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, sudden and uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep, and, in some cases, sudden muscle weakness or paralysis (cataplexy). It is often associated with disruptions in REM sleep. Sleep apnea: a sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, often leading to loud snoring, choking, or gasping. These pauses in breathing can last for several seconds and disrupt sleep, leading to daytime fatigue and potential cardiovascular issues. Somnambulism: a sleep disorder where a person walks or performs other activities while still asleep, typically during deep NREM sleep. The person may appear awake but is actually in a sleep state and usually has no memory of the event. REM sleep behavior disorder: a sleep disorder where a person physically acts out their dreams during REM sleep, due to a lack of muscle paralysis that normally occurs. This can lead to violent movements or vocalizations, and the person may be unaware of their actions. Dreaming Dreams: mental experiences that occur during sleep, often involving vivid imagery, emotions, and story-like sequences. They primarily occur during REM sleep, though they can also happen in NREM stages. Dreams are believed to help process emotions, consolidate memories, and sometimes reflect unconscious thoughts or desires. Dreams differ across cultures in terms of their meanings, interpretations, and the importance placed on them. For example, some cultures view dreams as How do dreams differ across messages from the spiritual world, while others see them as random neural cultures? activity. The symbols and themes in dreams can also vary, as different cultures have unique beliefs, values, and traditions that shape how dreams are understood and incorporated into daily life. Dream Theories Activation Synthesis Consolidation Theory suggests that dreams are the brain's attempt to make posits that dreams play a role in consolidating memories sense of random neural activity occurring during REM and experiences. During sleep, particularly REM sleep, sleep. The brain synthesizes these signals into a coherent the brain processes and organizes information, narrative, which we interpret as dreams, rather than transferring it from short-term to long-term memory, dreams having any intrinsic meaning. which is reflected in the content and structure of dreams.  Sensation: Basic Concepts Thresholds Sensation: the process by which our sensory organs receive and detect stimuli from the environment, such as light, sound, or touch, and convert them into neural signals that are sent to the brain for processing. Transduction: the process by which sensory receptors convert physical stimuli (such as light, sound, or pressure) into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the brain. Absolute threshold: the minimum intensity of a stimulus that is required for it to be detected 50% of the time by an individual Sensory adaptation: the diminished sensitivity to a constant or unchanging stimulus over time. For example, you may stop noticing the sound of a ticking clock after a while because your sensory receptors become less responsive to it. Just-noticeable difference: the smallest amount of change in a stimulus that a person can detect. It depends on the intensity of the original stimulus and follows Weber's Law, which states that the JND is proportional to the size of the original stimulus. Weber’s law: the just-noticeable difference (JND) between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus. In other words, the larger the initial stimulus, the greater the change needed for a difference to be noticed. What are the differences between these two similar terms? Just noticeable difference Weber’s law the smallest difference in the intensity of a stimulus the just-noticeable difference (JND) between two that a person can detect 50% of the time. It is stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original influenced by the original intensity of the stimulus. stimulus. In other words, the larger the initial stimulus, the greater the change needed for a difference to be noticed. Sensory Systems Sensory interaction: the process by which different sensory systems work together to enhance or influence each other’s perception. For example, taste can be influenced by smell, as in the case of food tasting bland when you have a cold and can't smell properly. Synesthesia: a condition where stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in another. For example, a person with synesthesia might "see" colors when they hear music or associate specific tastes with certain words.  Sensation: The Visual Sensory System Provide the function for the parts of the eye. The included terms are part of the curriculum. You will not be tested on terms which are not provided, but I would recommend including and understanding them to have a better understanding of this process. the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones). It converts light into electrical signals, which are then sent to the brain for visual processing. a small, central area of the retina that a transparent, flexible structure in the contains a high concentration of cones, eye that focuses light onto the retina. It which are responsible for sharp, detailed changes shape to help focus on objects at vision and color perception. It is the point different distances, a process known as of the eye where visual acuity is highest. accommodation.  Vision Accommodation: the process by which the lens of the eye changes shape to focus light from objects at different distances onto the retina, allowing for clear vision. Nearsightedness: a vision condition where close objects are seen clearly, but distant objects appear blurry. This occurs because the eye is too long, causing light to focus in front of the retina. Farsightedness: a vision condition where distant objects are seen more clearly than close ones. This happens when the eye is too short, causing light to focus behind the retina. Transduction: the process of converting something into another form, and the transfer of genetic material between organisms Photoreceptors: specialized cells located in the retina of the eye that convert light energy into electrical signals, allowing the brain to interpret visual information Rods: Cones: photoreceptors in the retina that are responsible for photoreceptor cells in the retina that help you see color processing black, white, and gray light and fine details in well-lit conditions Wavelengths Red Green Blue 620 to 750 nanometers between 490 and 580 nanometers between 400 and 500 nanometers Light and dark adaptation: processes that allow the eye to adjust to different levels of light Blind spot: the area on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a small region in the visual field where a person cannot perceive images because there are no photoreceptor cells present at that spot Why do we have a blind spot? because the optic nerve, which carries visual information to the brain, exits the eye at a specific point on the retina, creating a small area where there are How does our brain no photoreceptor cells to detect light. Our brain interpolates the blind spot compensate for the missing information within the blind based on surrounding detail, information from the other eye, and the spot? calculation of different images resulting from eye movements  Color Vision The ability to distinguish between light that has different frequencies, regardless of the intensity of the light Trichromatic Theory Trichromatic Theory: a model that explains how humans see color by combining the three primary colors of light: red, green, and blue Light hits an object, causing some wavelengths of light to be absorbed and others to be reflected How does this process explain how we see color? the visual cortex of the brain, located in the occipital lobe at the back of Where does this take place in the the head process of vision? Color blindness illustrates an issue with trichromatic theory because it How does color blindness demonstrates how variations in cone function can affect color perception highlight an issue with Trichromatic theory? Opponent Process Theory Opponent Process Theory: explains how the human visual system perceives color by processing signals from photoreceptor cells in an antagonistic manner. The theory states that there are three opponent channels, each made up of an opposing color pair: red versus green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white. This theory explains afterimages, which are lasting images of an object in the opposite color that the object was originally perceived. one member of the color pair suppresses the other color How does this process explain how we see color? Seeing color primarily takes place in the brain, specifically in the visual Where does this take place in the cortex, where signals from the light-sensitive cone cells in the retina are process of vision? processed and interpreted as color. After images: the visual illusions that occur when we continue to see an image even after it has been removed from our field of vision. Ganglion cells: the neurons in the retina that receive signals from bipolar cells and then transmit visual information to the brain via the optic nerve the process of analyzing the results of a color vision test to determine if someone has normal color vision or a color vision deficiency Based on these theories, how should we then understand color vision? Color Vision Deficiency a condition that makes it difficult to see colors or differentiate between them Dichromatism: color-blindness in which only two of the three primary colors can be discerned. Monochromatism: a rare condition that causes total color blindness, where people can only see in shades of gray Visual Sensory Conditions Prosopagnosia: a neurological disorder that makes it difficult to recognize faces Blindsight: the ability to respond to visual information without consciously seeing it  Sensation: The Auditory Sensory System Provide the function for the parts of the ear. You will not be tested over these parts, but you will need to know them to better understand later topics over which you will be tested. Hearing Wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next Amplitude: the height or depth of a wave signal such as sound or light Pitch Perception Place theory: a theory of hearing that states different sound frequencies stimulate specific locations on the basilar membrane within the cochlea, allowing the brain to interpret the pitch of a sound based on where the vibrations occur Volley theory: when listening to high-frequency sounds, groups of auditory neurons fire in rapid succession, alternating their firing times slightly, creating a "volley" of signals that allows the brain to perceive the sound frequency, even though individual neurons can't fire fast enough to match the entire sound wave frequency alone Frequency theory: the idea that the pitch of a sound is perceived by the brain based on the rate at which auditory nerve fibers fire, essentially matching the frequency of the sound wave itself  Sound Localization Sound localization: the ability of the brain to determine the location of a sound source based on cues like the difference in arrival time of sound waves between the two ears the relative timing and relative level of sounds at the two ears What enables us to experience sound localization? Hearing Loss aging (presbycusis), exposure to loud noise, ear infections, head injuries, certain medications (ototoxic drugs), genetic predisposition, blockages What are reasons someone might from earwax, fluid buildup in the middle ear, viral infections, circulatory experience hearing loss? problems like high blood pressure, and certain diseases like meningitis or a stroke. Conduction Deafness: Sensorineural Deafness: a type of hearing loss that occurs when sound waves a type of hearing loss that occurs when the inner ear, can't pass through the outer or middle ear to the inner auditory nerve, or brain is damaged ear.  Sensation: Chemical & Bodily Sensory Systems Smell Olfaction: the sense of smell, a chemical sensation that allows humans to perceive smells the olfactory epithelium lining the nasal cavity, the olfactory bulb in the brain, and the olfactory nerve which transmits sensory information from the epithelium to the bulb Explain the structures and functions of this system. What makes this sense unique it has a strong and direct connection to memory and emotion compared to our other senses? Pheromones: chemical signals that are released by an individual and received by other members of the same species Taste Gustation: the action or faculty of tasting to detect, identify, and establish the palatability of specific chemicals present in foods and beverages Explain the structures and functions of this system. Sweet, sour, salty, bitter and savory What flavors do we experience? Super taster: someone who has a heightened sense of taste for certain foods and flavors Medium taster: someone who can detect a bitter chemical called 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) but doesn't have a strong aversion to its taste Nontaster: someone who has a reduced ability to taste flavors compared to a medium-taster or supertaster a single gene that codes for a taste receptor on the tongue. What determines our classification of tasting ability? How does smell influence our Our sense of smell in responsible for about 80% of what we taste. Sensory sense of taste? What term have interaction. we learned that explains this?  Touch a complex network of sensory receptors located in the skin that detect various types of physical stimuli like pressure, texture, and vibration, converting them into electrical signals which are then transmitted to the brain via sensory neurons, allowing us to perceive touch sensations Explain the structures and functions of this system. How do we experience the thermoreceptors sensation of something being hot? Pain a complex network of nerves and brain structures that detect potentially harmful stimuli (like heat, pressure, or chemicals) in the body, transmit signals to the spinal cord, and then send those signals to the brain where Explain the structures and they are interpreted as pain, allowing for a response to avoid further damage functions of this system. Gate Control Theory: a theory that explains how non-painful sensations can reduce or override painful sensations The gate control theory of pain explains how pain signals are processed in the spinal cord and brain, and how non-painful stimuli can reduce painful How does the gate control sensations theory work? rubbing the area, applying heat or cold, or focusing on a distraction How do we utilize this theory when we experience pain? Phantom Limb: a phenomenon where a person feels as if a limb that has been amputated is still present Balance & Body Movement Vestibular Sense: Kinesthetic Sense: the ability to sense movement, gravity, and spatial the ability to sense the position and movement of the orientation to help coordinate movement and maintain body without visual aid balance Explain the structures and functions of this system. Explain the structures and functions of this system. the semicircular canals, which sense rotational the body's ability to perceive the position and movement of its movements, and the otolith organs (utricle and saccule) limbs and joints, primarily achieved through specialized which sense linear acceleration like tilting or moving receptors located in muscles, tendons, and joints, called forward/backward proprioceptors, which send information to the brain about muscle length, joint angle, and tension, allowing for coordinated movement and spatial awareness