Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought PDF

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT B.A. (HONS.) POLITICAL SCIENCE – DSC-8 B.A. (PROGRAMME) – DSC (MINOR PAPER) SEMESTER-III DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF DELHI Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought Editorial Boar...

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT B.A. (HONS.) POLITICAL SCIENCE – DSC-8 B.A. (PROGRAMME) – DSC (MINOR PAPER) SEMESTER-III DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF DELHI Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought Editorial Board Dr. Shakti Pradayani Rout Dr. Shambhu Nath Dubey Dr. Mangal Deo Content Writers Dr. Surae Soren, Dr. Mangal Deo, Dr. Zahidul Deewan, Ms. Anvita, Revathy V Menon, Anirudh Yadav, Dr. Nishant Kumar, Prof. Tapan Biswal, Prashant Barthwal, Satya Prakash, Dr. Gurdeep Kaur, Dr. Shashikant Content Reviewer from the DDCE/COL/SOL Kusum Academic Coordinator Deekshant Awasthi © Department of Distance and Continuing Education ISBN: 978-81-19417-70-4 1st edition: 2023 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought This Study Material is duly recommended and approved in Academic Council meeting held on 11/08/2023 Vide item no. 1015 and subsequently Executive Council Meeting held on 25/08/2023 vide item no. 1267.  All units have been written fresh according to the NEP course structure except Units 1, 5, 6, and 11. These four units were taken from CBCS study material and reframed according to NEP.  Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions may be sent at the email- [email protected] Printed at: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Plot 20/4, Site-IV, Industrial Area Sahibabad, Ghaziabad - 201 010 (13,000 Copies) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought SYLLABUS Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought Syllabus Mapping UNIT – I Foundations of Indian Political Thought Lesson 1: An Overview on Sources of Indian An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought Political Thought Cultural and Territorial conception of India ( Pages 3-18) Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought Lesson 2: Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features of Indian Political Thought ( Pages 23-33) Unit II: Manu: Lesson 3: Manusmriti: Relevance of the Study Authenticity of Manu smriti (Talking Point) in the Present Context Social Laws and Conception of Justice (Pages 37-64) Unit III: Brihaspati: Statecraft, Justice, Inter-state Relations Lesson 4: Brihaspati – Statecraft, Justice, and Inter-state Relations (Pages 67-81) Unit IV: Shukra/Usana Lesson 5: Talking Point: Debate on the Authenticity Talking Point: Debate on the authenticity of Shukra-Niti of Shukra-niti and The Concept of Kingship and The Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukra-Niti Statecraft In Shukra-niti (Pages 85-97) Unit V: Kautilya: Theory of State Lesson 6: Kautilya: Theory of State ( Pages 101-117) Unit VI: Aggannasutta (DighaNikaya): Theory of kingship Lesson 7: Aggañña Sutta (Digha Nikaya): Theory Of Kingship (Pages 121-136) Unit VII: Tiruvalluvar: Ethical Life and Politics Lesson 8: Thiruvalluvar–Ethical Life and Politics (Pages 139-160) Unit VIII: Basavanna Lesson 9: Basavanna (Pages 163-178) Unit IX: Adi Shankracharya: Advaita Lesson 10: Adi Shankaracharya: Advaita (Pages 181-196) Unit X: Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism Lesson 11: Kabir and Guru Nanak: Syncretism (Pages 199-215) Unit XI: Abu’lFazl: Monarchy Essential/recommended readings Lesson 12: Abul Fazal: Monarchy (Pages 219-233) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought CONTENTS UNIT I: FOUNDATIONS OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT LESSON 1 AN OVERVIEW ON SOURCES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 3-18 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Basic Premises of Indian Political Thought 1.4 Nyaya School of Thought 1.5 Charvaka School of Thought 1.6 Self 1.7 Conclusion 1.8 Practice Questions 1.9 References LESSON 2 CULTURAL AND TERRITORIAL CONCEPT OF INDIA AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT 23-33 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Concept of Dharma in Vedic Period 2.4 Dharmashastra in the Context of State and Politics 2.5 Contribution of Shamanic Philosophy to Indian Political Traditions 2.6 Islamic Political Tradition in India 2.7 Syncretic Political Tradition in India in the Context of Sufi and Bhakti Movements 2.8 Practice Questions 2.9 References © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought UNIT II: MANU LESSON 3 MANUSMRITI: RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY IN THE PRESENT CONTEXT 37-64 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Assesement of Various Lessons Based on Manusmriti 3.4 Manu’s Political Thought 3.4.1 Divine Theory of Origin of the State 3.4.2 Theory of Saptanga: The State Structure 3.4.3 Limits of State Activity 3.4.4 Can a King be Autocratic? 3.5 Social Philosophy of Manu 3.5.1 Social of Manu Code 3.5.2 Concept of Justice 3.5.3 Caste System 3.5.4 Manu’s Ashram System 3.6 Manusmriti and Women 3.6.1 Manu’s Views Related to Women 3.7 Conclusion and Summary 3.8 Practice Questions 3.9 Bibliography UNIT III: BRIHASPATI – STATECRAFT, JUSTICE, AND INTER-STATE RELATIONS LESSON 4 BRIHASPATI – STATECRAFT, JUSTICE, AND INTER-STATE RELATIONS 67-81 4.1 Learning Objectives 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Statecraft © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought 4.4 Inter-state Relations 4.5 Conclusion 4.6 Practice Questions 4.7 References UNIT IV: SHUKRA/USANA LESSON 5 TALKING POINT: DEBATE ON THE AUTHENTICITY OF SHUKRA-NITI AND THE CONCEPT OF KINGSHIP AND STATECRAFT IN SHUKRA- NITI 85-97 5.1 Learning Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Shukracharya: Life Sketch 5.4 Debate on the Authenticity of Shukraniti 5.5 The Concept of Kingship and Statecraft in Shukraniti 5.6 Critical Evaluation 5.7 Conclusion 5.8 Practice Questions 5.9 References UNIT V: KAUTILYA: THEORY OF STATE LESSON 6 KAUTILYA: THEORY OF STATE 101-117 6.1 Learning Objectives 6.2 Introduction 6.3 Kautilya’s Arthashastra 6.4 Origin of the State 6.5 Ends and Function of the State 6.6 Saptanga Theory (Seven Limbs of the State) 6.7 The Theory of ‘Rajamandala’ (Inter-state Relationship Or Mandala Theory) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought 6.8 Espionage System 6.9 Kautilya and Machiavelli 6.10 Practice Questions 6.11 Suggested Readings UNIT VI: AGGAÑÑA SUTTA (DIGHA NIKAYA): THEORY OF KINGSHIP LESSON 7 AGGAÑÑA SUTTA (DIGHA NIKAYA): THEORY OF KINGSHIP 121-136 7.1 Learning Objectives 7.2 Introduction 7.3 The Issue of Political Authority and Obligation 7.4 Evolution of Kingship and the State in Buddhism 7.5 Concept of State in Aggañña Sutta 7.6 The Issues of Socio-political Equality from Buddhist Lens 7.7 Conclusion 7.8 Practice Questions 7.9 References UNIT VII: THIRUVALLUVAR–ETHICAL LIFE AND POLITICS LESSON 8 THIRUVALLUVAR–ETHICAL LIFE AND POLITICS 139-160 8.1 Learning Objectives 8.2 Introduction 8.3 Question on Time and Period of Writing 8.4 Importance of Thiruvalluvar and Thirukural 8.5 Translations of Thirukural © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought 8.6 Personality of Thiruvalluvar 8.7 Essentials from the Teachings of Thiruvalluvar 8.8 Conclusion 8.9 Practice Questions 8.10 References UNIT VIII: BASAVANNA LESSON 9 BASAVANNA 163-178 9.1 Learning Objectives 9.2 Introduction 9.3 Life and Development 9.4 Philosophy through Poetry and Vachanas 9.5 Democracy 9.6 Duties 9.7 Religion and Secularism 9.8 Kayaka 9.9 Conclusion 9.10 Practice Questions 9.11 References UNIT IX: ADI SHANKARACHARYA: ADVAITA LESSON 10 ADI SHANKARACHARYA: ADVAITA 181-196 10.1 Learning Objectives 10.2 Introduction – Vedanta Philosophy 10.3 Life Introduction 10.4 Denial of Other Philosophical Ideas by Shankaracharya © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought 10.5 Philosophical Thoughts of Shankaracharya: Advaitism 10.5.1 Soul (Atma) or Brahma-Principle 10.5.2 World View 10.5.3 God, Living Beings—Thoughts 10.5.4 Salvation (Moksha) Thoughts 10.6 Why Is Shankaracharya’s Philosophy Called Advaitism? 10.7 Political Significance of Shankaracharya’s Thoughts 10.8 Conclusion 10.9 Practice Questions 10.10 References UNIT X: KABIR AND GURU NANAK: SYNCRETISM LESSON 11 KABIR AND GURU NANAK: SYNCRETISM 199-215 11.1 Learning Objectives 11.2 Introduction 11.3 Understanding the Concept of Syncretism 11.4 Sant Kabir Das 11.5 Guru Nanak 11.6 Practice Questions 11.7 References UNIT XI: ABUL FAZAL: MONARCHY LESSON 12 ABUL FAZAL: MONARCHY 219-233 12.1 Learning Objectives 12.2 Introduction 12.3 Fazal’s Royalty for the State 12.4 Fazal’s Societal Division © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought 12.5 Fazal’s Ideal Sultan-Akbar 12.6 Discourse of Justice 12.7 Army and Land Revenue System 12.8 Conclusion 12.9 Practice Questions 12.10 References © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi UNIT I: FOUNDATIONS OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT LESSON 1 AN OVERVIEW ON SOURCES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT LESSON 2 CULTURAL AND TERRITORIAL CONCEPT OF INDIA AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought LESSON 1 NOTES AN OVERVIEW ON SOURCES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT Dr. Surae Soren Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, DU Structure 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Basic Premises of Indian Political Thought 1.4 Nyaya School of Thought 1.5 Charvaka School of Thought 1.6 Self 1.7 Conclusion 1.8 Practice Questions 1.9 References 1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The lesson would help the students understand the rich, vivid, and popular traditions of India. This will empower them to believe in the valuable practices emanating from civilisations. This lesson would also help the students to understand the epistemological or ‘Gyanmimansha’ traditions of Indian political thought, which view the intrinsic nature of the subject of cognition and often delve into metaphysics or religion. 1.2 INTRODUCTION We know that Indian political thought has a rich, vivid, and deep tradition of eulogising Self-Instructional values, beliefs, and practices emanating from a lustrous civilisation since very ancient Material 3 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES times. The thinking process and subsequent practices which developed in India are unique, unparalleled, unquestionable, and unfathomable in the entire world. The Indian thinking tradition has given the world a rich source of knowledge relating to enquiries into the existence of the God, purpose of human life, the unfathomable mysteries of outer space, the minute existent particle of earth, and even the universal value system. So, rich is the Indian political thought tradition that it has earned enormous respect in the world and gathered several followers since ages. India, which had been a land of hermits, philosophers, and preaches has guided humanity since ancient ages. Whenever the world had faced crises and deviated from the path of humanity, India had shown the world right path. This was true during ancient times and even in modern times. To understand the deep-rooted Indian political thought which can be often complex at times, it is necessary to understand its epistemic foundations so that clarity may emerge and the present generation may benefit from it. In understanding the knowledge tradition, epistemology plays a very important role. The word epistemology has been taken from the Greek lexicon, where ‘episteme’ means knowledge and ‘logos’ means reason. Therefore, Epistemology is a science of knowledge or a field of understanding knowledge. Epistemology studies the origin scope and frontier of knowledge and it arose from a strong human need to learn about anything, whether it was in the immediate vicinity, such as objects, or something that could not be seen but could be perceived, such as a supernatural power or entity. Epistemology which in India is called as ‘Gyanmimansha’ is also about cognition, which focuses on three vital issues: the object, which is cognised, the subject which cognises the object, and the tools of cognition like perception. The epistemological understanding of Indian political thought which views the intrinsic nature of the subject of cognition often delves into metaphysics or religion. Therefore, the Indian epistemology not only explains the basis of everyday common experience but by focusing on cognition, it also explains the real nature of subject. Thus, epistemology in Indian political thought often depicts a knowledge form where the subject-object distinction may break down (Soni, Jayandra, 2003). Self-Instructional 4 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought NOTES 1.3 BASIC PREMISES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT Knowledge as Pramana Knowledge is a kind of cognition which is acquired through the right methods. Thereby, cognition is a phenomenon of consciousness which produces a belief system that is verifiable and genuine. In Indian political thought, cognition is always produced in a right manner. So, despite different theories of truth, knowledge not only reveals the truth but also emerges out of it. Knowledge cannot be acquired by whims and fancies or by sudden mishaps; neither it can be produced by mere speculation as the right methodology has not been followed. In the epistemology of Indian political thought, the knowledge source or the ‘pramana’ becomes important as it is method of verifiable cognition determination. It is a means of accurate and valid knowledge. In epistemology of Indian political thought, the means of knowledge or pramana which has emerged as a significant area of thought are pratyaksa (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparision), sabda (verbal testimony), arthapatti (presumption), sambhava (implication) and aitihya (tradition). The Mimamsa School has played a significant role in underlying the development of knowledge in Indian tradition. The scholars of Mimamsa School have played important role in establishing epistemology in Indian knowledge tradition. In this context Kumarila and Prabhakara have rejected sambhava (implication) and aitihya (tradition) as valid forms of knowledge. Kumarila has accepted six pramanas which are pratyaksa (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparision), sabda (verbal testimony), arthapatti (presumption) and anupalabdhi (non apprehension). Prabhakara has though rejected anupalabdhi (non apprehension) as a valid source of pramana. Pratyaksa (Perception) Pratyaksa or perception talks about the knowledge which is present and can be perceived through eyes or whose presence is visible before eyes. Pratyaksa or perception is therefore considered as one of the most important forms of pramana. Pratyaksa is a type of cognition in which the most important aspect is the contact Self-Instructional Material 5 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES between senses and the object of perception. Thus, pratyaksa is knowledge about the existence of worldly phenomena through sense organs and experience of internal human cognition like happiness and sadness through mental abilities (Phillips, Stephen: 2019). Anumana (Inference) The word anumana is derived from two words ‘anu’ meaning after and ‘mana’ meaning knowledge. Therefore, anumana means ‘after knowledge’ or ‘seeker of knowledge based on proof.’ Therefore, the knowledge obtained by anumana is not direct but indirect and has been inferred. For example, when smoke is observed on a distant hill, it is immediately inferred that there is fire. Because smoke and fire are associated and there is previous knowledge about it. So, in anumana three features are important. They are ‘Sadhya’ (what is to be proved, i.e., fire), ‘Hetu’ (cause of inference, i.e., smoke), and ‘Paksa’ (which causes side or cause doubt, i.e., hill) (Ibid.). Sabda (Verbal Testimony) Sabda or verbal testimony is the authoritative speech of a trustworthy person. It is the hearing of words though ears and believing it, as it emanates from a person whose integrity is unquestionable. A major part of knowledge has been imparted to humans through verbal usage of words by other people. So, sabda or words are extremely important in the development of cognitive ability of a person. Sabda or testimony has been well established as an important form of pramana. Also, the scriptural testimony develops cognition about objects which are not in contact of sense but are being developed by knowledge of words. Upamana (Comparison) Upamana means ‘comparison’ or ‘resemblance’. It produces a valid source of cognition by means of analogy. Upamana refers to comparison or association of something by virtue of its similarity to object that has been known from earlier times. For example, a person who has never seen a wild ox has been told that it resembles a cow. So, when the person observes a wild ox, the person observes that it is like a cow and so believes it to be a wild ox. Self-Instructional 6 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought Arthapatti (Presumption) NOTES Arthapatti means ‘presumption’ or ‘implication’. It is derived from two words ‘artha’ meaning fact and ‘apathi’ meaning ‘kalpana’ or supposition. Arthapatti resolves the conflict between two facts by solving the problem which occurs between two facts. Arthapatti solves the problem by presuming about the fact which may seem contradictory. For example, a person is fat and the person does not eat in the day. It therefore means that the person eats in the night. Anupalabdhi (Non Apprehension or Non Perception) Anupalabdhi (non apprehension) is a kind of pramana which informs about the nonexistence of an object or about the absence of the object. Objects that do not exist sometimes cannot be perceived through the senses and therefore another source of knowledge is needed. Therefore, Anupalabdhi happens when the non-perception of an object talks about its non-existence. For example, when a chair which must be in a room is not seen there, then the knowledge about nonexistence of the chair is determined through separate pramana which is Anupalabdhi. The Indian political thought tradition includes various aspects of ancient moral philosophy like Purushartha, goals of liberation and theory of karma. These moral philosophies have given rise to two distinctive schools of thought depending on the acceptance of Vedas and religious rituals. These schools of thought are orthodox (Astika) schools and heterodox (Nastika) schools. The schools which accept the authority of the Vedas are classified as the orthodox schools and the schools which do not accept the authority of Vedas are classified as the heterodox schools. Among the orthodox schools of thought the Nyaya school of thought and among the heterodox schools of thought the Charvaka school of thought is important to understand the epistemic foundation of Indian political thought. 1.4 NYAYA SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Sage Gautama is the chief proponent of the Nyaya school of thought. Nyaya in Sanskrit variously means justice, equality of all beings, rules, methods, or judgement. They are Self-Instructional Material 7 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES also called Tarkashastra, Anvikshiki, Akshapada Vidya and the Nyaya Vidya. The Nyaya school of thought has been attributed to the development of epistemology, methodology and theory of logic. The Nyaya School is religious as well as philosophical. It advocates bringing an end to human suffering as suffering results from ignorance of reality. Therefore, liberation from suffering can be achieved by right knowledge. The objective of the Nyaya School is to achieve true knowledge of the reality as inherent in metaphysics and investigation of those conditions which require correct thinking as evident in epistemology. The Nyaya school of thought advances the use of logical reasoning and critical thinking (Chatterjee, S C: 1939). The Nyaya School of thought prominently emphasise four basic area, namely: (i) theory of knowledge, (ii) theory of physical world, (iii) theory of self, and (iv) theory of God. These four areas culminate from the study of Nyaya sutra. In Nyaya sutra, sixteen entities (padartha) are mentioned. These sixteen entities are (1) pramana (means of knowledge), (2) prameya (right knowledge), (3) samsaya (doubt or uncertainty), (4) prayojana (goal or purpose), (5) drstanta (factually correct example used in inference), (6) siddhanta (widely accepted doctrine), (7) avayava (components of syllogism), (8) tarka (counterfactual argument), (9) nirnaya (definite knowledge), (10) vada (consultation or discussion), (11) jalpa (finding fault in opponents argument to establish own argument by giving wrangling rejoinder), (12) vitanda (debating only to refute), (13) hetvabhasa (fallacy of inference), (14) Chala (unjust reply), (15) jati (reply by false analogy), and (16) nigrahastha (exposing opponent’s argument and showing self-contradiction and inconsistency and thus defeating the opponent). Pramana Pramana is the effective depiction of true knowledge of the existence of an object. Pramana articulates an object the way object articulates itself. Pramana however articulates an object through true cognition which can be ascertained by inference. Therefore, without true cognition the object cannot be realised. In Pramana the object of knowledge, the knowledge itself and the one who knows, or knower gets linked to the object. It is only by Pramana that an object can be determined. So, one who generates practical response due to desire to possess the object is the knower. Therefore, Pramana is the way by which he knows the object. The object which is Self-Instructional 8 Material known is called prameya and the knowledge of the object is known as pramiti. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought Therefore, Pramana reveals the truth and emphasises the importance of cognitive NOTES process and its connection to the existence and non-existence of things. The Nyaya school of thought uses four different and independent means of knowledge. These four knowledge forms are: (i) Perception (Pratyaksa), (ii) Inference (Anumana), (iii) Comparison (Upamana), and (iv) Verbal Testimony (Sabda) (Bilimoria, Purushottama: 2017). Pratyaksa (Perception) In this world it is believed that whatever is perceived by our senses is true. So, whatever we see by our eyes or hear is thought to be true because our senses create a definite perception of an object. Perception therefore is valid knowledge and the method of acquiring valid knowledge. In the Nyaya school of thought perception is a kind of cognition that generates from contact of sense organ and the object. A perception comes into existence when the object encounters self, mind (manas) and sense organs. The contact happens in sequences where the self meets mind (manas), then the manas comes into contact with sense organs and then the sense organs come into contact with the object. The entire process produces cognition and the knowledge about an object becomes a perception. The perception or pratyaksa means an object or something which is present before the eyes or sense organs which demonstrate direct of immediate knowledge of the object. By the term “object”, Gautam means three kinds of objects namely, the physical objects (table, chair, pot), specific objects (color, hard, soft), and internal objects (pleasure, pain, sorrow). Therefore, perception is a cognition which is always about the object. The cognition of objects that are externally present, for example table and chair is called external perception and those which are internally present as for example pleasure and pain are called internal perceptions. It can be said that in the Nyaya school of thought the perception applies to those cognitions which are produced through contact between object and sense organ. This perception can be momentarily as the cognition is generated at that moment due to contact. However, in the deep study of cognition there can be the existence of an eternal being who can perceive all the objects at all the times. In this condition the meaning of perception becomes difficult to comprehend. In Nyaya school of thought, Gangesa has attempted to loosen the complexity by defining perception in a more Self-Instructional Material 9 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES general sense by including the subject, object and eternal being. This brings focus of the ‘contact’ between different variables. Contact is the process by which an object gets into relationship with sense organ thereby producing a definite perception of that object. In Nyaya school of thought there are different kinds of contact between sense organ and the object. Udyotakara has shown six kinds of contact between sense organ and the object. These contacts are as follows: i. Samyoga (Conjunction) – In this kind of contact there is direct contact between the eyes and the object. As for example, a full view of table or a chair in a classroom. ii. Samyukta Samavaya (Inherence in What is Conjoined) – Here an indirect form of contact is established. The contact is established between the object and the sense organ though a third-party mediation which is related to both. As for example, the eyes encounter the color of pot through the pot kept in full view. iii. Samyukta Samaveta Samavaya (Inherence in What is Inseparably Related to What is Conjoined) – It is the kind of indirect contact which takes place with the help of mediation of two objects that are related. As for example a blackboard in a classroom is when looked at or is perceived, the colour of the blackboard that is black is also perceived. Here the contact of the eyes with that of the colourness with help of mediation of two inseparable objects that is blackboard and colour takes place. iv. Samavaya (Inherence) – This is related to sound. When a person hears a sound then a contact between sound and the sense organ that is ear is being made. v. Samaveta Samavaya (Relation between Inherence and the Senses) – This is the contact between the sense and the object through another object that is inseparably related to both. As for example when a person perceives a sound, the ear is in contact with the soundness as the sound is inherence and that inherence is the virtue of the ear. vi. Samyukta Visesanata (Absence of the Object) – In this kind of contact, the Self-Instructional sense remains in contact with the object until the object reflects the virtue of the 10 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought other object with the sense. As for example when a table is not seen in a classroom. NOTES The relation between the perception of nonexistence and the inherence is explained by this contact. So, when a table is not seen in a class, the visual sense has conjunction with the class, but the absence of the table is in the relation of the class. The above mentioned six types of contact (Samyoga, Samyukta Samavaya, Samyukta samaveta samavaya, Samyukta samavaya, Samavaya, Samyukta visesanata and Samaveta samavaya) are called ordinary or laukika. Apart from these the Nyaya school of thought recognises three kinds of extraordinary contacts which are also known as alaukika. These three kinds of contacts are: (i) samanyalaksana pratyaksa, (ii) jnanalaksana pratyasatti, and (iii) yogaja. i. Samanyalaksana pratyaksa – In this kind of contact the quality of an object is perceived as the quality of all other individual objects. As for example when a person sees a tiger, the quality that is tiger-ness is also perceived. Therefore, tigerness becomes the mode of contact for all other tigers which would be seen in future. ii. Jnanalaksana pratyasatti – In this kind of contact the perception is extraordinary because the perception made by sense organ is not normally capable of perceiving and is not present at that moment. Therefore, perception is based on experience. For example, the coldness of the ice. iii. Yogaja – This kind of contact is intuitive in nature and is observed among the yogi who by committed meditation has gained extraordinary powers to perceive phenomena of the past, present and the future. In the Nyaya school of thought the perception or the cognition takes place in two stages namely (i) nirvikalpaka cognition and the (ii) savikalpaka cognition. i. Nirvikalpaka cognition– In this stage of cognition the first contact of sense organ takes place with the object. This is the primary cognition of an object without determinate knowledge of the characteristic and interconnection of the object. So nirvikalpaka is a blunt knowledge of object in which merely the basic existence of object is perceived. As for example, when a person sees a mango, a contact between eyes and mango is made. At this stage, just the size, shape, and colour of the mango are noticed, not the mango itself. Self-Instructional Material 11 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES ii. Savikalpaka cognition– This is generally considered as the second stage which produces determinate knowledge of the object. In savikalpaka the person recognises the object due to attributes of its quality. The interconnection between several characteristics is easily drawn. As for example after seeing the mango the person can easily determine that it is a mango and can be edible. The savikalpaka cognition cannot take place without the occurrence of nirvikalpaka cognition as the interconnection between characteristics cannot be drawn without knowing that characteristic itself. Anumana (Inference) Inference or Anumana is one of the important parts of Nyaya school of thought as it deals with logic. Inference comes under Pramana which is a theory about knowledge. Inference not merely deals with valid thinking but also gives much emphasis on the mode of knowing. Inference as a means of knowing is called ‘anumana’ while inferential cognition is known as ‘anumiti’. Inference is that form of knowledge which comes after some other knowledge. So, it is a kind of knowledge which is indirect and is the result of past knowledge. As for example when a person sees smoke emanating from the hill, the person infers that there is fire on the hill. Therefore, the sight of smoke proves to be a benchmark for the inferring fire of the hill. The inference is further divided into two categories namely: (i) svarthanumana, and (ii) pararthanumana. i. Svarthanumana– This is the inference for oneself. The inference therefore shows a psychological understanding about the process of knowledge. As for example a person has observed earlier that smoke is produced whenever there is fire. So, whenever a person sees smoke on a hill that person remembers that wherever there is smoke there is fire. Therefore, due to experience an inference is made that the hill is on fire. ii. Pararthanumana– This kind of inference is based on logical reasoning. Hence syllogism plays an important role in determining the production of knowledge. Pararthanumana can be understood by five logical statements- (a) there is fire on the hill (the proposition that has to be proved, also known as pratijna), (b) because there is smoke (it states the reason for fire, also known as hetu), (c) wherever there is smoke, there is fire (vyapti), (d) as observed in kitchen (it Self-Instructional is an example also known as drstanta), and (e) there is fire on the hill (this is the 12 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought conclusion also known as nigamana). In this example, the first statement is the NOTES assertion, the second statement gives the reason, the third statement shows the unchanging conjunction (between smoke and fire), the fourth statement expresses the similarity as for example hill is like kitchen (due to presence of fire and smoke) and the fifth and last statement is conclusion which establishes the assertion made earlier. Upamana (Comparison) Comparison or Upamana is the knowledge that is derived from the similarity between two objects. The word Upamana is derived from two words that is ‘upa’ and ‘mana’. Upa means similarity and mana means cognition. So it is that cognition that is produced by comparing the similarity between one object which is known to another object that is not known. The classic example is about wild ox. A person who has never seen a wild ox recognises it because he has been told that it resembles a cow and has seen a cow earlier. So, when the person sees a wild ox then he finds that it is like cow. Therefore, the person thinks that it must be a wild ox. The Nyaya school of thought says that this knowledge cannot be derived from by perception or by inference as it is based on the knowledge of similarity. Sabda (Verbal Testimony) Most of the knowledge is transmitted from one human to another by the words spoken by an individual. This is also known as verbal testimony or ‘sabda’. However, all the words and sentences are not true and therefore are not valid knowledge. Only those authoritative verbal testimony (aptavakya) becomes pramana which are given by authoritative and trustworthy people because they know the truth and speak the truth. The statements of trustworthy people are reliable and are meaningful. However, to derive knowledge from verbal testimony it becomes necessary to understand the words. The words are important as they form the sentences. The sentences may be verbal or in a written form. To convey knowledge the sentence must follow some conditions. These are (i) akanksha (expectation); (ii) yogyata (fitness or qualification); (iii) sannidhi (nearness); and (iv) tatparya (intention). Simply grouping some words does not create a sentence and therefore it becomes meaningless. In the first instance if the group of words does not produce Self-Instructional Material 13 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES akanksha or expectation. The words do not make sense. As for example ‘table, elephant, pot’. These words do not make sense as they do not produce expectation. As for the second condition the sentence has to be fit and non-contradictory to convey meaning. As for example ‘boil the potatoes in soil’. Here the word boil produces an expectation while the word soil is not fit to fulfil. The third condition points out that the words must be near or spoken in quick succession to make sense. As for example if words are spoken with long pause it does not make sense. In the fourth condition the intention of speaker becomes relevant whereas several meaning of the word can be drawn at a time. As for example at cash counter when a person says that he needs change then it means that he needs money of small denomination and not a change in life. Therefore, it is necessary to know a person’s intentions. In Nyaya school of thought the sabda are of two kinds. These are laukika and alaukika. The verbal testimony under laukika and are words of trustworthy and reliable persons whereas verbal testimony under alaukika is divine in nature. Therefore, statements from wise people are laukika while words of Vedas or religious texts are alaukika. The sabda pramana plays a significant role in transmission of knowledge, generation of cognition and cultivation of values. Through sabda, knowledge about ‘dharma’, ‘kartavya’, ‘dana’, ‘tyaga’ etc. are cultivated. Nyaya Padartha In Nyaya sutra, Gautama has mentioned about sixteen entities or padartha. Of the sixteen, the “pramana” has already been discussed above. The rest of the fifteen padartha are discussed below. Prameya– It talks about the object of true knowledge or reality. The Nyaya school of thought recognises twelve objects of true knowledge. These are (i) self (atma), (ii) body (here the organic activities takes place and feelings like pleasure and pain are felt), (iii) senses (taste, touch, smell, hearing and sight), (iv) objects of senses (the sensible qualities of taste, touch, smell, sound and colour), (v) cognition or knowledge (buddhi), (vi) mind (manas that can perceive pleasure and pain), (vii) activity (pravitti), (viii) mental flaws (dosaa or weakness like ‘raga, ‘dvesa’ and ‘moha’), (ix) rebirth after death (pretyabhava), (x) experience of pleasure and pain in life (phala), (xi) suffering (dukkha), and (xii) liberation from suffering (apavarga). Self-Instructional 14 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought Samsaya– It is a condition of doubt and uncertainty. Here the mind gets puzzled in NOTES choosing an option due to the availability of several alternatives. This condition is exacerbated if contradictory explanation of similar things is available. As for example if two wise men offer contradictory meaning of life, then samsaya or doubt occurs. Doubt can be overcome by rational decision making. Prayojana– It means goal to achieve something or purpose of some activity. It is related to a person’s desire to achieve the goal or to shun it. This produces determination to achieve the desired goal. The primary purpose can also be to achieve happiness and remove pain. Drstanta– This refers to factually correct example or an undisputed fact that can be used generally. As for example if smoke from the hill represent fire, then smoke from the kitchen also represent fire. Siddhanta– It is the widely accepted set of rules or conclusive views in a disciplinary area. The Nyaya school of thought accepts four kinds of siddhanta. These are: (i) sarvatantra siddhanta, (ii) pratitantra siddhanta, (iii) adhikarana siddhanta, and (iv) abhyupagama siddhanta. In sarvatantra siddhanta, the conclusive doctrine is not disputed. In pratitantra siddhanta, the conclusive doctrine is established by specific philosophers for a specific discipline. In adhikarana siddhanta, to establish the conclusive doctrine of a discipline, the conclusive doctrine of another discipline must be established first. In abhyupagama siddhanta, a discipline provisionally accepts the conclusive doctrine of another discipline as a hypothesis, in a hope that future scrutiny may nullify the conclusive doctrine. Avayava– It is based on syllogism. Therefore, it is said to be a conclusion derived from logical argument. In Nyaya school of thought syllogism is based on five logical arguments known as pratijna, hetu, vyapti, drstanta, and nigamana. Tarka– It refers to counterfactual argument to a given logical statement. It initiates a debate. A hypothetical argument is used to justify a conclusion. In tarka the use of hypothetical arguments to justify a conclusion can lead to absurdity. As for example if smoke can exist in a place which does not have fire, it will mean that smoke cannot be caused by fire. The given example leads to absurdity. However, tarka is useful in confirming pramana. Self-Instructional Material 15 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES Nirnaya– It is a definite knowledge or a doctrine in a discipline. The doctrine has been produced after a detailed examination using tarka, ascertaining pramana and removing all doubts. The doctrine is therefore widely accepted in a discipline. Vada– In this discussion or debate takes place between two opposing parties who have different views on a subject matter. The motive behind vada is to find out the truth. Hence in the discussion tarka is used and pramana is adhered to. The use of syllogism is a common practice. Jalpa– In this a person finds fault in opponents’ argument to establish own argument and therefore gives wrangling arguments. The aim here is to defeat the opponent and not to find out the truth. Hence, invalid logic is used. Vitanda– In this a person tries to win a debate by refuting the arguments of other. Here the aim is not to establish one’s argument but to win by refuting the arguments of the opponent. Hetvabhasa– It is the fallacy of inference. Here the reason that is given in the statement is not the valid reason. It contains error and therefore difficult to get an inference. Chala– In a debate when a person is unable to give a good reply to a strong argument of the opponent then the person gives irrelevant argument. The person takes opponents argument in a sense that was not intended. Jati– In a debate it is a reply by false analogy. Here a futile argument is given by a person to counter the opponent. Therefore, instead of countering the argument the position of the opponent is destroyed. This kind of futile argument is based on similarity and dissimilarity between the objects. Nigrahastha– This is the final part of the debate. Here a person shows self- contradiction and inconsistency in the opponent’s argument. By doing this the person finally defeats the opponent. 1.5 CHARVAKA SCHOOL OF THOUGHT Among the heterodox (nastika) schools of thought, the Charvaka school of thought is the most important school of thought. It is a materialist school of thought. It heavily Self-Instructional 16 Material relies on the naturalistic tendencies of human life. Though it is influenced by spiritual © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought schools’ thought like Nyaya, it significantly refutes them by destroying their main premises NOTES of argument and ridiculing them (Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad: 1992). The Charvaka school is believed to be propagated by Brihaspati who teacher (Guru) of Gods (Devta) was. Brihaspati propagated Charvaka School or materialism to the Daityas (Rakshasa) to destroy them. It is also believed that Charvaka was a sage and a disciple of Brihaspati who propagated materialism. It is also believed that those people were called Charvaka who believed in the philosophy of ‘eating, drinking and making merry’ as the word ‘charva’ means to eat. Also, Charvaka means nice words to hear as ‘charu’ means nice and ‘vaka’ means word. Charvaka school is also known as Lokayata school as both are same. The Charvaka School questioned the authority of the Vedas and dogmatic practices of the society by propagating the materialist arguments. In that process the Charvaka school refuted existing morality and ethics. They produced negative rhetoric for other school of thought which later on developed into a distinctive philosophy and thereby contributing to epistemic foundation of Indian political thought. Unfortunately, no authoritative text of Charvaka School except for ‘Tattvopaplavasimha’ has survived. Most of the knowledge about Charvaka School has been derived from those texts which heavily criticise and ridicule the Charvaka School. Pratyaksa (Perception) The Charvaka school believes that Pratyaksa (perception) is the only pramana or valid source of knowledge. So, anything that is available to sense perception is considered to be true and the rest of the things are considered doubtful. For Charvaka School, the things that could not be perceived do not exist. Anumana (Inference) The Charvaka School reject Anumana (inference) as a valid source of knowledge. Charvaka School believes that there is no valid ground to determine the relation between objects in a statement or vyapti. The inference moves from a known premise to an unknown premise. So, if something is true for a specific phenomenon may not be true for another phenomenon. As for example, in Charvaka school the vyapti that wherever there is smoke, there is fire, is not true because it is difficult to determine its universal occurrence. So, Charvaka School rejects inference as relation between objects cannot Self-Instructional Material 17 be accepted universally. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES Sabda (Verbal Testimony) The Sabda or verbal testimony is also rejected as a valid source of knowledge by the Charvaka School as Sabda is based on inference. Even the Vedic testimony is also rejected by the Charvaka School as it considers issues like life after death, belief, moksha, and rebirth as having no meaning. By constructing their philosophy based of refutation and rejection the Charvaka School has weakened its own philosophical premises. As for example by rejecting Inference (anumana) they have created problem for themselves because any validation of Charvaka School will require inference. So Purandara postulated that inference could be accepted to strengthen perceptual knowledge but cannot be used to determine knowledge which is not perceived by sense organs like life after death. Charvaka School therefore accept Pratyaksa (perception) as the only pramana or the valid source of knowledge. Everything originates from the combination of four elements, namely, earth, water, fire, and air. Therefore earth, water, fire and air are the only realities of the world. Consciousness exists only due to the combination of these four elements. The Charvaka School postulates that ‘self’ or ‘purusa’ is nothing but only body which has consciousness. The Charvaka School does not consider ether (akash) as an important element as it could not be perceived by sense organs. The consciousness that exists in the body is due to the body and hence the property of the body. Consciousness is produced only due to a combination of the four elements. However, in relation to self or purusa the Charvaka School has shifted position upon criticism from the Nyaya school of thought. The Nyaya school of thought argued that since earth, water, fire and air does not individually have consciousness, they cannot produce consciousness collectively. The Nyaya school of thought also argued that even when the body is unconscious, the self exists and there is no proof that the self is destroyed upon death. Everybody has manas and can feel pain or pleasure. However, the Charvaka School called manas to be subtle and hence cannot be perceived. The Charvaka School of thought has been vigorously criticised by other schools of thought. It has been considered useless by humans and often ridiculed. The Lokayata Self-Instructional has also been considered as ‘the basis of the foolish and the profane world’. Despite 18 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought criticism, the Charvaka School of thought played an important role by challenging the NOTES dogmatic belief and questioning other schools of thought. This way it enriched the epistemological foundations of Indian political thought. 1.6 SELF In the Indian political thought, the ‘self’ has been given considerable importance. As the Indian political thought has inclination towards spiritualism the notion of self has been widely explained. The self has often been associated to atman and consciousness. In the Nyaya school of thought the individual selves (atman or souls) who are finite and the God (parmatman) which is infinite has been recognised. Self or (atman) is the all-knowing which is present in a person and experiences pleasure and pain through the sense organs due to ability of cognition. The manas or mind can know all these. The action or pravrtti of an individual and certain defects or dosas like passion and attachment causes pain and pleasure. The self is in a constant journey and changes body until it achieves moksha (Chakrabarti, Kisor Kumar: 2001). The Charvaka school of thought points out that the self is subtle and therefore cannot be perceived by sense organs. To know self is a difficult proposition. It is believed that the self is inferred from qualities like pleasure, pain, desire, hatred, effort, and consciousness. Atman and the Parmatman (the finite self and the infinite self) both experience qualities like desire, effort, and consciousness. Infinite selves alone experience hatred and pain. Both individual and God experience happiness, however individual’s happiness is not eternal while God’s happiness is eternal. The Nyaya school of thought believes the self exists independently. Self is different from mind, body, senses, and consciousness. The self is eternal and cannot be produced or destroyed. Consciousness is a quality of self which however is not essential. Just like a sleeping individual has self but no consciousness. Therefore, the self can exist without consciousness. Self can attain consciousness when it comes in contact with mind, and the mind comes in contact with senses and senses with objects (Ibid.). The atman or soul attains liberation or moksha when it is detached from the body. In this state, the soul is liberated from all worldly pain and suffering. If the soul is Self-Instructional Material 19 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES attached to the body, then the sense organs will come in contact with the worldly objects and give rise to pleasure or pain. Liberation brings freedom from pain and ends the cycle of rebirth, ushering the soul into eternal bliss. To attain knowledge about self an individual should listen to the teachings of scriptures and reflect upon it. An individual should also meditate by practicing yoga. This way an individual will learn about self and understand that the self is different from body. Upon this realisation an individual will not be attracted towards material things and worldly pleasures. This way the individual will eliminate punishment of past karma, get freedom from pain, detach the self from body and attain moksha. 1.7 CONCLUSION The epistemic foundations of Indian political thought are a culmination of those thought processes which have been developed by sages, philosophers, theoreticians and logicians since time immemorial. The thought process which developed in ancient India had enriched itself by various debate, discussions and practices. It is noteworthy that the thought process maintained its continuity and clarity. By inclining towards spiritualism, the epistemic foundations have not merely drawn a link between the creator that is God and the worldly affairs but have also drawn authority from the God for activities in the world. This is how a King got recognition and this is how the state came into existence. The duties of the King and the purpose of the state were elaborated and with the passage of time it got consolidated. To guide the purpose and goal of a Kingdom, the philosophical foundations played an imminent role. Any deviation or complexity of the state was resolved by the knowledge gained from the various schools of thoughts. Certain philosophical concepts of ancient India like Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha are such deep rooted in Indian political psyche that statecraft has intricately aligned itself to these concepts. So, purpose of the state or of the politics in India is not merely to bring material development but also bring spiritual upliftment by following the path of righteousness. Self-Instructional 20 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi An Overview on Sources of Indian Political Thought NOTES 1.8 PRACTICE QUESTIONS 1. Multiple Choice Questions a. Who is the chief proponent of the Nyaya school of thought? (i) Gautama (ii) Brihaspati (iii) Kumarila b. The meaning of apavarga is ……. (i) Liberation from suffering (ii) Suffering (iii) Rebirth after death 2. Explain the meaning and nature of Pratyaksa (perception) in Indian political thought? 3. Discuss the chief features of Sabda (verbal testimony). 4. Critically examine the role of Charvaka School in shaping Indian political thought. 5. Delineate the basic premises of self. 1.9 REFERENCES  Altekar, A. S. 1958. State and Government in Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.  Banarjee, Sarbani. 2003. Theory of Nyaya: Some Observations. Indian Philosophical Quarterly, XXX (1): 103-110.  Bilimoria, P. 2017. Pramana Epistemology: Origins and Developments, in Purushottama Bilimoria (et. al.) (eds.) History of Indian Philosophy Routledge History of World Philosophies, London: Routledge.  Brown, D. M. 1953. The Premises of Indian Political Thought. The Western Political Quarterly, 6 (2): 243-249.  Chakrabarti, K. K. 2001. The Existence and Permanence of the Self. Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. Self-Instructional Material 21 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES  Chatterjee, Satishchandra and Dheerendramohan Datta. 1948. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.  Chatterjee, S. C. 1939. The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge: A Critical Study of Some Problems of Logic and Metaphysics. Calcutta: University of Calcutta.  Chattopadhyaya, D. 1992. Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House.  Dasgupta, S. 1922. A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  Krishna, D. 1996. The Problematic and Conceptual Structure of Classical Indian Thought about Man, State, and Polity. Delhi: Oxford University Press.  Perrett, Roy W. 2016. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  Phillips, S. 2019. Epistemology in Classical Indian Philosophy, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [Online: web] Accessed 04 October 2021 URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-india/  Potter, Karl H. 1977. Introduction to the Philosophy of Nyaya-Vaisesika. Karl H Potter (ed.). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The Tradition of Nyäya-Vaisesika up to Gaûgesa. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.  Sharma, C. 1987. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.  Soni, J. 2003. On the Origin and Development of Epistemology in Indian Philosophy, [Online: web] Accessed 04 October 2021URL: https:// them.polylog.org/4/fsj-en.htm  Varma, V. P. 1959. Studies in Hindu Political Thought and its Metaphysical Foundations. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. Self-Instructional 22 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features of... LESSON 2 NOTES CULTURAL AND TERRITORIAL CONCEPT OF INDIA AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT Kajal Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, DU Structure 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Concept of Dharma in Vedic Period 2.4 Dharmashastra in the Context of State and Politics 2.5 Contribution of Shamanic Philosophy to Indian Political Traditions 2.6 Islamic Political Tradition in India 2.7 Syncretic Political Tradition in India in the Context of Sufi and Bhakti Movements 2.8 Practice Questions 2.9 References 2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The lesson would discuss the religious traditions of India, and their association with Vedic traditions. In the traditions, students would understand the social, cultural, and political discussions around ‘Dharma’ which distinguish India from other traditions. The lesson would explain about the Dharmashastra in the context of state and politics, contribution of Shamanic philosophy to Indian political traditions and syncretic political tradition in India in the context of the Sufi and Bhakti movements. Self-Instructional Material 23 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES 2.2 INTRODUCTION The political thought of India dates to the Vedic age. The social, cultural, and political life of India has been very diverse. From the Vedic age to the eleventh century, there has been an active development and expansion of Indian thought. During this period, all the subjects of Indian society were associated with religion and some traditions for their rendering. There have been mainly two systems of religious traditions in Indian thought and society, Brahmin and Shaman. Brahmins have been present in India since the Vedic period, and Shamans have been present since about the 6th century BCE. Mainly those who could not agree to the lifestyle and traditions of the Brahminical system left the world, which is called Shamanic. Later in this period, from a religious point of view, other two traditions came to the fore, Islamic and syncretic. In these religious traditions, there have been social, cultural, and political discussions around ‘Dharma’. 2.3 CONCEPT OF DHARMA IN VEDIC PERIOD Ancient Indian political thought is an integral part of Indian philosophy. If we talk mainly about the Vedic period, all the rules and laws related to religion and society were contained in the ‘Dharmashastra’. Dharma means one’s duty, i.e., to adopt the path of virtue and truth. It is a moral and natural law. It is a complete social system. In Vedic India, it is believed that one should lead one’s life according to Dharma, that is, follow the right path and perform one’s duties. In the Vedic period, the villages were self-supporting, and everything they needed was present within the villages. In this age, society was divided into four varnas: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras based on karma and livelihood. Any person could enter another varna by changing his karma because of his knowledge, ability, etc. For example, the descendants of Sage Bhrigu were carpenters who were skilled in making chariots. During the Vedic period, Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya, Chandrama, Prithvi, and Vishnu, were praised, and religious learnings and rules were expressed by the ‘Rit’. Varuna was considered a Self-Instructional 24 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features of... peace-loving deity and the guardian of moral rules called Rit, which even the gods had NOTES to follow. Concepts of Dharma and Danda in the Post-Vedic Period The later Vedic period can also be called the Brahminical period. During this period, the varna system had become birth-based, not karma-based. The idea of Rit had lost its importance. During this period, the religion of every individual was fixed. Everyone must perform their duties in accordance with the dharma and the Brahminical texts. In which the Vedas and Upanishads were composed. These epics were composed during the period of Ramayana, when religion gained maximum popularity. During this period, society used to expand their faith and belief through Puranas, folk songs, and stories. Kautilya accepted the views of the Brahmas and Upanishads about dharma. According to Kautilya, the dharma mentioned in Rigveda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda keeps the four Varnas and Ashrams vested in their duties. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, describing the duties of the four varnas, it is said that the work of a Brahmin is to study religion, perform sacrifices, take, and give charity. The dharma of a Kshatriya is to study, perform Yagya, earn a living with strength and weapons, and protect all beings. Vaishya’s dharma is study, perform Yagya, agricultural work, animal husbandry, and trade. Similarly, Shudra’s dharma is to serve Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, farming, animal husbandry, business, crafts, singing, playing, etc. (Shastri, 2016) Manusmriti’ had an important place in ancient times. Manu’s dharma refers to those qualities which keep the four varnas and the conduct as their distinctive qualities. According to Manu, dharma is the discipline of society and the state. It is also subject to it. The dharma described by Manu is comprehensive and full of the rules of morality for the individual, society, time, and state. (Mandlik, 2015) Dharma and Danda are both interrelated, and both are dependent on each other. The word danda means discipline, force, restraint, and compulsion. Where the fear of punishment exists behind the duty. The performance of duties in the form of karma is dharma. But if one does not follow this dharma, they will be liable to punishment. By this, we can say that duties in society are enforced by punishment. Self-Instructional Material 25 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES 2.4 DHARMASHASTRA IN THE CONTEXT OF STATE AND POLITICS We know that the state is a system which has been studied by various Indian thinkers from ancient to community. Every thinker has defined this system as the land, boundaries, and membership of the community. The idea of the state can be seen in Kautilya’s Arthashastra in ancient Indian literature. Where a detailed description of the origin, nature, development, objectives, functions, or justification of the state is found. The ancient Indian political system was based on the religious state, which was a completely secular idea. According to V.K. Sarkar, the political history and philosophy in India have always been outside the domain of religion. No priest had the authority to interfere with the affairs of the civil administration. But this does not mean that there is no relationship between religion and politics. According to Kautilya, if any conflict arises between Dharmashastra and current practices or between religion and state, the state’s decision is based on dharma. In this period, there were only two sources of law considered– Dharmashastra and Arthashastra. In case of conflict between the two, the duties under dharmashastra should be followed. In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, it is written about the state that ‘it is the duty of the state that it should not allow the subjects to be corrupted by the path of dharma and make everyone follow their respective dharma and get a place in the hereafter. (Mandlik, 2015). If a state successfully performs the duties of dharma and maintains a just state, then it gets a place in the hereafter. Along with the relation of religion and politics, ethics is also closely related to them. Ethics makes a distinction between the right and wrong of action. The right actions were encouraged by the state, and the wrong actions were punished by the state. It was the duty of the king to implement these moral actions in a policy-oriented manner. It was the Dharma of a person to perform one’s duties according to the rules of the state, keeping a sense of right and wrong. There was a close relationship between religion and politics in ancient India. The cultural traditions of Vedic India gave more importance and respect to dharma than the king. The state was not superior to dharma. Although Kautilya entrusted the Self-Instructional king with the right to make a new law or religion, Manu did not give any authority to 26 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features of... the king. Rules have also been made for the king who violates the dharma. When the NOTES duties and rights of the king are described in Dharmashastra and other Indian texts, it is given the name of Rajdharma. Other Distinctive Features In addition to the appropriate features, Professor Bhikhu Parekh has mentioned some other distinctive features of Indian political traditions, as follows:  First, the Indian tradition is egalitarian. Although it developed the idea of the moral equality of all individuals, it never developed social, legal, or political groups.  Second, the Indian tradition of thought is pluralistic in orientation. Indian political writers recognised the autonomy of social groups from the very beginning.  Third, thought in early India was critical of the very established social order. Most of the writings justified the caste system, the vastly fatalistic concept of karma, the decline of Shudras and slaves, widespread moral interference by the state, etc. It neglected the whole sphere of social struggle.  Fourth, writers wrote mainly for the attention of the rulers. His works are largely ethics or manuals of administration; therefore, to a greater extent, they are didactic and practical. 2.5 CONTRIBUTION OF SHAMANIC PHILOSOPHY TO INDIAN POLITICAL TRADITIONS The Shamanic philosophy is the first atheist philosophy in India. It talks about a logical approach for which there is direct evidence. According to them, the earth, water, fire, and air are all made up of a mixture of four elements. The human body is also made up of these four elements. They consider divine power to be a mere fantasy. They are materialists, and at the same time, they oppose the concept of heaven and hell from the point of view of rationality. In all the traditions of the Hindus, it opposes the practice of sacrifice, condemning idol worship, and yagyas. Self-Instructional Material 27 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES Buddhism and Jainism fall under this tradition. Both of these ideas fall under the category of ancient religion. Gautam Buddha, the originator of Buddhism; and Mahavira, the originator of Jainism; were contemporaries. By this time, there was an atmosphere of instability in Indian thought and tradition. The magnitude and efficiency of the Yagya had become dependent on the number of animal sacrifices. The hypocrisy of the priests prevailed, and the primacy of ritual had been established. The varna system had turned into hereditary caste discrimination. Jainism was against the sacrificial system of Society, i.e., the religious limits of violence. According to Jain thought, all living beings are present in water, air, soil, etc. and protecting these living beings is the ultimate duty. That is, non-violence is the ultimate religion. The promoters of these two religions pervaded Hinduism. Origin of Kingship Unlike Brahminical literature, a different version of the origin of kingship has been in Buddhist literature. The doctrine of divine origin has been found rejected in Buddhism. In the context of which the Jatakas have been discussed. Some of the Jatakas describe the election of the king by the priest according to his merits. Mainly Kshatriyas from good families were selected under it, but caste was not a hindrance to the best position in this election. At least, among the two Jatakas, Brahmins are found to have been selected for the superior position. In another Jataka, we find that a low-caste person was chosen as the king. If he proved to be a tyrant, the result would naturally be a mass revolt. According to the Jataka, people have maintained their rights and privileges for a long time. They derive their importance partly from their numbers and organisations. Theory of Origin of the State The theory of the origin of the state is found in the Digha Nikaya. According to this, there was a golden age of harmony and bliss on earth. People who were virtuous lived happy and peaceful lives. They started farming and cultivating rice. But after a long time, they became greedy and selfish. Other evils also surfaced later. This ideal state has died. After this, people went to the best person among them and made a deal with him. His task was to punish the criminals, and in return, others had to promise him a portion of their crop. Those elected by the individuals were known as Mahasammata, or ‘Great Elections’. Thus, the Digha Nikaya challenges the Brahminical dogma of Self-Instructional 28 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features of... the divine creation of the social order. NOTES The state came into existence when people started corrupt practices in society. But even after this, the criminals and lawbreakers continued to do their work. In the Anguttara Nikaya, Lord Buddha stressed the importance of fear of harsh punishment by the ruler as a deterrent for crimes. However, in the Vedic period also, punishment, or Danda, was crucial for the working of society. But in Buddhist literature, punishment does not play a central role. It is more important to maintain religion in more positive ways. The doctrine of religiosity is different from the Brahminical concept of religion. It is close to the Western concept of virtue. According to Brahminical literature, the moral principles of the king have a different structure. What is a Dharma for ordinary people that becomes a dharma for the king to maintain social order? The Mahabharata gives a detailed description of the concept of Rajdharma as distinct from the religion followed by common citizens. Buddhism also considers the primary objective of the state to be to protect the social order. But in Buddhism, there is the full application of the principle of righteousness to guide policies, both internal and external. 2.6 ISLAMIC POLITICAL TRADITION IN INDIA The development of Islamic tradition can be seen in Indian political thought during the medieval period. Although Muslim rulers obtained legitimacy from the successor (Khalifa) for their authority, they had to compromise with the reality of positions in which the orders of a democratic state could not be followed. Unlike Hindu political ideas, they do not have any special penetration into politics. However, two important works were written in the medieval era throw some light on the views of Muslim rulers. After the invasion of Genghis Khan and the destruction of Baghdad by Halaku, many eminent figures of the Islamic world immigrated to India. Due to this, Delhi and the area around Delhi became the centres of Muslim scholars under Islamic education. Ziauddin Barani’s life was blissful in the kingdom of Alauddin and his successors. Being a confidant of Muhammad bin Tughluq, he remained in the court for more than 17 years. Being a staunch Sunni by religion, he did not consider anyone other than Sunnis to be entitled to lead a dignified life (Ahmed, 1962, p. 121-130). According to Mir Khurd, the most important part of Barani’s works is the Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi Self-Instructional Material 29 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought NOTES which discusses the nature of the state, the divinity of the kingship and the duty of the state. Apart from Barani, Abul Fazl was another prominent thinker under medieval thought. While Barani has been included among the radical Islamic thinkers, the views of Abul Fazl were opposite to Barani. The contexts in which his two works were prominent were Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama. Nature of State In the Islamic state, the ruler adopted a dual policy for co-religious subjects and non- Muslim subjects. It was the duty of the state to protect the life and property of Muslims, but non-Muslims had to pay a special tax called ‘Jizya’ to ensure their security in the state. Another feature was that the state was identified with the royal family. According to Abul Fazl, “there is no greater dignity in the eyes of Allah than the royal family” (Habib, 1980). A king was considered the root of stability and authority. In Fazl’s view, the nature of the state was calm, cooperative, discriminatory, and hostile. According to him, there should be no feeling of enmity between Hindus and Muslims in the state, for which the king must formulate similar policies. Divinity of Kingship Barani considered Mahmud Ghaznavi as the ideal emperor and described all the Muslim emperors after him as the children of Mahmud. But he also believed that the real ruler is ‘Allah’, and a worldly emperor is a mere person sent by Allah. According to Barani, the qualities of Allah should be adopted by the emperor for the administration of the state. The state should obey the orders which Allah has made necessary. The right and wrong actions of the state depend on the faith of the emperor in Allah. The loyalty of the emperor is revealed by the fact that the orders of Sharia are being followed in his kingdom. He also talks of Badshah Din Panahi (Protection of Dharma) and Din Parvari (Practicing Dharma) (Habib, 1955). According to Barani, the emperor should keep the resolution of Muhammad and his four successors before him for guidance. Islam cannot get respect only by collecting the Jizya tax. To establish respect for Islam, it is necessary that Kufr and Kafirs be destroyed. Apart from this, punishment should be given to Dhimmi and those who criticise the Sahabah (friend of Muhammad) (Habibullah, 1976). Self-Instructional According to Abul Fazal, persecution due to religious differences is meaningless. 30 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Cultural and Territorial Concept of India and Distinctive Features of... The king has to take political steps to create an environment for the free thought of NOTES scholars from different religions to end enmity. A glimpse of this is also visible in the thoughts of Akbar, which he also discusses in Akbarnama. Abul Fazl’s Ain-I-Akbari distinguishes between two types of kings - the true king and the selfish king. There is a crowd of generals, treasury, army, servants, obedient subjects, knowledgeable, and skilled workers in both the kingdoms. Under the rule of the true king, these things are everlasting. He does not assoc