Political Theory & Thought PDF

CONTENT 1. NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF HIS VIEWS IN THE BOOK “THE PRINCE”........................................... 30 ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT.........................1...

CONTENT 1. NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF HIS VIEWS IN THE BOOK “THE PRINCE”........................................... 30 ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT.........................1 CLASSIFICATION OF GOVERNMENT................................................ 32 DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT.......2 DOCTRINE OF AGGRANDIZEMENT/POWER POLITICS............. 32 SOURCES:.......................................................................................................2 CRITICISM................................................................................................... 33 CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL ASSESSMENT : MACHIAVELLI AS THE FIRST MODERN THOUGHT.....................................................................................................2 POLITICAL THINKER................................................................................ 33 OTHER DISTINGUISHING FEATURES...................................................4 S DRAWBACKS AND LIMITATIONS..........................................................5 COMPARISION OF MACHIAVELLI AND KAUTILYA....................... 34 2. DHARMASHASTRA TRADITION......................................6 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN KAUTILYA AND MACHIAVELLI........... 35 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN KAUTILYA AND MACHIAVELLI......... 36 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF DHARMA SHASTRA TRADITION...................................................................................................6 7. MODERN INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT: MAJOR IA MANUSMRITI: INTRODUCTION.............................................................7 STREAMS & THEIR CHARACTERISTICS..........................38 MANU’S POLITICAL THOUGHT: SIGNI-FICANCE OF MANUSMRITI... 8 3. MAHABHARATA: THE LINK BETWEEN LIBERAL STREAM: MAIN FEATURES.....................................38 DHARMASHASTRA AND ARTHASHASHTRA................11 APADA-DHARMA: ROYAL DUTIES UNDER ABNORMAL IDEALIST STREAM: MAIN FEATURES................................................ 38 CONDITIONS............................................................................................. 12 HUMANIST STREAM: MAIN FEATURES........................................... 38 4. THE BUDDHIST TRADITION...........................................14 SOCIALIST STREAM: MAIN FEATURES............................................. 39 ETHICAL FOUNDATION OF BUDDHISM......................................... 14 8. SIR SYED AHMED KHAN.................................................40 T POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE OF BUDDHIST TRADITION................ 14 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................... 40 CONCLUSION............................................................................................ 15 VIEWS ON MUSLIM COMMUNITY..................................................... 40 5. ARTHASHASTRA TRADITION: KAUTILYA.....................17 SIR SYED AHMED KHAN AS A REFORMER..................................... 41 POLITICAL, EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS CONTRIBUTIONS KAUTILYA: SAPTANGA THEORY OF STATE..................................... 18 EX OF SYED AHMED KHAN....................................................................... 42 KAUTILYA: BASIC ASSUMPTIONS REGARDING STATE............... 20 SIGNIFICANCE OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING IN THE VIEWS OF KAUTILYA: FOREIGN POLICY............................................................... 20 SYED AHMED KHAN............................................................................... 42 THEORY OF MANDALA/RAJMANDALA/CIRCLE OF THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OF SIR SYED AHMED KHAN.................... 43 STATES.......................................................................................................... 21 HINDI AND URDU MOVEMENT : WHAT LED TO SHADGUNA SIDHANTA - SIX MEASURES OF TRANSFORMATION IN THE VIEWS OF SIR SYED FOREIGN POLICY..................................................................................... 22 AHMED KHAN........................................................................................... 43 FOUR UPAYAS............................................................................................ 23 SECOND PHASE OF POLITICAL THOUGHT: COMMUNAL AND KAUTILYA ON CORRUPTION................................................................ 23 PRO-BRITISH.............................................................................................. 44 RELEVANCE OF KAUTILYA’S POLITICAL THOUGHT.................... 25 9. SRI AUROBINDO GHOSH................................................45 N 6. MACHIAVELLI PHILOSOPHICAL INSPIRATION-......................................................... 45 MACHIAVELLI AS THE FIRST MODERN THINKER......................... 27 POLITICAL THOUGHT: EARLY PHASE............................................... 46 MACHIAVELLI’S POLITICAL THOUGHT : NOTION OF MORAL CONCEPT OF NATION AND THEORY OF SPIRITUAL INDIFFERENCE.......................................................................................... 28 NATIONALISM........................................................................................... 47 CONCEPT OF UNIVERSAL EGOISM................................................... 28 AUROBINDO’S IDEA OF SWARAJ...................................................... 48 VIEWS ON POWER................................................................................... 28 POSITIVE PROGRAMME OF POLITICAL ACTION......................... 49 VIEWS ON MORALS, ETHICS, AND RELIGION............................... 29 PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF AUROBINDO............... 50 SEPARATION OF POLITICS FROM ETHICS AND RELIGION...... 29 CRITICAL EVALUATION.......................................................................... 50 METHODOLOGY OF MACHIAVELLI.................................................. 30 CONCLUSION............................................................................................ 51 MACHIAVELLI’S VIEWS ON CORRUP-TION AND CIVIC VIRTUE...30  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 3 An initiative of Group 10. DR. B.R. AMBEDKAR........................................................52 GANDHI’S PROGRAMME ON UNTOUCHABILITY........................ 82 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 52 GANDHI ON CASTE SYSTEM............................................................... 83 AMBEDKAR’S VIEW ON THE BRITISH RULE IN INDIA................. 52 CONCEPT OF SARVODAYA................................................................... 83 AMBEDKAR ON DEMOCRACY: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SARVODAYA AND SOCIALISM............................................................ 84 DEMOCRACY............................................................................................. 53 DOCTRINE OF TRUSTEESHIP............................................................... 85 AMBEDKAR ON DEMOCRACY: FACTORS NECESSARY THEORY OF BREAD LABOR AND DIGNITY OF LABOR.............. 85 FOR THE SUCCESSFUL OPERATION OF DEMOCRACY.............. 53 THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCLES.......................................................... 86 FUTURE OF PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY................................. 55 OCEANIC CIRCLES................................................................................... 87 ON STATE SOCIALISM............................................................................ 56 GANDHISM VS MARXISM..................................................................... 87 S AMBEDKAR AND DRAFTING OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION... 57 13. THEORIES OF STATE........................................................89 ON SOCIAL CHANGE.............................................................................. 58 THEORIES REGARDING ORIGIN OF STATE..................................... 90 PRIORITY TO SOCIAL REFORM........................................................... 59 LIBERAL PERSPECTIVE OF STATE....................................................... 91 ATTACK ON THE CASTE......................................................................... 59 SCHOLARS OF POSITIVE LIBERALISM............................................. 92 ORIGINS OF CASTE AND UNTOUCH-ABILITY............................... 59 IA NEO-LIBERAL VIEW OF THE STATE.................................................... 94 REMOVAL OF UNTOUCHABILITY...................................................... 60 THE MARXIST PERSPECTIVE OF STATE............................................ 95 AMBEDKAR-GANDHI DEBATE............................................................ 61 PLURALIST PERSPECTIVE OF STATE................................................ 98 AMBEDKAR’S VIEWS ON MARXISM.................................................. 62 POST-COLONIAL THEORY OF STATE............................................... 99 EVALUATION.............................................................................................. 64 POST-COLONIAL STATE:......................................................................100 SCHOLAR VIEWS...................................................................................... 64 THE MODERNIZATION PERSPECTIVE: DEVELOPING 11. M.N. ROY..........................................................................66 STATES..................................................................................... 100 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................... 66 THE DEPENDENCY PERSPECTIVE: UNDERDEVELOPED STATES............................................................................................ 100 T IDEATIONAL JOURNEY OF M N ROY................................................ 66 M.N. ROY’S DIFFERENCES WITH THE COMINTERN OVER THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE OF STATE.................................................102 COLONIAL QUESTION............................................................................ 67 14. JUSTICE......................................................................... 104 CRITIQUE OF MARXISM......................................................................... 68 DISTINCTION BETWEEN PROCEDURAL JUSTICE & BEYOND COMMUNISM: TOWARDS RADICAL HUMANISM..... 69 EX SUBSTANTIVE JUSTICE........................................................................105 HUMANIST INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY................................... 70 DIMENSION OF JUSTICE: LEGAL JUSTICE....................................106 PARTY LESS DEMOCRACY.................................................................... 70 DIMENSION OF JUSTICE: POLITICAL JUSTICE............................106 12. GANDHI AND GANDHISM..............................................74 DIMENSION OF JUSTICE: POLITICAL JUSTICE............................107 CONTRIBUTION TO INDIAN NATIONALISM.................................. 74 RAWL’S THEORY OF JUSTICE.............................................................107 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF GANDHIAN CRITIQUE OF RAWLSIAN THEORY...................................................110 PRINCIPLES.......................................................................................74 COMMUNITARIAN PERSPECTIVE OF JUSTICE............................111 GANDHIAN VIEWS ON ENDS AND MEANS AND ITS FEMINIST CONCEPTIONS OF JUSTICE & ITS CRITIQUE OF CONTRAST WITH VIEWS OF MACHIAVELLI-.................................. 75 RAWLSIAN SCHEME OF JUSTICE.....................................................111 N THEORY OF TRUTH & NON-VIOLENCE............................................ 75 JUSTICE AS ENTITLEMENT: ROBERT NOZICK.............................113 GANDHI’S CRITIQUE OF MODERN CIVILISATION..................... 76 HAYEK’S IDEA OF JUSTICE.................................................................113 LIMITS OF POLITICAL OBLIGATION.................................................. 77 MARXIST PERSPECTIVE OF JUSTICE...............................................114 GANDHIAN VIEWS ON RIGHTS AND DUTIES................................ 77 SUBALTERN PERSPECTIVE..................................................................114 NATURE OF SWARAJ.............................................................................. 78 IDEA OF GLOBAL JUSTICE..................................................................115 INDEPENDENCE & PARLIAMENTARY SWARAJ............................. 78 THOMAS POGGE’S THEORY OF GLOBAL JUSTICE....................117 CONCEPT OF SATYAGRAHA................................................................ 79 15. EQUALITY...................................................................... 119 SATYAGRAHA VERSUS PASSIVE RESISTANCE............................... 80 FOUNDATIONAL EQUALITY..............................................................119 GANDHI’S VIEWS ON STATE................................................................. 81 DISTRIBUTIVE EQUALITY....................................................................120 THE IDEAL STATE ACCORDING TO GANDHI.................................. 82 SUBSTANTIVE EQUALITY....................................................................120  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 4 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group COMPLEX EQUALITY............................................................................121 19. FEMINISM...................................................................... 175 DEBATES ON EQUALITY......................................................................121 20. POLITICAL THEORY: MEANING AND APPROACHES.....189 EQUALITY, PRIORITY & SUFFICIENCY............................................126 CONCEPT OF POLITICAL THEORY...................................................189 LIBERTY AND EQUALITY AS OPPOSED TO EACH OTHER......127 DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL THEORY............................................189 EQUALITY AND LIBERTY ARE COMPLIMENTARY TO EACH OTHER........................................................................................................127 POLITICAL THEORY VS POLITICAL THOUGHT............................190 APPROACHES OF POLITICAL THEORY..........................................190 16. RIGHTS.......................................................................... 130 THE TWO CONCEPTIONS OF POLITICAL THEORY: NORMATIVE CONCEPT OF RIGHTS...........................................................................130 AND EMPIRICAL.....................................................................................190 CONVENTIONAL THEORIES OF RIGHTS........................................131 TRADITIONAL/NORMATIVE APPROACHES.................................191 S LASKI’S THEORY OF RIGHTS..............................................................134 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRADITIONAL APPROACHES................191 HUMAN RIGHTS : GENESIS AND THREE GENERATIONS OF EMPIRICAL CONCEPTION/MODERN APPROACHES................192 HUMAN RIGHTS.....................................................................................135 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EMPIRICAL AND NORMATIVE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS.......................136 APPROACHES OF POLITICAL THEORY..........................................194 IA SCOPE OF HUMAN RIGHTS................................................................136 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH...................................................................194 DOCTRINE OF “RIGHTS AS TRUMPS”..............................................138 POST-BEHAVIOURALISM....................................................................197 MULTICULTURALIST VIEW OF RIGHTS...........................................139 DECLINE OF POLITICAL THEORY.....................................................198 CULTURAL RELATIVIST APPROACH TO HUMAN RIGHTS : RESURGENCE OF POLITICAL THEORY...........................................199 ASIAN VALUES DEBATE.......................................................................142 POSITIVISM VS POST-POSITIVISM...................................................200 17. DEMOCRACY................................................................. 144 SYSTEMS APPROACH...........................................................................201 CONSOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY...................................................148 DAVID EASTON’S INPUT OUTPUT MODEL.................................202 CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL WORKING OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL APPROACH....................................203 DEMOCRACY......................................................................... 148 T END OF IDEOLOGY DEBATE..............................................................206 18. CONCEPT OF POWER: HEGEMONY, IDEOLOGY AND END OF HISTORY DEBATE..................................................................207 LEGITIMACY.................................................................. 161 THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS THEORY.......................................210 EX N  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 1 1 An initiative of Group NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT S Ancient Indian political thought was chiefly concerned Greek political thought was so developed, and IA with regulating people’s conduct in order to ensure ancient Indian political philosophy was concerned smooth functioning of society and to secure welfare of with a limited sphere. On the other hand, Indian all individuals. In this respect we may identify two major social philosophy was thoroughly developed in traditions of this thought: ancient India. yy Dharmashastra tradition deals with the regulation yy According to professor V R Mehta, the failure of the of social conduct of individuals as well as higher west to recognize Indian thought can be because authorities; of the lack of understanding of the Indian way yy Arthashastra tradition deals with the regulation of of life by the people in the west. There is a big civic life, the problem of governance as well as difference in the outlook of the west and east. judicial procedure. yy West thinks in dichotomous lines. The West has T These two traditions were by no means mutually made a difference between man and society, exclusive; in some cases they dealt with common nature and culture, politics and ethics. problems. Broadly speaking, Manu, the ancient law- yy On the other hand, Indians have always looked giver, is regarded the chief exponent of Dharmashastra at things in continuity. We have never separated EX tradition, while Kautilya, an epitome of ancient wisdom man and society, nature and culture, dharma and on the science of polity, is regarded the chief exponent danda (ethics and politics). Hence in order to of Arthashastra tradition. The existence of these two understand the Indian perspective on politics and traditions also shows that in ancient India, particularly statecraft, it is necessary to understand the Indian among Hindus, the spheres of regulation of social and way of life or the unique way of Indian thinking. moral life of individuals on the one hand, and their yy According to Professor Morris Jones, ‘the civic and political life on the other, were largely kept neglect of Indian political thought will result in the separate. impoverishment of the west’. Max Muller who is As Rabindranath Tagore (Swadeshi Samaj; 1904) regarded as one of the greatest Indologist has observed: “In our country it was the king who was acknowledged that “nowhere in the world, human mind dealt with the various questions of life in such N comparatively free; and on the people was cast the burden of their civic obligations. The king warred and hunted— a depth as in the case of India.” India has been a whether he spent his time in attending to matters of states, source of enlightenment for the world. or to his personal pleasures — was a matter for which he To conclude, we can say that it would not be appropriate might be accountable to Dharma, but on which the people to say that Indians lack political wisdom. There did not believe their communal welfare to depend.” are various Indian texts like Manu smriti, Kautilya’s yy This state of affairs may be distinguished from Arthashastra, Ramayana, Mahabharat, Sukra Niti ancient Greek tradition where all aspects of and other texts which contain huge political wisdom. people’s life — their civic as well as moral life, mode Besides Hindu texts, the Buddhists and Jain texts of worship, education, training, sports, and so on also discuss the principles of statecraft, the ideals of were regulated by the state. That is why ancient kingship and the objectives of governance.  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 2 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF INDIAN which is comparable to the ‘Republic’ and the ‘Politics’ of Plato and Aristotle. A supernatural POLITICAL THOUGHT element is present in all the writings. The divine Broadly speaking we may identify two streams of Indian is omnipotent and is visible in the formation of political thought society and government; the divine purpose is to be enforced by the king, divine punishment reinforces yy Ancient Indian political thought earthly punishment and sometimes supplants it. yy Modern Indian political thought This is what we find in almost all the texts that deal ¾¾ The ancient Indian political thought, which with the life of the people. is very rich in its content, is the product of yy But one should not be led to believe the reality. indigenous talents and embodies a response S There was a wide gap between the ‘Shastras’, to Indian condition and its culture. traditions and the actual lives of human beings. ¾¾ However, modern Indian political thought is The Brahmanical religion, which is commonly largely the product of the Indian Renaissance taken as the Hindu religion, was not all-pervasive. of the early nineteenth century and the There were non-Brahmanical traditions, which national movement of the nineteenth and were materialistic in nature and which played an IA early twentieth centuries. It sought to important role in guiding the activities of ordinary absorb the heritage of the ancient tradition, people and the social reform movement of late medieval times that roughly flourished from Influence of Ethics the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries, as yy The social thought in ancient India not only assures well as the impact of the brilliant Western certain fundamental principles of morality, but it political ideas like those of scientific temper always seeks to direct the material life as well. The and progress, nationalism and universalism, king must consciously stimulate virtue and act as a freedom, equality and justice etc. guide to the moral life, morality as stipulated in the T Dharmashastras. ¾¾ Most of the western ideas were derived by Indian intellectuals through English education, yy The state figures considerably in communal life introduced during the British colonial rule, and the theory of life proceeds to resolve itself and which has been steadily flourishing even into a theory of morality. In short, political science after independence. becomes the ethics of the whole society, a science EX of the duty of man found in the complex set of SOURCES: relations in society. yy But when it comes to international relations, one The important sources are: can see the ethical meanings coming to terms with yy Vedic literature the hard reality. Dealing with diplomacy, Kautilya yy Dharmashastras and Smritis for example, becomes realistic in a manner similar yy Epics and Puranas to Machiavelli. One may notice a sudden fall from yy Arthashastra ethical heights to the rankest realism in the same yy Buddhist and Jain literature writer. yy Coins and Inscriptions The Influence of Caste Based Social Structure On N yy Greek and Chinese accounts Politics yy Other literature sources and Epigraphy yy Caste occupied a prominent place in all social speculation during the later Vedic period and CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT INDIAN had a direct bearing on the theory of government. Varnashramadharama in the society was fixed on POLITICAL THOUGHT the basis of caste. Political Life Conceived Within the Framework Of yy Each Varna was assigned specific functions. It Dharma was the foremost duty of the king to see that every individual confined himself to performing functions yy One cannot find in ancient India any classes of the Varna to which he was born. Caste was an exclusively dealing with political and social life, ascribed status. The individual was not to seek his  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 3 An initiative of Group own interest or expression; he was not to determine Monarchy Was the Normal Form Of Government his own ambition or ends. Varnashramadharma yy Since the four fold division of society entrusted the exalted the society at the cost of human values. ruling power with the Kshatriya caste, monarchy Much that was personal gave way to collective was the natural outcome. elements. yy There were also non-monarchical forms of yy Not all castes or Varnas were equally privileged government. Kautilya’s Arthashastra for example, in their enjoyment of rights and duties assigned mentions ‘dvairajya’ (rule by two kings) ‘vyrajya’ to them. The super Varnas – Brahmans and (state without a king) etc. There were also ‘gana Kshatriyas – were the ruling class. The duty of sanghas’ which according to K. P. Jayaswal are an individual was social. Since the Varnas were comparable to modern republics. S related to each other in such a fashion that together yy But still monarchy was the normal form of they constituted the social order, if an individual government. Though there were non-monarchical transgressed his duty, he not only violated the order, forms, they were more of an exception rather than he, in fact, became antisocial. It was in this way that a rule. the Hindu theory would overcome the antithesis of man vs state or society. IA The Government Was Not Sovereign Government As a Partnership of The Upper yy From its very nature of existence, the government in Varnas ancient India could not be regarded as sovereign in the Austinian sense of the term. It did not impart yy In ancient India, the Kshatriyas, Brahmans and validity to the orders: rather, it shared in its validity. later the Vaisyas together formed the ruling class. The Shudras were the serving class. ‘Kshatra’ – the yy On the contrary, the government had no temporal power derived its strength and authority independent existence of its own. The sustenance of from ‘Brahma’ - the spiritual power. The Vaisya the social order was merely its function. engaged in such occupations as agriculture and yy Sovereignty was, in fact, ultimately sourced in the T trade provided the economic basis of the state. The divine will. priest held the highest status. He was identified yy On the part of the individual, there was no unified with the God ‘Brihaspathy’ instead of the temporal allegiance, no single loyalty except to society as power ‘India’. His function was to interpret dharma a whole. Only the pluralistic theory of sovereignty and preside over the rituals. can grasp the Indian phenomenon. EX yy Coronation by the priest was a prerequisite to the exercise of royal power. Symbolically, it meant that Role of King and Subsequent Judicial System the Kshatriya derived his power from the Brahman. yy A basic tenet of Hindu political thought was the yy They had the monopoly of education and were the belief that the king must regard himself not as the sole interpreters of dharma. No one, not even the creator of the law but only as its guardian. The king could go beyond their prescription. Narada-Smrti is an exception. In this work the royal yy With its intellectual leadership of the community decree is regarded as legitimate in its own right. and religious control, there was no need for the Perhaps the most authoritarian of Indian writers, priestly class to organize itself into a church or any Narada demands that the king be obeyed whether such spiritual organization. right or wrong in his actions. N yy However, from about the third century B.C. there No Clear Distinction Between State and Society seems to have developed a growing appreciation yy The governmental organization and politics were of the need to relate law and tradition to changing looked at as a part of the larger whole called social conditions. This awareness can be society. In other words, society was at once seen in the Dharma Shastras work attributed to religious, political, economic and military. It was Yajnavalkya. In that work and in the codes of other generally viewed in a comprehensive manner. legal authorities it is argued that the edict must harmonize with customary and sacred law and yy The habit of looking at society from a political angle that departures from the original raja dharma must was not cultivated. As a result, there was no clear be carefully controlled. conception of either the state or the government. Both were interchangeable terms. yy Judicial offices were generally to be filled by Brahmans, since no man could be judged by one  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 4 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group who was not at least his social equal and since the ¾¾ Whereas the Arthashastra concentrated on sin involved in the crime must also be judged. institutions and politics and were secular in yy The earliest court was likely the king’s palace, but orientation. by the time of the Dharma Shastras complexities ¾¾ In ancient India, the term Matsyanyaya, of judicial administration necessitated formal equivalent to the western concept of the state institutions of a more specialized nature. There of nature. In Matsyanyaya, the state of big fish existed a regular procedure for appeal from lower devouring the small. The term Matsyanyaya to higher courts. which explains the state of affairs in the yy The technique of the power balance was absence of force or danda. Force is held to understood, and alliances were considered be the ultimate sanction behind the state. S among the major assets of the state. In Hindu political theory, diplomacy is constructed on the OTHER DISTINGUISHING FEATURES interrelationships within a group of states, all neatly described in terms of their probable effect on the Apart from the above mentioned characteristics, Professor fortunes of the home state. This theory (mandala) Bhikhu Parekh mentions some other distinguishing is based on the assumption that the king, by features of the Hindu political traditions. They are: IA nature, aspires to conquest and that his neighbor yy The Hindu tradition is basically in-egalitarian. is his enemy. The natural ally is the kingdom on the Although it developed the idea of the moral opposite frontier of the enemy. equality of all men, it never developed the social, legal and political groups. Idea of Dharma and Danda yy The Hindu tradition of political thought is pluralistic yy It is believed that Dharma cannot stand without in orientation. The Hindu political writers from the Danda. In Dharmashastras, the central discussion very beginning recognized the autonomy of social is on dharma and the discussion on danda is groups. peripheral. Whereas in Dandashashras, texts discuss yy Political thought in early India was largely uncritical T danda as the main issue and discussion of dharma and apologetic of the established social order. as peripheral. Most Hindu writers justified the caste system as yy The term danda means discipline, force, restraint, the caste based conception of dharma, the largely constraint or punishment. Dharma is that which fatalist concept of karma, the degradation of holds society together. Society could be held the Shudras and the slaves, the extensive moral EX together when each individual and group does interference of the state and so on. It ignored the his or its specific duties. The Dharmashastras whole area of social conflict. writers concentrated on exploring the dharma yy Many Hindu writers wrote mainly for the attention of individuals and social groups, including the of the rulers. Their works are largely manuals government. of ethics or administration; hence, it is largely yy In contrast to the approach of the Dharmashastras, didactic and practical. the authors of Arthashastra were interested in yy In contrast to Brahmanical literature, in Buddhist the organization and mechanics of danda. The literature, the divine origin theory is not accepted. Arthashastra gives us a detailed account of There are innumerable instances in the Jatakas of ¾¾ The nature and organization of government, elections for the royal office. Generally Kshatriyas N of good family were chosen, but caste was not a ¾¾ The nature and method of exercising coercive bar to this election to royal office. power, yy Prof. Rhys Davids is of the opinion that the Buddhist ¾¾ How power could be acquired, Sangha was founded upon democratic principles. ¾¾ Strategies and mechanics of retaining power, According to him, the Buddhist Sangha was a kind of republic in which all proceedings were settled ¾¾ The possible threat to the Varnas, prakritis or by resolutions agreed upon in regular meetings of the elements of state and the best way to deal its members. with them. yy The theory of the origin of the state is found in ¾¾ The Dharmashastras were legalistic and a the Dighanikaya. According to its state came into religious in orientation, existence because of contract yy In Buddhist literature, danda does not have a  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 5 An initiative of Group central role. Dharma is to be upheld in more yy The second implication was that since Indians had positive ways. no sense of nationhood, it was in keeping with yy The righteousness principle in Buddhist literature their traditions that they should be subjected to is different from the Brahmanical conception of autocratic rule. dharma. It is closer to the Western conception of yy Indian nationalist historians churned out a host virtue. of literature to counter the imperialist ideology. Bhagavan lal Inderjit Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra, B.G. DRAWBACKS AND LIMITATIONS Tilak and Later K.P. Jayaswal, R.K. Majumdar, B.K. Sarkar came out with their own interpretation of yy Most of the above-mentioned sources being Indian history to prove the falsification of imperialist religious in nature; it is very difficult to isolate S ideology. They strongly argued that what was facts of politics from it. Dharma sutras give an prevalent in ancient India was not autocratic rule, idealized picture of society and politics which but limited monarchy. hardly reflect reality. Most of the scholars who have interpreted Indian political thought have taken the authority of these sources for granted IMPORTANT LIMITATIONS OF THE IA although its time, place and authenticity are riddled with uncertainties. NATIONALIST AND REVIVALIST yy Yet another difficulty is that most of the works on APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF Indian political traditions were written during the nationalist movement with a purpose to counter INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT: the imperialist ideology of the Western scholars. The imperialist ideology was developed by some yy A fulsome adoration of ancient Hindu institutions, it Western scholars who made an attempt to study tended to alienate the Muslims. ancient Indian history. Their understanding of yy The approach gives a false sense of past values. It Indian history was based on assumptions. They glossed over the fact that, whether it was monarchy T are: or republic, the two upper Varnas dominated the two lower Varnas who were generally excluded from all ¾¾ The main intellectual preoccupation of political offices. ancient Indians was philosophy and it lacked political or material speculations. yy Many Indians fought shy of the religious aspects EX of ancient Indian polity and, as if to cover a sense ¾¾ The Indians never knew the feeling of of guilt, took too much pains to prove the secular nationality. character of the ancient Indian state. They little yy The practical implications of these conclusions realized that even in the Western world, theocracy were dangerous to the demand of self-rule in India. existed till the first half of the 18th century. They implied that the Indians were incapable of yy In its zeal to prove itself a superior civilization, it maintaining their material world and therefore, the hardly showed any interest in studying the ancient British should manage it for them. institutions in the light of the evolution of primitive tribes as known from anthropology. N  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 6 2 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group DHARMASHASTRA TRADITION S PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF yy However, looking to the heterogeneity and complex nature of Indian society from the earlier times, it IA DHARMA SHASTRA TRADITION: is difficult to state how seriously these laws were yy The shastras, including the Dharmashastra, are imposed by the ruling classes among all sections of categorized as smriti, a word indicating “what is society. remembered,” as distinct from the Vedas and the yy However, the Dharmashastras highlighted upon Upanishads which are shruti, “what is heard.” the social and religious conditions of ancient India, yy The Vedas and the Upanishads are deliberated to family life, gender and caste based distinctions, and be divinely perceived that is, the early seers were principles of ancient jurisprudence. held to have understood eternal truths and the yy Dharma in Hinduism is a very extravagant concept Dharmashastra, as well as other smriti texts, are with different meanings. T the thoughts and explanations of Hindu scholars yy The rules of Dharma are world-wide in the sense in response to the shruti books. that their primary source is God only. However, yy From the time of their composition, the works of variations rise in their implementations as they are the Dharmashastra had a vital role in influencing applied at different levels and in different worlds Hindu culture and law. In fact, the shastras were according to the duties, roles and responsibilities EX still being cited in cases of legal contracts as late suggested to each of them. as the mid-19th century in some regions of India. yy Dharma is everlasting, but its enforcement and yy Dharma Sastras are basically deductive in nature. observance are subject to variations according to The shastras in Sanskrit Hindu literature are the the progression of time. Hence, they are subject texts of spiritual and legal duty. to change. yy Shastra factually means “rule, command, code of yy They are also applicable to beings who are bound laws, science,” and these works focus on many to either duty or mortality, but not to those who different subjects, including the three principal are liberated forever. In the liberated state, the goals for human beings: dharma (law), artha souls (muktas) enjoy eternal power in the world of (wealth, profit, business, or property), and kama Brahman, where there are no limits and no laws, N (passion, desire, pleasure). but only all-knowing awareness, and vast existence yy The Dharmashastra is related to dharma. It is a that is not subject to any laws or limitations. In concept that integrates the nature of the world, that eternal and infinite state, each soul governs eternal or cosmic law, and social law, applied to itself, exists by itself, bound to nothing, complete, rituals and life-cycle rites, procedures for resolving perfect and very much like God in a state of unity. disputes, and penalties for defilements of these yy The Dharma Shastras were predestined for people rules. who are assured to the worldly world, because yy The Dharmashastras are the ancient law books of of their ignorance, immoral karma, delusion Hindus, which advocate moral laws and principles and desires, and who engage in desire-ridden for devout duty and righteous conduct for the actions. For such people, guidance is required for followers of the faith. differentiating the legal act from the unlawful and  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 7 An initiative of Group performing such duties that flow directly from God yy Therefore, when people study them, suspend which will ensure the orderly development of the their judgment, and weigh the knowledge from world and preservation of the moral, social and an academic or historical standpoint as a work in political order. progress. yy The Dharmashastras are not products of divine yy It is reckless to use them as a reference to revelations like the Vedas. Therefore, they are rationalise any social or gender inequality in susceptible to the imperfections to which the current society or make an argument that people human mind is prone. must draw inspiration from them to regulate their yy Yet, we cannot cast them away as mere intellectual social conduct. works of limited vision. They were shaped with care yy People may take from them a few principles that S to provide guidance from a divine perspective. In are still valid in the present-day world and observe them, people will find a sincere attempt to provide them in their life, but they may not use it as a practical solutions to possible social disorder, reasonable point to argue their universal version. disarrangement, and moral confusion. yy In them people will find divine wisdom as purified MANUSMRITI: INTRODUCTION IA by the human mind and filtered by intelligence. yy Manu is found as early as the Rig Veda (circa 1200 Hence, they are considered smriti rather than BCE), where he is pronounced as Father Manu, shruti. ancestor of the human race. In the Satapatha yy They signify the collective wisdom of spiritual Brahmana of around 900 BCE, Manu is evidently teachers, scholars, rulers, and lawmakers who were the father of mankind when he follows the advice instrumental in their creation and implementation. of a fish and builds a ship in which he alone among yy The law books prescribed best possible solutions men survives the great flood. to each class of beings to chase the four principles yy Manu was also the first king and the first to spark of dharma, artha, kama and Moksha, but in doing the sacrificial fire. As the inventor of social and T so they were not completely free from the caste moral order, he is the rishi who discloses the most predilections that favored a few social classes. They authoritative of the Dharma-shastras. Manu’s text, deceive a veiled attempt by clever minds to ensure the Manusmriti or Manava Dharma-shastra is the status quo and preserve the social, economic and earliest of the Dharma- shastras. political privileges of select castes. yy In the section of the text on Rajdharma, the king’s EX yy With the use of authority of God and religion, the dharma, there are passages on Hindu law. It was Dharma Shastras attempted to ensure the order these passages which were first noted by Western and regularity of the world on an ongoing basis, scholars and so the text became known as the but in that they were not completely successful as Laws of Manu. it is evident from the decline of their jurisdictional yy The Manusmriti gives importance to the ruling power following the decline of the power of Hindu groups of invading peoples such as the Sakas, rulers in the Indian subcontinent. Pahlavas, and the Greeks, who were called the Yavanas. In this, the Manusmrti was cooperative yy Nonetheless, on the positive side, they created a with the new social realities to the theoretical framework to imagine ideal human conduct and pattern. standards to distinguish the right from the wrong. N They laid down elaborate rules to oversee human yy Yavanas, Sakas, Pahlavas and other foreign conduct and instil fear of moral and secular power. trespassers are described by Manu as lapsed kshatriyas, of the warrior class. These warriors yy Some of the laws and principles of unfairness had lost their status for not following dharma, prescribed in the Dharma Sutras are bound to but by performing appropriate sacrifices and offend the sensibilities of present day educated acknowledging the brahmans as religious leaders people, who have been heavily influenced by they could come into the fold of the orthodox modern western education and brought up upon community. the values of equality, fraternity, individual liberty, yy There were other aspects of Manu’s text which and social and moral justice. Many verses in them brought theory with actual practice and social stand in contrast to these modern values and reality. In his theory of mixed castes, he developed sound retrogressive. a system of combination between the four classes  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 8 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group (varnas), producing the many castes (jati). Already yy At the outset, Manu (in his celebrated Manusmriti) occupational groups or guilds had set up closed argues that the whole range of creation represents patterns of endogamy characteristic of a jati, so an interrelated pattern, drawing its source from Manu was fitting his theory to the facts. the unconditional Absolute Brahma (i.e.God as the yy It is debated whether the Dharma-shastras creator of the universe). Social organization, to be highlighted an ideal picture that did not correspond perfect, must follow the pattern of the cosmos. to real life. However, the Dharma-shastras, though stylised and systematised, were collections of The Four Varnas existing customs and practices that provided yy Manu identifies four basic functions of social the overall theoretical framework for everyone to organization which are best performed by those S practise their traditionally recognised ways of life. inherently capable of performing the specific function. Accordingly, society is divided into four varnas (roughly corresponding to four castes) MANU’S POLITICAL THOUGHT: SIGNI- ¾¾ Brahmanas who take care of intellect and FICANCE OF MANUSMRITI spiritual aspects of social life. yy The legend of Manu of the Deluge is described IA ¾¾ Kshatriya who specializes in fighting and who in Shatapatha Brahmana. He was the person who survived the great Deluge and then became the are fit to rule founder of the present race of human beings. ¾¾ Vaishyas who have a special aptitude for Manu Vaivasvata is alluded to as the first king business and industry and who are fit to wield of human beings who founded the institution of the power of wealth; and finally, kingship. As stated in Kautilya’s Arthashastra: ¾¾ Shudras who are fit to perform manual work People suffering from anarchy as illustrated by the and provide necessary services to society. proverbial tendency of a large fish swallowing a small one (maatsyanyayabhibhutah prajah) first elected yy Of these, Brahmans enjoyed the highest social Manu, the Vivasvata, to be the king. status; Kshatriyas and Vaishyas were placed in T yy Now Manu, the lawgiver, the author of famous successively lower positions, and Shudras were Manusmriti or the Code of Manu also figures in relegated to the lowest social status. Mythology as one of the seven great sages created yy It is doubtful whether Manu treated this fourfold, by Brahma (the Creator of the Universe). With the hierarchical division of society as divinely ordained EX age-old sanctity of the contents of Manusmriti, it and whether the social status of each individual in would be reasonable to regard it as a work of quite the subsequent generation was to be determined an ancient origin. strictly by birth with no scope for social mobility. yy Moreover, of all the most important and authoritative. It is supposed to embody the essence The Three Gunas of Vedas (the most ancient and sacred scriptures of yy Incidentally, Manu also identifies three Gunas, Hindus), and any smriti text opposed to Manusmriti i.e. basic properties found in the nature of was not approved. things, including human nature. This threefold yy Manu is regarded as the chief exponent of the classification of Gunas represents the descending Dharmashastra tradition which regulates all aspects order of virtue from an ancient point of view. of social life including polity. In fact, the whole edifice yy Of these, Sattva refers to the highest-level virtue N of traditional Hindu society was erected on the code of which is based on goodness; it makes a person law enunciated by Manu himself. kind, calm, alert and thoughtful. yy Initially, it was based on sound logic, but in the subsequent ages, Manu’s system was reduced to yy Then Rajas represent middle-level virtue; it is dogma. It was even exploited by some sections to based on passion and leads a person to a path of serve their vested interests and to perpetuate social greed, ambition, restlessness, and anger. injustice. yy Finally, Tamas corresponds to the lowest level of yy Many social reformers and intellectuals of modern virtue; it is based on darkness or dullness; It leads to times sought to reinterpret Manu’s dictates in a plague towards idleness, ignorance, and delusion. the light of their underlying logic to make them yy This threefold divot of Guna of each person depends compatible with the needs of social progress and on his or her inherent quality: it is not related to his the goal of justice or her social status in the caste system.  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 9 An initiative of Group yy It is quite possible to find a high caste person with yy Shrutis which largely comprised of four Vedas; a low level of virtue and vice versa. It implies that they dealt with the immanent and eternal laws of the reputation for being virtuous is to be attained the universe and provided the universal elements by persistent effort; it is not determined by birth. of all law. yy Smritis; they were the principal sources of lawyers’ The Four Ashramas laws; they are coterminous with Dharmashastra, yy The concept of Varna in Manusmriti is closely that is the treatises in Dharma. followed by the concept of Ashram. Ashrama yy Custom and approved usage which represents the refers to the division of a person’s life devoted to a conventional wisdom and the social experience of particular pursuit of life. the community (it mainly consists of Sadachar, i. e. S Manu recognizes four Ashramas the rules of good conduct, and Shishtachar, i.e., yy Brahmacharya refers to the first part of twenty- the rulers of decency); and finally, five years of a person’s life, devoted to education yy Dictates of good conscience which comprise an and training and building up of character which ever-evolving source of law corresponding to the necessitates a good deal of self-restraint and development of social consciousness. Recognition IA control of the senses ; of this (fourth) source of law guarantees that Manu’s yy Grihastha refers to next twenty-five years of a teaching should not be reduced to dogma. person’s life which involve the acceptance of ¾¾ Manu also conceded that law was subject to marriages and family obligations. variation with the changes in time and space. yy Vanaprastha refers to the third spell of twenty-five It implies that while universal elements of the years of person’s life- the period of detachment law were inexorable, their temporal and local from worldly pursuits finally. elements were largely flexible.\ yy Sanyasa refers to the period of last twenty -five ¾¾ Besides, Manusmriti provides an elaborate years of a person’s life --- the period of renunciation judicial procedure that also refers to various T and pursuit of spiritual emancipation. types of cases that must be decided in a yy It transpires from the aforesaid arrangement that court of law. Manu carefully distinguished only one-fourth of a person’s life was devoted to between civil and criminal laws. Some of his physical labour contributing to social production. It instructions seem to anticipate the modern is a matter of investigation whether the rule of four principles of natural justice. EX Ashramas uniformly applied to all castes and both ¾¾ However, Manu’s View on this behalf should sexes. not be confused with the Western theory of the yy If so, it did not involve a serious violation of the divine right of the king as enunciated in early principles of equality. However, if a sizable section modern times. The Western theory regards the of women and lower castes (Vaishyas and Shudras) human monarch as an agent of God as a source we’re excluded from its purview, it would imply of law itself, as if ‘King can do no wrong’. that the burden of physical labour in society was unevenly distributed which involved a blatant ¾¾ In Indian context, King’s person was violation of the principles of equality. composed of the unique qualities of all major divinities: the might of Indra(the lord yy It may be conceded that Manu’ model of social of death), the treasure of Kuber (the Lord of N organization was based on a sound logic befitting Riches), and the pleasantness of the moon. the early stage of civilization. Those who forgot that In any case, was at best only a representative logic chose to follow his model blindly and reduced his of God who was subject to the supremacy of teaching to a dogma. The result was social stagnation Dharma, like any other human being. which involved injustice to certain sections of society. That’s why the opposed sections of present-day ¾¾ Manu’s Concept of Dharma is derived from society ridicule the followers of Manu as irrational Vedas which declare: “God produced the puritans, devoid of the sense of humanity. transcendent body of law since the law is the king of kings, far more powerful and enduring Four Sources of Law than they; nothing can be mightier than law by whose aid, as by that of the highest monarchs, Manu identifies four sources of law that prevailed in his even the weak may prevail over the strong.” times:  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 10 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group ¾¾ It is further important to note that of three of chastisement; a symbol of state literature Guna (i.e. the basic properties of the the science of polity set was described as nature of things), representing the three Dandaniti, that is the art of applying the state levels of virtue, Manu’s concept of the king power. Although Manu wanted the King to act as the representative of God belongs only to strongly, yet he wanted him to “behave like a Sattva, that is the highest level virtue based father towards all men” And please all. in goodness. A king could attain his exalted ¾¾ According to Manusmriti, a king was entitled status only by fulfilling the duties imposed on to receive one-sixth of the wealth of his him by Dharma. subjects towards taxes, as for providing solid ¾¾ The primary duty of the king is the protection of protection to their person and property. S his subjects. This is evident from Manusmriti’s If the king fulfilled this duty efficiently, he account of the creation of the Kings. It reads: was also entitled to one-sixth of the divine When God saw this work in a state of anarchy reward for their good deeds. If he failed to where people were running in different directions perform this duty, he was condemned to out of fear, he created the king for everybody’ endure one-sixth of the divine wrath that protection. resulted from the bad deed of his subject. IA ¾¾ Manusmriti envisages the kings as the wielder In a nutshell, the extra power of the king of ‘Danda’ which means a rod - an instrument was directly dependent on the condition of fulfilling his extraordinary duties. T EX N  Political Science & International Relations 11 3 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group MAHABHARATA: THE LINK BETWEEN DHARMASHASTRA AND ARTHASHASHTRA S Theory of Kingship Significance of Kingship IA yy It is important to note that the term Rajdharma yy In ancient Indian political thought, the king is occurs most frequently in Mahabharata to refer to regarded as a sovereign power. Sovereignty in this the science of politics. There is a large section on sense is not confined to ‘supreme legal authority ‘ Rajdharma within the Shantiparvam (an important as contemplated in the Western tradition. section of this great epic). Rajdharma literally yy Sovereignty in the Indian tradition denotes the means the code or royal duties which also implies supreme power of the king in moral as well as the art of good governance. material sense. yy It largely prescribes what a king or a ruler should yy As elucidated in Mahabharata, here the king do under normal conditions. It is supplemented assumes the functions of different gods on different occasions. T by Aapada-dharma which describes what a ruler should do under abnormal conditions. ¾¾ When the king, enraged by the evil deeds of yy Another important term that frequently occurs in miscreants, applies his fierce energy to burn Mahabharata to refer to the science of politics is the sinful offenders, he assumes the function Dandaniti. It implies the science of chastisement- of Agni (the God of fire). EX the use of power to govern the ungovernable and ¾¾ When he observes the acts of all persons, to punish the offenders. Dandaniti was the current through his spies to reward or punish them as coin of ancient Indian political discourse. they deserved, the King assumes the function of Aditya (Sun God). Origin Of The Kingship ¾¾ When he destroys hundreds of wicked men yy As regards the origin of kingship, Mahabharata by his wrath, he assumes the function of narrates that in the earliest age of human Mrityu (the God of Death). When he restrains existence when everybody was righteous and free the wicked by inflicting the function of Mrityu from vices, no king was needed. Later on, when (the God of Death). various vices (like lust, anger, greed, delusion and ¾¾ When he restrains the wicked by inflicting N arrogance) crept into the human mind and human severe punishments upon them and promotes society degenerated, it found itself in the grip of the righteous by bestowing unique rewards complete anarchy and chaos. upon them, he performs the function of Yama yy Under the circumstances, several sages and (the God of Righteousness). minor gods approached the Creator acceded ¾¾ Finally, when the king bestows immense to their request and appointed Manu Vaivasvata wealth to people who have rendered valuable as the king for the protection of people, and to service to society and deprives the sinners enable them to pursue the path of righteousness and offenders of their wealth, he assumes the and progress. The king was equipped with divine function of Kubera (The God of Treasure). powers to enable him to control all the creatures yy The power wielded by the king is symbolized by on earth. Danda, i.e. the rise of chastisement. Exaltation of  POLITICAL THEORY & THOUGHT (VOL-2) 12 B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY An initiative of Group rod in the ancient texts, therefore, exemplifies the of wealth through judicious taxation and forfeiture majesty of the King himself. of the property of the wicked and offenders. yy According to Mahabharata, the rod of chastisement Mahabharata contains brilliant insight into a sways all subjects and protects them. The rod is judicious policy of taxation. awake when all else is asleep. The rod, therefore, yy Accordingly, a king should milk his kingdom. Like represents the righteousness itself. a bee collecting honey from plants. He should act like the cowherd who takes milk from the cow The Four Purusharthas without boring her udders and without starving the Indian sages had identified four principal objects of calf. human life (Purusharthas): yy Again, the king should act like the leech sucking S yy Dharma: the virtue promoted by the performance blood mildly. He should impose the taxes gradually of one’s duty as prescribed by the sacred law. with a run of conciliation, and in a proper season. The author warns that draining the kingdom to yy Artha: the virtues promoted by the acquisition of raise revenue rapidly would be detrimental to the wealth and material prosperity. progress of the state. yy Karma: the virtue promoted by the gratified of IA desires and sensual enjoyments; and yy Moksha: emancipation if the soul itself. APADA-DHARMA: ROYAL DUTIES ¾¾ According to Mahabharata, protection of the UNDER ABNORMAL CONDITIONS first three of these cardinal virtues depends yy It is important to note that apart from the Rajdharma, on the efficiency of the rod of chastisement Mahabharata also dwells on Aapadharma i.e. (which paves the way for the accomplishment duties of the king in times of distress or under of the fourth one). abnormal conditions. It asserts that under normal conditions, the king should act as an epitome ¾¾ Mahabharata further observes that if the rod of moral excellence. However, under abnormal of chastisement did not protect people, they T conditions, it allows some departure from rigid would have been immersed in the darkness of moral standards to achieve the noble end of the hell. In the absence of the rod of chastisement, state. all creatures would be destroyed like fishes in the oct, where each fish is devoured by a yy In this respect, the dictates of Mahabharata bigger one. correspond to Arthashastra tradition. While EX Dharmashastra tradition insists on adherence to ¾¾ If you dispense with the rod of chastisement, righteous means under all conditions, Arthashastra the sense of discrimination between good tradition allows the use of dubious means under and evil or between right and wrong would abnormal conditions to achieve the noble end. also disappear. Then human life would no yy Mahabharata enumerates four criteria to determine longer remain worth living. the means to achieve the end of the kingship (or Virtues of The King the state), that is the people: Satya (truth), Upapatti (reasoning); Sadachara (good conduct) and Upaya yy The unique significance of kingship is dependent (expediency). on the virtues of an ideal king. So, Mahabharata yy Appropriate means should be chosen for their N particularly focuses on these virtues. efficiency in a particular situation. It is true that yy It advises that at first, the king should control himself; nothing is higher than truth, but where life is in only then he would be capable of controlling others. jeopardy, it would not be improper to save it by yy Similarly, the king should first subdue himself and telling a lie (hence the departures from the truth). then seek to subdue his foes. yy Mahabharata allows the king to use his discretion yy If a king fails to conquer himself, he cannot hope to decide when to act in a straightforward or in a to conquer his foes. crooked way, as long as he is fully devoted to his yy According to Mahabharata, protection of the noble duty to secure the good of the people. For subjects and securing their happiness is the first example, if an enemy is trying to create dissension and foremost duty of the king To accomplish this within his kingdom, he may overcome the task, the king is advised to undertake redistribution subversive tendencies by resorting to deception.  Political Science & International Relations B I G L E A R N I N G S M A D E E ASY 13 An initiative of Group yy Let us take an elaborate example. Suppose a king Kosha is more important because the king cannot is deprived of his allies; he has many enemies, maintain an army or secure the good of the people a small army, and a little revenue; moreover, his without money. Under normal conditions, the king ministers and assistant are wicked. What should is advised to levy necessary taxes and collect he do to save his kingdom for the good of the them by force. For raising sufficient money to run people? Mahabharata suggests that under these the kingdom, even the recourse to violence and circumstances, the king should think beyond the oppression would also be justified. rigid standards of truth, reasoning, and good yy It is necessary to realize that any departure from the conduct, and have recourse to expediency. path of righteousness may be allowed to the king for yy The king should ensure that he does not fall prey the efficient performance of his noble duties. Under S to his enemies; he should never allow his fortunes no circumstances, he is allowed to use violence or to sink; and in case of imminent danger, he should oppression for his gratification or in an arbitrary try to rescue himself. manner. yy In the case of distress, the king is advised to seize yy Mahabharata does not allow royal absolutism. It the property of the rich, and if need be, all property goes to the extent of advising that if a king fails IA other than that of ascetics and Brahmanas.