Unit 3 Test Review Enlightenment and Revolution PDF

Test Review Enlightenment and Revolution 1. What does “Agricultural revolution” mean in reference to the Enlightenment and Revolution period? The Agricultural Revolution refers to a series of innovations in farming techniques and technologies that significantly increased agricultural pr...

Test Review Enlightenment and Revolution 1. What does “Agricultural revolution” mean in reference to the Enlightenment and Revolution period? The Agricultural Revolution refers to a series of innovations in farming techniques and technologies that significantly increased agricultural productivity. These innovations included: - Crop rotation methods allowed for continuous cultivation without depleting soil nutrients. - Selective breeding of livestock improved the quality of animals - The use of advanced tools, - mechanized planting, Which all resulted in reduced labor costs. These advancements helped sustain the growing European population, created surplus food, freed laborers to work in cities enabling urbanization and economic shifts that supported Enlightenment progress. 2. How did John Locke’s philosophy influence Enlightenment thought and the development of modern government? How did his philosophies influence the American Revolution? John Locke’s philosophy, particularly his theory of natural rights and the social contract greatly shaped Enlightenment thought and modern governance. Locke argued that all individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property, which governments must protect. - He rejected the divine right of kings and emphasized that legitimate political authority derives from the consent of the governed. He advocated for separation between church and state, influencing the secularization of government. Influence on American Revolution: Locke’s philosophy was a cornerstone of the American Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson incorporated Locke’s ideas about natural rights and government accountability. The belief in the right to overthrow a tyrannical government fueled revolutionary movements in America and France.  3. What is "Enlightened Despotism," and how did it reflect Enlightenment principles? Enlightened Despotism: refers to rulers who embraced Enlightenment ideas while retaining absolute power. - Monarchs like Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia implemented reforms to modernize their states. - Frederick abolished judicial torture and promoted religious tolerance, Catherine corresponded with Voltaire and reformed education, including founding Russia’s first state-funded school for women. Their reforms embodied Enlightenment values like justice and rationality but maintained autocratic rule. 4. What were the main ideas and goals of the Enlightenment? The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement emphasizing reason, individual rights, and societal progress. Key ideas included: - secularism, - the application of scientific methods to societal issues, - and equality under the law. Philosophers like: - Voltaire advocated for freedom of speech and religion, - Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers shaped modern political systems. The movement sought to challenge tradition, as seen in the Encyclopedia edited by Denis Diderot, which disseminated knowledge to the public. For instance, the Enlightenment inspired the French Revolution, promoting ideals of liberty and fraternity. 5. What is Montesquieu’s theory of the separation of powers, and why is it significant? Montesquieu’s theory proposed dividing government into three branches— - legislative, - executive, - and judicial— to prevent tyranny and ensure checks and balances. This idea was revolutionary, advocating that no single entity should hold absolute power. Montesquieu’s work heavily influenced the U.S. Constitution, where this system was explicitly adopted. For example, the American judiciary operates independently of Congress and the President, embodying Montesquieu’s vision and ensuring democratic accountability. 6. What are the characteristics of the Rococo art style, and how does it reflect Enlightenment culture? - Rococo art, prominent in the early 18th century, is characterized by elaborate ornamentation, pastel colors, and themes of leisure and romance. - It reflected the Enlightenment's focus on individual pleasure and beauty. - While often criticized for its extravagance, Rococo paralleled Enlightenment ideals of human-centered art, showcasing the enjoyment of life and refinement. - For example, the opulent interiors of Parisian salons often featured Rococo designs. 7. Who were the philosophes, and what role did they play in the Enlightenment? - The philosophes were Enlightenment intellectuals who used reason to challenge traditional authority and propose societal reforms. - Figures like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot wrote on topics such as religion, politics, and education. - They popularized ideas through essays, books, and the Encyclopedia, making complex concepts accessible to the public. - For example, Voltaire criticized religious hypocrisy and advocated for freedom of thought. The philosophes helped lay the intellectual groundwork for revolutions and modern democratic societies. 8. What were Cesare Beccaria’s views on criminal justice, and how did they influence modern law? - Beccaria condemned the use of torture and capital punishment, advocating for proportional punishment and swift trials. - He emphasized that laws should deter crime rather than exact revenge, aligning with Enlightenment principles of rationality and justice. - Beccaria’s work influenced criminal justice reforms in Europe and the United States.  - For example, his ideas are reflected in the Eighth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment. 9. How did Mozart’s music embody Enlightenment ideals? - Mozart’s music exemplified balance, clarity, and emotional expression, reflecting Enlightenment values of reason and harmony. - His operas often addressed social themes, such as class conflict in The Marriage of Figaro, where servants outwit their aristocratic masters. This narrative challenged traditional hierarchies, embodying Enlightenment critiques of inequality. Mozart’s ability to blend complex structures with accessibility made his work a cultural symbol of Enlightenment progress. 10. What was the purpose of the Encyclopedia edited by Denis Diderot, and how did it contribute to the spread of Enlightenment ideas? - The Encyclopedia (1751–1772), edited by Diderot, aimed to compile and disseminate knowledge on science, philosophy, and arts to challenge ignorance and promote intellectual progress. - By including articles from leading thinkers, it became a tool for spreading Enlightenment ideas. - For example, Voltaire contributed entries on tolerance and reason. The work was widely translated, influencing educated readers across Europe and undermining clerical and aristocratic authority. 11. What were Rousseau’s key contributions to Enlightenment thought, particularly his views on society and government? - Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract (1762) profoundly impacted Enlightenment thought by challenging traditional governance and societal structures. - He argued that legitimate political authority comes from the "general will" of the people, not from monarchs or divine right. - Rousseau believed that society corrupts the natural goodness of man, and that a government should exist only to serve the collective will. - His idea of popular sovereignty influenced revolutionary movements, especially the French Revolution. In his view, freedom is achieved through participation in this collective will, and social contracts should aim to ensure equality and justice for all citizens. 12. What is Deism, and how did it reflect Enlightenment attitudes toward religion? - Deism was a philosophical belief that emerged during the Enlightenment, asserting that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to understand God and that the universe operates according to natural laws. - Deists rejected organized religion and the authority of clergy, instead promoting the idea of a "watchmaker" God who created the world but does not intervene in its workings. - This reflected Enlightenment values of rationality and skepticism toward religious dogma. Voltaire, for example, was a prominent advocate of Deism, criticizing the institutionalized church and advocating for religious tolerance based on reason. 13. What were Adam Smith’s main ideas in The Wealth of Nations, and how did they influence economic thought? - Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776) introduced the idea of laissez-faire economics, arguing that economic freedom and competition lead to prosperity. - Smith promoted the concept of the "invisible hand," where individuals’ pursuit of their own self-interest in a free market benefits society as a whole. - He opposed mercantilist policies that restricted trade, advocating instead for free trade and limited government intervention in the economy. - Smith’s ideas laid the foundation for classical economics and influenced policies in capitalist economies, shaping modern economic theory. For example, his work directly influenced the economic policies of early capitalist nations like Great Britain. 14. What are the key features of Neoclassicism, and how did it contrast with Rococo art? - Neoclassicism emerged in the mid-18th century as a reaction against the excesses of Rococo. - It sought to revive classical art and architecture from ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing simplicity, symmetry, and moral themes. - Neoclassical artists like Jacques-Louis David created works that celebrated virtue, heroism, and civic duty. - In contrast, Rococo art, exemplified by artists like François Boucher, was characterized by ornate, delicate, and playful depictions of love, nature, and aristocratic leisure. - Neoclassicism, with its focus on reason and virtue, aligned with Enlightenment values, whereas Rococo reflected the hedonistic and aristocratic tastes of the time. 15. What were Condorcet’s views on human progress, and how did they align with Enlightenment thinking? - Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Condorcet was an Enlightenment philosopher who believed in the perfectibility of human beings and society through reason and education. - His work Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795) outlined his belief in inevitable progress toward liberty, equality, and justice. - Condorcet argued that through science, education, and political reform, society could advance toward an ideal state of enlightenment and human rights. His optimism for progress aligned with Enlightenment thought, which emphasized rationality, science, and the potential for improvement in human conditions. - Condorcet's vision influenced revolutionary thought, particularly in the French Revolution’s quest for liberty and equality. 16. How did Voltaire advocate for freedom of speech and religion during the Enlightenment? - Voltaire was a staunch advocate for civil liberties, particularly freedom of speech and religious tolerance. - His satirical writings, like Candide and his Letters on England, criticized the dogmatic and authoritarian religious practices of the time, including the Catholic Church, while championing the right to freedom of expression. - Voltaire famously wrote, "I do not agree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it," emphasizing his belief in the importance of free speech. - He also promoted religious tolerance, arguing that belief in God should not lead to persecution of others. - His advocacy directly influenced the development of the First Amendment in the U.S. Constitution, which guarantees freedom of speech and religion. 17. In what ways did Catherine the Great demonstrate Enlightened Despotism in her reign? - Catherine the Great of Russia embodied Enlightened Despotism by adopting Enlightenment reforms while maintaining absolute power. - She corresponded with leading philosophers such as Voltaire and Diderot and implemented policies that promoted education, legal reform, and the arts. - For instance, she reorganized Russia’s provincial government and attempted to codify laws in a more rational, equitable way through her Nakaz (Instruction) of 1767.  - However, her reforms were limited; she continued to uphold serfdom and expand Russia’s territories through wars. - Catherine’s reign highlighted the contradictions of Enlightened Despotism—reforms were often superficial, as absolute monarchy remained intact. 18. How did Denis Diderot contribute to the Enlightenment through his work on the Encyclopedia? - Denis Diderot, as editor of the Encyclopedia, made a crucial contribution to the Enlightenment by compiling and disseminating knowledge across diverse subjects like science, philosophy, and art. - The Encyclopedia aimed to challenge traditional authority, particularly the Church and monarchy, by promoting rational thought, secularism, and progress. - Diderot’s work democratized knowledge, making it accessible to a broader public and spreading Enlightenment ideals throughout Europe. - For example, Diderot’s writings on human nature and society critiqued the prevailing structures of power and knowledge, inspiring intellectuals and activists in the French Revolution. 19. How did Frederick the Great implement Enlightenment ideas in his policies and governance? - Frederick the Great of Prussia is often considered an exemplar of Enlightened Despotism, as he enacted numerous reforms based on Enlightenment ideals. - He promoted religious tolerance, reformed the legal system, and supported education, including establishing new schools and universities. - Frederick also abolished torture and improved the conditions for serfs, although he did not completely free them. - His policies were rooted in rational governance, aiming to strengthen the state and society while consolidating his own power. - His reforms, such as the introduction of the General Civil Code, demonstrated a blend of Enlightenment ideals with autocratic rule. 20. What was the Third Estate, and what role did it play in the French Revolution? - The Third Estate in France consisted of the common people, including peasants, workers, and the bourgeoisie (middle class). - It represented the vast majority of the population, yet had little political power. - Tensions between the Third Estate and the monarchy led to the French Revolution. - In 1789, the Third Estate, feeling underrepresented and burdened by taxes, broke away to form the National Assembly, signaling the start of the revolution. - Their actions led to the creation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, marking a shift toward democratic ideals, and ultimately to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. 21. What was the Reign of Terror, and how did it impact the course of the French Revolution? - The Reign of Terror (1793–1794) was a period during the French Revolution marked by extreme violence and political repression, primarily led by the Jacobins under Maximilien Robespierre. - The Committee of Public Safety, in power during this time, executed thousands of perceived enemies of the revolution via the guillotine, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. - The Reign of Terror radicalized the revolution, consolidating power in the hands of the Jacobins but also causing widespread fear and dissent. - It ended with Robespierre's execution, marking a shift towards a more moderate phase in the revolution. - The event showcased the revolution's shift from initial ideals of liberty to a more authoritarian control. 22. Who were the Jacobins, and what were their key goals during the French Revolution? - The Jacobins were a radical political group during the French Revolution, known for their support of republican ideals and the abolition of the monarchy. - Their key goals included establishing a strong centralized government, promoting equality, and implementing revolutionary measures to safeguard the revolution from internal and external threats. - Led by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, they advocated for the Reign of Terror to eliminate counter-revolutionary forces. - Their policies were deeply influenced by the Enlightenment, particularly the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. - The Jacobins’ leadership ultimately shaped the radical phase of the revolution, but their extremism led to their downfall. 23. What was the Estates-General, and why was it significant in the events leading to the French Revolution? - The Estates-General was a representative assembly in France, consisting of three estates: the clergy (First Estate), the nobility (Second Estate), and the common people (Third Estate). - In May 1789, King Louis XVI convened the Estates-General to address France’s financial crisis. - The significant event occurred when the Third Estate, which represented the vast majority of the population but had limited political power, broke away to form the National Assembly, signaling the beginning of the revolution. - The convening of the Estates-General exposed the deep inequalities in French society and was a direct catalyst for the revolution’s outbreak. 24. What were the main principles outlined in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and how did it reflect Enlightenment ideals? - The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) was a foundational document of the French Revolution, outlining the fundamental rights of individuals and establishing the principles of equality, liberty, and fraternity. - Key principles included the right to freedom of speech, the right to property, the presumption of innocence, and equality before the law. - It directly reflected Enlightenment ideals by emphasizing natural rights and the social contract, particularly those advanced by philosophers like Rousseau and Locke. - The Declaration’s influence extended beyond France, inspiring revolutionary movements and modern democratic constitutions globally. 25. Who was Mirabeau, and what role did he play in the early stages of the French Revolution? - Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Comte de Mirabeau, was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution. - As a member of the National Assembly, he played a key role in advocating for constitutional monarchy and pushing for reforms. - Mirabeau’s speeches were instrumental in rallying support for the Third Estate and in challenging the authority of King Louis XVI. - Despite his aristocratic background, he supported the ideals of the revolution and sought to balance the monarchy with the rise of popular sovereignty. His political influence helped shape the early direction of the revolution, although he died just before the revolution entered its more radical phase. 26. What was the National Assembly, and how did it contribute to the revolution? - The National Assembly was formed in 1789 by members of the Third Estate, who were frustrated with their lack of representation in the Estates-General. - It marked the start of a more radical phase in the French Revolution. - The National Assembly declared itself the legitimate government of France and began implementing significant reforms, such as the abolition of feudal privileges and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. - Its actions led to the collapse of the absolute monarchy and paved the way for the establishment of the First French Republic. - The National Assembly’s contributions were pivotal in dismantling the old regime and initiating a new political order. 27. What was the Code Napoleon, and how did it influence legal systems in France and beyond? - The Code Napoleon (1804), or Napoleonic Code, was a comprehensive set of civil laws introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte. - It emphasized equality before the law, the protection of property rights, and the secularization of legal proceedings, replacing feudal and royal laws. - The Code became the foundation for legal systems in many countries, influencing civil law traditions around the world. - It abolished feudal privileges and established legal equality for all male citizens, although it reinforced patriarchal authority in the family. The Code Napoleon left a lasting legacy in countries like Italy, Spain, and Latin America, shaping modern legal frameworks. 28. Who was Robespierre, and what role did he play during the Reign of Terror? - Maximilien Robespierre was a key leader of the Jacobins and one of the most influential figures during the Reign of Terror. - As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, Robespierre was a staunch advocate for radical revolutionary measures, including the mass execution of perceived enemies of the revolution. - He believed that terror was necessary to preserve the revolution and its ideals. - Robespierre’s leadership led to the execution of thousands, including political rivals, and his uncompromising stance on revolutionary purity made him a symbol of radical revolution. - However, his growing power and authoritarian rule led to his eventual downfall and execution in 1794. 29. What was the Tennis Court Oath, and why was it a turning point in the French Revolution? - The Tennis Court Oath took place in June 1789 when members of the Third Estate, locked out of a meeting of the Estates-General, gathered in a nearby tennis court. - They swore not to separate until they had drafted a new constitution for France. - This act of defiance against King Louis XVI’s authority marked a pivotal moment in the revolution. The oath signified the Third Estate’s determination to reform the political system and challenge the monarchy. - It was a key turning point because it demonstrated the unity and resolve of the revolutionaries, eventually leading to the formation of the National Assembly and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy. 30. What was the Congress of Vienna, and what were its main outcomes? - The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was a diplomatic meeting held after Napoleon's defeat, aimed at restoring stability and order to Europe. - The main outcomes included the restoration of monarchies in France and other countries, the redrawing of European borders to balance power, and the establishment of the Concert of Europe—a system of regular meetings to prevent further revolutionary uprisings. - The congress sought to suppress the ideals of the French Revolution and Napoleon's legacy by reinforcing the authority of monarchs. - The decisions made at the Congress of Vienna helped maintain relative peace in Europe for much of the 19th century, although the conservative restoration faced challenges from growing nationalist and liberal movements. 31. How did Napoleon Bonaparte rise to power, and what were his major achievements and failures? - Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in France following the turmoil of the French Revolution, capitalizing on the chaos and instability left in its wake. - Initially gaining fame as a military leader, particularly during the Italian and Egyptian campaigns, Napoleon’s reputation for strategic brilliance made him a popular figure. In 1799, he staged a coup d'état, overthrowing the weak Directory and establishing the Consulate, with himself as First Consul. - In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor, solidifying his power. Major achievements include the Napoleonic Code, which influenced legal systems worldwide, and military victories that expanded France’s empire across much of Europe. - However, his failures included the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812, which decimated his army, and the eventual defeat at Waterloo in 1815, which led to his exile and the collapse of his empire. 32. What role did salons play in the spread of revolutionary and Enlightenment ideas? - Salons were gatherings held in the private homes of wealthy individuals, often hosted by women, where intellectuals, philosophers, and political figures discussed various ideas about politics, science, art, and society. - AThey played a crucial role in spreading Enlightenment ideas by providing a space for the exchange of progressive thoughts that challenged the established order. Salons helped circulate ideas about liberty, equality, and the social contract, which were central to the Enlightenment. Notable figures like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot participated in these discussions, and the discussions often fueled revolutionary sentiment by critiquing absolutism and the church’s power. - The salons were integral in creating a public sphere where new ideas about governance and rights could be discussed freely. 33. What were Louis XVI’s policies and actions leading to the French Revolution? - King Louis XVI’s policies and actions leading to the French Revolution were marked by indecisiveness and poor fiscal management. - His extravagant spending, particularly on wars like the American Revolution, drained France’s treasury. - In response to the financial crisis, Louis XVI attempted to reform the taxation system, but his failure to implement reforms alienated the nobility and common people alike. - The Estates-General was convened in 1789 to address the financial crisis, which eventually led to the formation of the National Assembly and the beginning of the revolution. - His subsequent attempts to maintain absolute power, including the attempted flight to Varennes in 1791, further undermined his authority and made him a symbol of royal tyranny. 34. Why was the Storming of the Bastille a pivotal moment in the French Revolution? - The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, was a pivotal moment in the French Revolution because it symbolized the end of the king’s absolute power and the triumph of popular revolution. - The Bastille, a prison symbolizing royal tyranny, was stormed by revolutionary crowds seeking arms and ammunition. - Although the fortress held few prisoners, the event marked the start of widespread rebellion against the monarchy. - It led to the formation of the National Guard, symbolizing the people's power, and its success gave the revolutionaries the momentum to pursue further revolutionary actions, such as the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. 35. How did the French public perceive Marie Antoinette, and what role did she play during the revolution? - Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France, was often vilified by the French public for her perceived extravagance and indifference to the plight of the poor. - Her lavish spending, particularly on fashion and palace luxuries, earned her the nickname "Madame Deficit," symbolizing the excesses of the royal family amidst a financial crisis. During the revolution, her image as the epitome of royal opulence made her a target of revolutionary anger. - She was accused of treason after the royal family’s failed escape to Varennes in 1791. - After the monarchy was abolished, she was tried and executed by guillotine in 1793, her death symbolizing the revolution’s rejection of the monarchy. 36. What were the October Days, and how did they influence the course of the French Revolution? - The October Days, also known as the Women’s March on Versailles (October 5–6, 1789), were a significant event during the early stages of the French Revolution. - Thousands of women, angered by the high price of bread and the dire economic situation, marched from Paris to Versailles to demand action from the king. - The march led to the king’s decision to move the royal family to Paris, symbolizing the shift of power from the monarchy to the revolutionary government. - The event also marked the growing involvement of the common people in the revolution and heightened the sense of popular participation in shaping the future of France. 37. Who were the Girondins, and how did their views differ from the Jacobins during the French Revolution? - The Girondins were a moderate political faction during the French Revolution, composed mostly of bourgeois politicians from the Gironde region. - They favored a constitutional monarchy and a more gradual approach to change. - In contrast, the Jacobins were a more radical faction advocating for the complete abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. - The Girondins were initially part of the National Convention but were soon ousted by the more radical Jacobins during the Reign of Terror. - The Girondins were opposed to the extreme violence of the Terror and were critical of the Jacobins' authoritarian rule, eventually leading to their execution. 38. How did the War of Austrian Succession affect the political landscape in Europe leading up to the revolutionary period? - The War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) had significant political and financial repercussions for France. France’s involvement in the war, fighting against Austria and Britain, drained the treasury and left the country heavily indebted. - The war's outcome also shifted alliances in Europe, with France losing key territories to Britain. - The financial strain from these wars, combined with the costs of maintaining an absolute monarchy and suppressing internal unrest, contributed to the financial crisis that eventually played a role in triggering the French Revolution. - The political instability caused by these events weakened the monarchy and created an environment ripe for revolutionary change. 39. What were the outcomes of the Seven Years’ War, and how did it contribute to the financial crisis in France? - The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) had disastrous consequences for France, both financially and politically. France lost significant colonial territories, including Canada and parts of India, to Britain. The war was extremely costly, leading to a massive national debt. - To pay for the war and maintain military commitments, France increased taxes on its already burdened population. The financial strain was exacerbated by the royal family’s lavish spending, which pushed France into a deep fiscal crisis. These financial problems were one of the main causes of the unrest that led to the French Revolution, as the government struggled to implement reforms and gained widespread dissatisfaction. 40. What was the abolitionist movement, and how did it intersect with the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality? - The abolitionist movement sought to end the institution of slavery, particularly in Europe and the Americas. - The movement gained momentum during the Enlightenment, which promoted ideas of liberty, equality, and human rights. - Abolitionists argued that slavery was incompatible with the ideals of freedom and equality enshrined in Enlightenment thought, such as the rights of man outlined in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. - Revolutionary movements like the French Revolution were influenced by these ideas, as many revolutionaries, particularly in France, believed that the principles of the revolution should apply to all humans, including enslaved people. - The abolition of slavery was a key goal for many revolutionaries, although it was not fully realized until later in the 19th century. 41. How did the East India Company’s activities contribute to the global shifts in power during the revolutionary period? - The East India Company, a British trading corporation, played a significant role in global trade during the 18th century and contributed to shifts in global power. - Its operations in India, China, and the Americas generated immense wealth for Britain, which funded military and political dominance in Europe. - The Company’s exploitation of colonies and control over trade routes made it a key player in the rise of British imperial power. - The wealth generated by the East India Company allowed Britain to exert influence over European affairs, particularly through the financing of wars, such as the Seven Years’ War, and maintaining a vast colonial empire. - These shifts in economic and political power also influenced the revolutionary period, as European nations grappled with the costs of maintaining empire and facing challenges from growing nationalist and independence movements in their colonies. Questions: 1) Describe how Adam Smith’s economic theories represented a continuation or break from mercantilism. What was Smith’s legacy? ​Adam Smith’s economic theories, particularly as presented in his work The Wealth of Nations (1776), marked a break from mercantilism, which emphasized state control over trade and the accumulation of wealth through a positive balance of trade. Smith advocated for the idea of the "invisible hand," arguing that individuals acting in their self-interest would unintentionally contribute to the overall economic benefit of society through free markets and competition. This was a stark contrast to mercantilism, which focused on heavy government intervention. Smith’s legacy lies in his foundation of classical economics, promoting laissez-faire capitalism, free trade, and the belief that markets should regulate themselves without government interference. 2) Who were the major thinkers in Europe during the Enlightenment? What were the legacies? (see chart) John Locke: Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the social contract, influencing modern democracy. Voltaire: Criticized religious intolerance and absolutism, promoting freedom of speech and secularism. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Emphasized popular sovereignty and the general will, contributing to democratic ideals. Baron de Montesquieu: Proposed the separation of powers in government, influencing constitutional design in democracies. Immanuel Kant: Focused on reason, ethics, and individual autonomy. The legacy of these thinkers lies in their contributions to the development of modern political philosophy, human rights, and democratic governance. 3) What role did art and music play under the leadership of the “Enlightened Despots.?” Provide examples from at least 2 countries. Under Enlightened Despots, rulers like Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia promoted the arts and music to enhance their legitimacy and embody the ideals of the Enlightenment. Frederick II encouraged music and was a patron of composers like Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. He also supported philosophy and the arts as part of his image as a wise and just ruler.  Catherine the Great promoted cultural developments and invited artists and musicians, like Dmitri Bortniansky, to her court. She also helped expand the Russian Academy of Sciences. In both cases, art and music flourished as tools to project their enlightened image and strengthen their reigns. 4)Compare and contrast the Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Both documents were inspired by Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and justice. The Declaration of Independence (1776) focused on the right of the American colonies to separate from Britain, listing grievances against King George III and asserting the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789), issued during the French Revolution, emphasized universal rights like liberty, equality, and fraternity, aiming to establish a new social and political order in France. While both documents advocate for individual rights, the Declaration of Independence emphasizes the right to self-governance, whereas the French Declaration focuses more on universal principles for all citizens, irrespective of government. 5)Explain why 1789 has been described as the “Year of Liberty?” The year 1789 was pivotal due to the French Revolution, where the Estates-General convened, the Tennis Court Oath was made, and the Bastille was stormed. This marked the start of efforts to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic based on Enlightenment ideals. It was also the year the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted, signaling a commitment to the rights of individuals. Additionally, the American Revolution's success in 1783 inspired France’s revolutionary movements. 6) What was the impact of Robespierre’s reign of terror? Robespierre’s Reign of Terror (1793-1794) during the French Revolution led to the execution of tens of thousands of perceived enemies of the revolution. It severely curtailed civil liberties and instilled fear throughout France, though it also helped consolidate power for the revolutionaries. His extreme measures were meant to preserve the revolution but ultimately led to his downfall when he was arrested and executed in 1794, ending the Terror. The period highlighted the dangers of radical political movements and the fragility of revolutionary ideals when taken to extremes. nk 7)Go over the class notes on the Napoleonic Battles and the main parts of the battles. 8)What led to the rise and fall of Napoleon? In your opinion should he be remembered as a hero or war monger? Explain.  Napoleon’s rise was due to his military genius, political acumen, and ability to navigate the chaotic post-Revolutionary France. His expansionist policies and the establishment of the Napoleonic Code had long-lasting impacts on law and governance. His fall was caused by military overreach (notably the failed Russian campaign of 1812), coalitions of European powers opposing him, and his eventual defeat at Waterloo. Whether Napoleon should be remembered as a hero or war monger is subjective. As a hero, he modernized legal systems and promoted the principles of the Revolution across Europe. However, as a war monger, his aggressive expansionism and wars caused widespread death and suffering. 9)What was the importance of the Congress of Vienna? Explain. The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was crucial in restoring order and stability to Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to redraw the map of Europe, re-establish monarchies, and create a balance of power to prevent future widespread conflicts. Key outcomes included the restoration of Louis XVIII to France and the creation of the German Confederation. The Congress laid the groundwork for nearly a century of relative peace in Europe, known as the Concert of Europe, though it also sowed the seeds for future conflicts, including the rise of nationalism.