Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment PDF

Theme I THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT Introduction This section explores the Enlightenment, tracing its foundations to the Scientific Revolution, and examines the significant contributions of key philosophers who shaped this transformative era. Roots of...

Theme I THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND ENLIGHTENMENT Introduction This section explores the Enlightenment, tracing its foundations to the Scientific Revolution, and examines the significant contributions of key philosophers who shaped this transformative era. Roots of Enlightenment: The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution, which spanned from the 16th to the 18th centuries, was a critical precursor to the Enlightenment. This period was characterised by a seismic shift in thinking methodologies, transitioning from reliance on religious and traditional explanations of the universe to an emphasis on empirical evidence and scientific reasoning. Key Developments in the Scientific Revolution Heliocentric Theory: Nicolaus Copernicus' revolutionary theory posited that the Earth orbits the sun, challenging the long-held geocentric model that placed Earth at the universe's centre. Galileo Galilei: Utilising the telescope, Galileo provided substantial evidence supporting the heliocentric theory. His work underscored the significance of observation and experimentation in scientific inquiry. Isaac Newton: Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which fundamentally altered the understanding of physics and laid the groundwork for classical mechanics. Impact on Enlightenment Thinking The Scientific Revolution's success in explaining natural phenomena through reason and evidence inspired Enlightenment thinkers. They sought to apply similar methodologies to understand and improve societal structures and governance. 1 TSRS Moulsari/NB/History/Handout- Enlightenment/CAIE/Grade 8/2024-25 Integrity Sensitivity Pride in One’s Heritage Pursuit of Excellence Enlightenment Philosophers and Their Contributions: The Enlightenment period was marked by the emergence of philosophers who profoundly influenced modern thinking with their insights on governance, society, and human nature. John Locke Tabula Rasa: Locke's concept of the mind as a 'blank slate' at birth, shaped by experience, challenged pre-existing notions of innate knowledge. Social Contract and Government: He postulated that governmental power must derive from the consent of the governed, laying the foundation for modern democracy. Voltaire Advocacy for Civil Liberties: Voltaire was a staunch advocate for freedom of speech and religious tolerance, challenging authoritarianism and dogmatism. Critique of Authority: His criticisms of the church and the state were pivotal in promoting intellectual freedom and challenging established power structures. Montesquieu Separation of Powers: Montesquieu's idea of dividing government powers into separate branches was influential in the development of modern systems of government, aimed at preventing tyranny and promoting liberty. Jean-Jacques Rousseau General Will: Rousseau believed in the concept of the 'general will', where the collective will of the people should dictate societal rules. Noble Savage: He argued that individuals are inherently good, but are corrupted by the complexities of civilization. Immanuel Kant Imperative of Reason: Kant emphasized the importance of individual reason and autonomy, arguing that moral imperatives are dictated by rationality. Moral Philosophy: He promoted a morality based on duty and categorical imperatives, rather than on the consequences of actions. The Enlightenment's primary ambition was to harness reason and the scientific method to improve and reform society, and to challenge traditional authorities and dogmas. Rationalism and Empiricism: Enlightenment thinkers emphasised rational thought and empirical evidence, advocating for a departure from reliance on tradition and superstition in understanding the world. Human Rights and Democracy: The era witnessed burgeoning ideas about individual rights, equality, and democratic governance, challenging the existing feudal and monarchical systems. 2 TSRS Moulsari/NB/History/Handout- Enlightenment/CAIE/Grade 8/2024-25 Integrity Sensitivity Pride in One’s Heritage Pursuit of Excellence Critique of Traditional Institutions: Many philosophers vociferously critiqued traditional institutions like the church and absolute monarchies, viewing them as hindrances to social and intellectual progress. Legacy of the Enlightenment: The Enlightenment's ideas were instrumental in shaping modern political thought and influenced numerous revolutions and reforms in subsequent centuries. Social and Cultural Context: The Enlightenment was deeply influenced by its social and cultural milieu, which played a significant role in shaping its ideas. Role of Salons and Coffeehouses: Intellectual gatherings in salons and coffeehouses, especially in France, acted as hubs for the exchange of Enlightenment ideas, facilitating discussions among intellectuals, artists, and writers. The Printing Press: The proliferation of the printing press facilitated the widespread dissemination of new ideas, making knowledge more accessible to the broader public and less controlled by authorities. Urbanisation and the Growth of a Public Sphere: The gradual urbanisation of European societies provided fertile ground for intellectual discourse, contributing to the development of a public sphere where ideas could be openly discussed and debated. The Enlightenment, deeply rooted in the Scientific Revolution, represented a monumental shift in human thought. It introduced ground-breaking ideas about governance, society, and human nature that continue to influence our world today, serving as the bedrock of modern political, social, and ethical thought. The Enlightenment Era, spanning from the late 17th to the 18th centuries, was a pivotal period in European history. This era was marked by significant social and economic transformations that laid the groundwork for the modern world. The Growth of Cities Urban Expansion and Population Dynamics: The period saw unprecedented urban growth. Cities like London, Paris, and Amsterdam doubled or even tripled in size. This urban expansion was driven by rural-urban migration, as people sought better economic opportunities and living conditions. Cities became cultural and economic powerhouses, influencing regions far beyond their city limits. Effects on Society and Culture: The concentration of people in cities facilitated the exchange of ideas, accelerating the spread of Enlightenment thinking. Social institutions like coffee houses, public libraries, and salons emerged as centres for intellectual debate. These urban centres attracted artists, writers, and philosophers, fostering a rich cultural milieu. For further exploration of the intellectual underpinnings of this period, see The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Ideas. Improvements in Agriculture: The Agricultural Revolution: The Agricultural Revolution involved the introduction of new farming techniques and tools, such as the seed drill and improved ploughs. Crop rotation and the use of nitrogen-fixing plants increased soil fertility 3 TSRS Moulsari/NB/History/Handout- Enlightenment/CAIE/Grade 8/2024-25 Integrity Sensitivity Pride in One’s Heritage Pursuit of Excellence and crop yields. The enclosure movement, where communal lands were transformed into privately owned fields, significantly altered the agricultural landscape. Economic and Social Impact: Higher food production sustained the growing urban populations and contributed to overall economic growth. The shift from subsistence farming to market- oriented agriculture led to increased trade in agricultural products. These changes in agriculture reduced the percentage of people needed to work the land, freeing them to participate in industrial and urban jobs. Social Changes: Transformation of Class Structure: The Enlightenment saw a shift in the social hierarchy with the rise of the bourgeoisie, who gained wealth through trade and industry. This newly affluent middle class began to challenge the traditional power of the aristocracy and monarchy, as seen in the era of Absolutism Monarchs like Louis XIV of France and Peter the Great of Russia. Social mobility became more feasible, though still limited, as wealth and education started to play a more significant role than birthright. The Spread of Education and Enlightenment Ideas: The era experienced a surge in education and literacy, especially among the middle and upper classes. Schools and universities expanded, and the availability of books and newspapers grew due to advancements in printing technology. Enlightenment philosophies advocating reason, individualism, and scepticism of traditional authority became widespread. Economic Changes The Rise of Capitalism: The Enlightenment Era is often regarded as the birth of modern capitalism. Economic practices moved away from feudal and guild systems towards free- market economies. The growth in commerce, banking, and investment sectors redefined economic relationships and practices. Precursors to Industrialisation: Technological innovations in this period set the stage for the later Industrial Revolution. Improvements in industries such as textiles, iron production, and transportation began reshaping traditional economic activities. The influence of Enlightened Despots played a significant role in fostering these economic and technological advancements. Gender Roles and Family Structure Evolution of Gender Roles: The Enlightenment brought about changes in women's roles, particularly in urban centres. Women in middle and upper-class families increasingly engaged in education and intellectual discussions, though societal norms still limited their participation in public life. In contrast, working-class women often worked in industries or services, challenging traditional domestic roles. Changes in Family Dynamics: The period saw a shift towards the nuclear family as the central social unit. Views on marriage, child-rearing, and education were influenced by Enlightenment ideals, promoting concepts of love, companionship, and rational parenting. 4 TSRS Moulsari/NB/History/Handout- Enlightenment/CAIE/Grade 8/2024-25 Integrity Sensitivity Pride in One’s Heritage Pursuit of Excellence Art, Science, and Technology Cultural Renaissance: This era witnessed a cultural renaissance, with advancements in arts, science, and philosophy. The Baroque and Rococo styles flourished in art and architecture, reflecting the dynamism and complexity of the period. The Baroque movement particularly exemplified the grandeur and emotional intensity characteristic of the Enlightenment's cultural output. Scientific Advancements: The Scientific Revolution, which preceded and overlapped the Enlightenment, radically changed the approach to science. Innovations in scientific methodology, led by figures like Newton and Descartes, laid the foundation for modern science. Technological Innovations: Technological advancements in navigation, timekeeping, and manufacturing had far-reaching impacts on European societies. These innovations not only enhanced economic activities but also altered everyday life and the physical landscape.The Enlightenment Era was a period of dramatic change, marking a departure from medieval structures and paving the way for the modern world. The growth of cities, advancements in agriculture, and shifts in social and economic structures were instrumental in shaping the course of European history. This transformative period set the stage for the profound industrial, political, and cultural changes that would define the centuries to follow. The impact of the French Revolution is a critical aspect of understanding the full scope of Enlightenment influences on subsequent European development. (source: https://www.tutorchase.com/notes/ib/history/21-7-5-social-and-economic-change-in- the-enlightenment-era) 5 TSRS Moulsari/NB/History/Handout- Enlightenment/CAIE/Grade 8/2024-25 Integrity Sensitivity Pride in One’s Heritage Pursuit of Excellence  1 The Scientific Revolution MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY In Such questioning led to the geocentric heliocentric theory the mid-1500s, scientists began development of the scientific theory Galileo Galilei to question accepted beliefs and method still in use today. Scientific scientific method make new theories based on Revolution Isaac Newton experimentation. SETTING THE STAGE As you recall, the period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning and the arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many fields. Scholars began to question ideas that had been accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious move- ment known as the Reformation prompted followers to challenge accepted ways of thinking about God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking place, another revolution in European thought had begun, one that would permanently change how people viewed the physical world. The Roots of Modern Science TAKING NOTES Analyzing Causes Use a Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false by referring to an diagram to list the events ancient Greek or Roman author or to the Bible. Few European scholars chal- and circumstances that led lenged the scientific ideas of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully to the Scientific Revolution. observing nature for themselves. The Medieval View During the Middle Ages, most scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe. According to that belief, the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular Causes of the Scientific Revolution paths around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view. After all, the sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it rose in the morning and set in the evening. This earth-centered view of the universe was called the geocentric theory. The idea came from Aristotle, the Greek philosopher of the fourth century B.C. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (TOL a mee) expanded the theory in the second century A.D. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life unfolded. A New Way of Thinking Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars published works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories, they launched a change in European thought that historians call the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. Enlightenment and Revolution 623  A combination of discoveries and circumstances led to the Scientific Revolution and helped spread its impact. During the Renaissance, European explorers traveled to Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Such lands were inhabited by peoples and ani- mals previously unknown in Europe. These discoveries opened Europeans to the possibility that there were new truths to be found. The invention of the printing press during this period helped spread challenging ideas—both old and new— more widely among Europe’s thinkers. The age of European exploration also fueled a great deal of scientific research, especially in astronomy and mathematics. Navigators needed better instruments and geographic measurements, for example, to determine their location in the open sea. As scientists began to look more closely at the world around them, they made observations that did not match the ancient beliefs. They found they had reached the limit of the classical world’s knowledge. Yet, they still needed to know more. A Revolutionary Model of the Universe An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy. It started when a small group of scholars began to question the geocentric theory. The Heliocentric Theory Although backed by authority and common sense, the geocentric theory did not accurately explain the movements of the sun, moon, and planets. This problem troubled a Polish cleric and astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus (koh PUR nuh kuhs). In the early 1500s, Copernicus became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus reasoned that indeed, the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun. Copernicus’s heliocentric, or sun- centered, theory still did not com- pletely explain why the planets Venus Earth the stars orbited the way they did. He also Saturn Mars Sun Mercury Jupiter knew that most scholars and clergy would reject his theory because it ▲ This model contradicted their religious views. shows how Fearing ridicule or persecution, Copernicus did not publish his findings until 1543, Copernicus saw the planets revolving the last year of his life. He received a copy of his book, On the Revolutions of the around the sun. Heavenly Bodies, on his deathbed. While revolutionary, Copernicus’s book caused little stir at first. Over the next century and a half, other scientists built on the foundations he had laid. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe (TEE koh brah), carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many years. Brahe produced mountains of accurate data based on his observations. However, it was left to his followers to make mathematical sense of them. After Brahe’s death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician named Johannes Kepler, continued his work. After studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded Recognizing that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed Effects How did that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as was Kepler’s findings previously thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true. support the helio- They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun. centric theory? 624 Chapter 22  Galileo’s Discoveries An Italian scientist named Galileo Galilei built on the new theories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609. Then, in 1610, he published a small book called Starry Messenger, which described his astonishing observations. Galileo announced that Jupiter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that the earth’s moon had a rough, uneven surface. This shattered Aristotle’s theory that the moon and stars were made of a pure, perfect substance. Galileo’s observations, as well as his laws of motion, also clearly supported the theories of Copernicus. Conflict with the Church Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and Protes- tant leaders because they went against church teaching and authority. If people believed the church could be wrong about this, they could question other church teachings as well. In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas of Copernicus. Although Galileo remained publicly silent, he continued his studies. Then, in 1632, he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptolemy, but it clearly showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory. The pope angrily summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the Inquisition. Galileo stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false. PRIMARY SOURCE Analyzing With sincere heart and unpretended Primary Sources faith I abjure, curse, and detest the In what two aforesaid errors and heresies [of ways does Galileo Copernicus] and also every other error seek to appease... contrary to the Holy Church, and I the Church? swear that in the future I will never again say or assert... anything that might cause a similar suspicion toward me. GALILEO GALILEI, quoted in The Discoverers Galileo was never again a free man. He lived under house arrest and died in 1642 at his villa near Florence. However, his books and ideas still spread all over Europe. (In 1992, the ▲ Galileo stands Catholic Church officially acknowl- before the papal edged that Galileo had been right.) court. The Scientific Method The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo began eventually developed into a new approach to science called the scientific method. The scientific method is a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas. It begins with a problem or question arising from an observation. Scientists next form a hypothesis, or unproved assumption. The hypothesis is then tested in an experiment or on the basis of data. In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data to reach a new conclusion. That conclusion either confirms or disproves the hypothesis. Enlightenment and Revolution 625  1566 Marie de Coste 1609 Kepler 1610 Galileo Blanche publishes The publishes first two publishes Nature of the Sun and Earth. laws of planetary Starry motion. Messenger. 1520 1570 1620 1543 Copernicus publishes 1590 Janssen 1620 Bacon’s book heliocentric theory. invents Novum Organum (New Vesalius publishes human microscope. Instrument) encourages anatomy textbook. experimental method. ▲ Nicolaus Copernicus began Bacon and Descartes The scientific method did not develop overnight. The work the Scientific of two important thinkers of the 1600s, Francis Bacon and René Descartes Revolution with his (day KAHRT), helped to advance the new approach. heliocentric theory. Francis Bacon, an English statesman and writer, had a passionate interest in science. He believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would gen- erate practical knowledge that would improve people’s lives. In his writings, Bacon attacked medieval scholars for relying too heavily on the conclusions of Aris- totle and other ancient thinkers. Instead of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment and then draw conclusions. This approach is called empiricism, or the experimental method. In France, René Descartes also took a keen interest in science. He developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. This provided an impor- tant new tool for scientific research. Like Bacon, Descartes believed that scientists needed to reject old assumptions and teachings. As a mathematician, however, he approached gaining knowledge dif- ferently than Bacon. Rather than using experimentation, Descartes relied on mathe- matics and logic. He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason. The only thing he knew for certain was that he existed—because, as he wrote, “I think, therefore I am.” From this starting point, he followed a train of strict Contrasting reasoning to arrive at other basic truths. How did Modern scientific methods are based on the ideas of Bacon and Descartes. Descartes’s approach to science Scientists have shown that observation and experimentation, together with general differ from Bacon’s? laws that can be expressed mathematically, can lead people to a better understanding of the natural world. Newton Explains the Law of Gravity By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had shat- tered the old views of astronomy and physics. Later, the great English scientist Isaac Newton helped to bring together their breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. Changing Idea: Scientific Method Old Science New Science Scholars generally relied on ancient In time, scholars began to use observation, authorities, church teachings, common experimentation, and scientific reasoning to sense, and reasoning to explain the gather knowledge and draw conclusions physical world. about the physical world. 626 Chapter 22  1637 Descartes’s 1662 Boyle discovers mathematical book Discourse on relationship between the pressure and 1714 1628 Harvey Method sets forth volume of gases, known as Boyle’s law. Fahrenheit reveals how his scientific method invents human heart of reasoning from 1674 Leeuwenhoek observes mercury functions. the basis of doubt. bacteria through microscope. thermometer. 1620 1670 1720 1633 Galileo 1643 1666 France establishes 1687 Newton faces Inquisition Torricelli Academy of Sciences. publishes law for support of invents of gravity. Copernicus’s barometer. 1660 England establishes Royal theory. Society to support scientific study. ▲ Isaac Newton’s Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time law of gravity he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the explained how the same forces. Newton’s great discovery was that the same force ruled motion of the same physical laws governed motion planets and all matter on earth and in space. The key idea that linked motion in the both on earth and heavens with motion on the earth was the law of universal gravitation. According in the heavens. to this law, every object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. In 1687, Newton published his ideas in a work called The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. It was one of the most important scientific books ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. Its parts all worked Clarifying together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathematically. Newton Why was the law of gravitation believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe, the clockmaker who had important? set everything in motion. The Scientific Revolution Spreads As astronomers explored the secrets of the universe, other scientists began to study the secrets of nature on earth. Careful observation and the use of the scientific method eventually became important in many different fields. Scientific Instruments Scientists developed new tools and instruments to make the precise observations that the scientific method demanded. The first microscope was invented by a Dutch maker of eyeglasses, Zacharias Janssen (YAHN suhn), in 1590. In the 1670s, a Dutch drapery merchant and amateur scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY vuhn HUK) used a microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings. He also examined red blood cells for the first time. In 1643, one of Galileo’s students, Evangelista Torricelli (TAWR uh CHEHL ee), developed the first mercury barometer, a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather. In 1714, the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit (FAR uhn HYT) made the first thermometer to use mercury in glass. Fahrenheit’s thermometer showed water freezing at 32°. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius (SEHL see uhs), created another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742. Celsius’s scale showed freezing at 0°. Medicine and the Human Body During the Middle Ages, European doctors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek physician named Galen. However, Galen had never dissected the body of a human being. Instead, he had studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals. Galen assumed that human anatomy was much the same. A Flemish physician named Andreas Vesalius proved Galen’s assumptions wrong. Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations. His Enlightenment and Revolution 627  book, On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), was filled with detailed drawings of human organs, bones, and muscle. In the late 1700s, British physician Edward Jenner introduced a vaccine to pre- Vocabulary vent smallpox. Inoculation using live small- Inoculation is the pox germs had been practiced in Asia for act of injecting a germ into a per- centuries. While beneficial, this technique son’s body so as to could also be dangerous. Jenner discovered create an immunity that inoculation with germs from a cattle dis- to the disease. ease called cowpox gave permanent protec- tion from smallpox for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks for this form of inoculation were much lower. Jenner used cowpox to produce the world’s first vaccination. Discoveries in Chemistry Robert Boyle pio- neered the use of the scientific method in ▲ The famous chemistry. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In a book called The Dutch painter Sceptical Chymist (1661), Boyle challenged Aristotle’s idea that the physical world Rembrandt painted Anatomy Lesson of consisted of four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that Dr. Tulp in 1632 matter was made up of smaller primary particles that joined together in different ways. from an actual Boyle’s most famous contribution to chemistry is Boyle’s law. This law explains how anatomy lesson. the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas affect each other. The corpse was that of a criminal. The notions of reason and order, which spurred so many breakthroughs in sci- ence, soon moved into other fields of life. Philosophers and scholars across Europe began to rethink long-held beliefs about the human condition, most notably the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens. These thinkers helped to usher in a move- ment that challenged the age-old relationship between a government and its peo- ple, and eventually changed forever the political landscape in numerous societies. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. geocentric theory Scientific Revolution heliocentric theory Galileo Galilei scientific method Isaac Newton USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which event or circumstance 3. Before the 1500s, who and 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS “If I have seen farther than do you consider to be the what were the final authorities others,” said Newton, “it is because I have stood on the most significant? Why? with regard to most knowledge? shoulders of giants.” Could this be said of most scientific 4. How did the heliocentric theory accomplishments? Explain. of the universe differ from the 7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why might institutions of authority geocentric theory? tend to reject new ideas? Causes of the 5. What are the main steps of the 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you agree Scientific Revolution scientific method? with Galileo’s actions during his Inquisition? Explain. 9. WRITING ACTIVITY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Create a television script for a discovery of the Scientific Revolution. Include key people, ideas, and accomplishments. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A GRAPHIC Research a modern-day invention or new way of thinking and then describe it and its impact on society to the class in a poster or annotated diagram. 628 Chapter 22  2 The Enlightenment in Europe MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY A The various freedoms enjoyed in Enlightenment Montesquieu revolution in intellectual activity many countries today are a social contract Rousseau changed Europeans’ view of result of Enlightenment thinking. John Locke Mary government and society. philosophe Wollstonecraft Voltaire SETTING THE STAGE In the wake of the Scientific Revolution, and the new ways of thinking it prompted, scholars and philosophers began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects of society. They sought new insight into the underly- ing beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and education. Their efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a new intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. Known also as the Age of Reason, the movement reached its height in the mid-1700s and brought great change to many aspects of Western civilization. Two Views on Government TAKING NOTES Outlining Use an outline The Enlightenment started from some key ideas put forth by two English political to organize main ideas thinkers of the 1600s, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Both men experienced and details. the political turmoil of England early in that century. However, they came to very different conclusions about government and human nature. Enlightenment in Europe I. Two Views on Hobbes’s Social Contract Thomas Hobbes expressed his views in a work Government called Leviathan (1651). The horrors of the English Civil War convinced him that A. all humans were naturally selfish and wicked. Without governments to keep B. order, Hobbes said, there would be “war... of every man against every man,” II. The Philosophes and life would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Advocate Reason Hobbes argued that to escape such a bleak life, people had to hand over their A. rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they gained law and order. Hobbes called this B. agreement by which people created a government the social contract. Because people acted in their own self-interest, Hobbes said, the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control. The best government was one that had the awesome power of a leviathan (sea monster). In Hobbes’s view, such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience. Changing Idea: The Right to Govern Old Idea New Idea A monarch’s rule is justified by A government’s power comes from the divine right. consent of the governed. Enlightenment and Revolution 629  Locke’s Natural Rights The philosopher John Locke held a different, more positive, view of human nature. He believed that people could learn from experi- ence and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government. According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights— life, liberty, and property. The purpose of government, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so, citizens have a right to overthrow it. Locke’s Contrasting theory had a deep influence on modern political thinking. His belief that a govern- How does Locke’s view of ment’s power comes from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern human nature differ democracy. The ideas of government by popular consent and the right to rebel against from that of unjust rulers helped inspire struggles for liberty in Europe and the Americas. Hobbes? The Philosophes Advocate Reason The Enlightenment reached its height in France in the mid-1700s. Paris became the meeting place for people who wanted to discuss politics and ideas. The social critics of this period in France were known as philosophes (FIHL uh SAHFS), the French word for philosophers. The philosophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life, just as Isaac Newton had applied reason to science. Five concepts formed the core of their beliefs: 1. Reason Enlightened thinkers believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking. 2. Nature The philosophes believed that what was natural was also good and reasonable. 3. Happiness The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that people should find joy in the hereafter and urged people to seek well-being on earth. 4. Progress The philosophes stressed that society and Voltaire humankind could improve. 1694–1778 5. Liberty The philosophes called for the liberties that Voltaire befriended several European the English people had won in their Glorious monarchs and nobles. Among them Revolution and Bill of Rights. was the Prussian king Frederick II. Voltaire Combats Intolerance Probably the most brilliant The two men seemed like ideal and influential of the philosophes was François Marie companions. Both were witty and preferred to dress in shabby, Arouet. Using the pen name Voltaire, he published more rumpled clothes. than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama. Vocabulary Their relationship eventually Voltaire often used satire against his opponents. He made Satire is the use of soured, however. Voltaire disliked frequent targets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the govern- irony, sarcasm, or editing Frederick’s mediocre poetry, wit to attack folly, ment. His sharp tongue made him enemies at the French while Frederick suspected Voltaire of vice, or stupidity. shady business dealings. Voltaire court, and twice he was sent to prison. After his second jail eventually described the Prussian term, Voltaire was exiled to England for more than two years. king as “a nasty monkey, perfidious Although he made powerful enemies, Voltaire never friend, [and] wretched poet.” stopped fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious Frederick in turn called Voltaire a belief, and freedom of speech. He used his quill pen as if it “miser, dirty rogue, [and] coward.” were a deadly weapon in a thinker’s war against humanity’s worst enemies—intolerance, prejudice, and superstition. He RESEARCH LINKS For more on summed up his staunch defense of liberty in one of his most Voltaire, go to classzone.com famous quotes: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.” 630 Chapter 22  Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers Another influential French writer, the Baron de Montesquieu (MAHN tuh SKYOO), devoted himself to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day. The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative power. They made the laws. The judges of the English courts held judicial power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific case. Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches separation of powers. Montesquieu oversimplified the British system. It did not actually separate powers this way. His idea, however, became a part of his most famous book, On the Spirit of Laws (1748). In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of pow- ers would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the govern- ment. “Power,” he wrote, “should be a check to power.” This idea later would be called checks and balances. Montesquieu’s book was admired by political leaders in the British colonies of Analyzing Issues North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances What advan- became the basis for the United States Constitution. tages did Rousseau: Champion of Freedom A third great philosophe, Jean Jacques Montesquieu see in the separation of Rousseau (roo SOH), was passionately committed to individual freedom. The son powers? of a poor Swiss watchmaker, Rousseau won recognition as a writer of essays. A strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly disagreed with other Laws Protect Freedom Laws Ensure Security Both Montesquieu and Rousseau believed firmly that fair While laws work to protect citizens from abusive rulers, and just laws—not monarchs or unrestrained mobs—should Montesquieu argues that they also guard against anarchy govern society. Here, Rousseau argues that laws established and mob rule. by and for the people are the hallmark of a free society. PRIMARY SOURCE PRIMARY SOURCE I... therefore give the name “Republic” to every It is true that in democracies the people seem state that is governed by laws, no matter what to act as they please; but political liberty the form of its administration may be: for does not consist in an unlimited freedom. only in such a case does the public interest... We must have continually present to govern, and the res republica rank as a our minds the difference between reality.... Laws are, properly speaking, independence and liberty. Liberty is a only the conditions of civil association. The right of doing whatever the laws permit, people, being subject to the laws, ought to and if a citizen could do what they [the be their author: the conditions of the society laws] forbid he would be no longer ought to be regulated... by those who come possessed of liberty, because all his fellow- together to form it. citizens would have the same power. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU, The Social Contract BARON DE MONTESQUIEU, The Spirit of Laws DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS 1. Analyzing Issues Why should citizens be the authors of society’s laws, according to Rousseau? 2. Making Inferences Why does Montesquieu believe that disobeying laws leads to a loss of liberty? Enlightenment and Revolution 631  Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupted people’s natural goodness. “Man is born free, and every- where he is in chains,” he wrote. Rousseau believed that the only good government was one that was freely formed by the people and guided by the “general will” of society—a direct democracy. Under such a government, people agree to give up some of their freedom in favor of the common good. In 1762, he explained his political philosophy in a book called The Social Contract. Rousseau’s view of the social contract differed greatly from that of Hobbes. For Hobbes, the social contract was an agreement between a society and its govern- ment. For Rousseau, it was an agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government. Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitimate government came from the consent of the governed. However, Rousseau believed in a much broader democracy than Locke had promoted. He argued that all people were equal and that titles of nobil- ity should be abolished. Rousseau’s ideas inspired many of the leaders of the French Revolution who overthrew the monarchy in 1789. Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice An Italian philosophe named Cesare Bonesana Beccaria (BAYK uh REE ah) turned his thoughts to the justice system. He believed that laws existed to preserve social order, not to avenge crimes. Beccaria regularly criticized common abuses of justice. They included torturing of witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings in trials, and punishments that were arbitrary or cruel. He argued that a person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial, and that torture should never be used. Moreover, he said, the degree of punishment should be based on the seriousness of the crime. He also believed that capital punishment should be abolished. Beccaria based his ideas about justice on the principle that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of people. His ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and North America. Major Ideas of the Enlightenment Idea Thinker Impact Natural rights—life, liberty, property Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence Separation of powers Montesquieu France, United States, and Latin American nations use separation of powers in new constitutions Freedom of thought and Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of expression the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate censorship Abolishment of torture Beccaria Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of Europe and the Americas Religious freedom Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce persecution Women’s equality Wollstonecraft Women’s rights groups form in Europe and North America SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. Analyzing Issues What important documents reflect the influence of Enlightenment ideas? 2. Forming Opinions Which are the two most important Enlightenment ideas? Support your answer with reasons. 632 Chapter 22  Women and the Enlightenment The philosophes challenged many assumptions about gov- ernment and society. But they often took a traditional view toward women. Rousseau, for example, developed many pro- gressive ideas about education. However, he believed that a girl’s education should mainly teach her how to be a helpful wife and mother. Other male social critics scolded women for reading novels because they thought it encouraged idleness and wickedness. Still, some male writers argued for more education for women and for women’s equality in marriage. Women writers also tried to improve the status of women. In 1694, the English writer Mary Astell published A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. Her book addressed the lack of edu- cational opportunities for women. In later writings, she used Enlightenment arguments about government to criticize the unequal relationship between men and women in marriage. Mary Wollstonecraft She wrote, “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, 1759–1797 how comes it to be so in a family?... If all men are born free, A strong advocate of education for how is it that all women are born slaves?” women, Wollstonecraft herself received During the 1700s, other women picked up these themes. little formal schooling. She and her Among the most persuasive was Mary Wollstonecraft, who two sisters taught themselves by studying books at home. With her published an essay called A Vindication of the Rights of sisters, she briefly ran a school. These Woman in 1792. In the essay, she disagreed with Rousseau experiences shaped much of her that women’s education should be secondary to men’s. Rather, thoughts about education. Drawing she argued that women, like men, need education to become Wollstonecraft eventually took a Conclusions virtuous and useful. Wollstonecraft also urged women to enter job with a London publisher. There, Why do you the male-dominated fields of medicine and politics. she met many leading radicals of the think the issue of day. One of them was her future Women made important contributions to the Enlight- education was husband, the writer William Godwin. enment in other ways. In Paris and other European cities, Wollstonecraft died at age 38, after important to both Astell and wealthy women helped spread Enlightenment ideas through giving birth to their daughter, Mary. Wollstonecraft?. social gatherings called salons, which you will read about This child, whose married name was later in this chapter. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, went on to write the classic novel Frankenstein. One woman fortunate enough to receive an education in the sciences was Emilie du Châtelet (shah tlay). Du Châtelet was an aristocrat trained as a mathematician and RESEARCH LINKS For more on Mary physicist. By translating Newton’s work from Latin into Wollstonecraft, go to classzone.com French, she helped stimulate interest in science in France. Legacy of the Enlightenment Over a span of a few decades, Enlightenment writers challenged long-held ideas about society. They examined such principles as the divine right of monarchs, the union of church and state, and the existence of unequal social classes. They held these beliefs up to the light of reason and found them in need of reform. The philosophes mainly lived in the world of ideas. They formed and popular- ized new theories. Although they encouraged reform, they were not active revolu- tionaries. However, their theories eventually inspired the American and French revolutions and other revolutionary movements in the 1800s. Enlightenment think- ing produced three other long-term effects that helped shape Western civilization. Belief in Progress The first effect was a belief in progress. Pioneers such as Galileo and Newton had discovered the key for unlocking the mysteries of nature in the 1500s and 1600s. With the door thus opened, the growth of scientific knowledge Enlightenment and Revolution 633  seemed to quicken in the 1700s. Scientists made key new discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology, and mechanics. The successes of the Scientific Revolution gave people the confidence that human reason could solve social problems. Philosophes and reformers urged an end to the practice of slavery and argued for greater social equality, as well as a more democratic style of government. A More Secular Outlook A second outcome was the rise of a more secular, or non-religious, outlook. During the Enlightenment, people began to question openly their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church. Before the Scientific Revolution, people accepted the mysteries of the universe as the workings of God. One by one, scientists discovered that these mysteries could be explained mathemat- ically. Newton himself was a deeply religious man, and he sought to reveal God’s majesty through his work. However, his findings often caused people to change the way they thought about God. Meanwhile, Voltaire and other critics attacked some of the beliefs and practices of organized Christianity. They wanted to rid religious faith of superstition and fear and promote tolerance of all religions. Importance of the Individual Faith in science and in progress produced a third outcome, the rise of individualism. As people began to turn away from the church and royalty for guidance, they looked to themselves instead. The philosophes encouraged people to use their own ability to reason in order to judge what was right or wrong. They also emphasized the importance of the individ- ual in society. Government, they argued, was formed by individuals to promote their welfare. The British thinker Adam Smith extended the emphasis on the individual to economic thinking. He believed that individuals acting in their own self-interest created economic progress. Smith’s theory is discussed in detail in Chapter 25. During the Enlightenment, reason took center stage. The greatest minds of Europe followed each other’s work with interest and often met to discuss their ideas. Some of the kings and queens of Europe were also very interested. As you will learn in Section 3, they sought to apply some of the philosophes’ ideas to create progress in their countries. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Enlightenment social contract John Locke philosophe Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau Mary Wollstonecraft USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which impact of the Enlight- 3. What are the natural rights with 6. SYNTHESIZING Explain how the following statement enment do you consider most which people are born, reflects Enlightenment ideas: “Power should be a check important? Why? according to John Locke? to power.” Enlightenment in Europe 4. Who were the philosophes and 7. ANALYZING ISSUES Why might some women have been I. Two Views on what did they advocate? critical of the Enlightenment? Government 5. What was the legacy of the 8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Do you think the philosophes A. Enlightenment? were optimistic about the future of humankind? Explain. B. II. The Philosophes 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Compare the Advocate Reason views of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau on government. A. Then write one paragraph about how their ideas reflect B. their understanding of human behavior. CONNECT TO TODAY PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT Identify someone considered a modern-day social critic. Explore the person’s beliefs and methods and present your findings to the class in a brief oral report. 634 Chapter 22  Using Primary Sources European Values During the Enlightenment Writers and artists of the Enlightenment often used satire to comment on European values. Using wit and humor, they ridiculed various ideas and customs. Satire allowed artists to explore human faults in a way that is powerful but not preachy. In the two literary excerpts and the painting below, notice how the writer or artist makes his point. A PRIMARY SOURCE B PRIMARY SOURCE Voltaire Jonathan Swift Voltaire wrote Candide (1759) to attack a philosophy called The narrator of Gulliver’s Travels (1726), an English doctor Optimism, which held that all is right with the world. The named Lemuel Gulliver, takes four disastrous voyages that hero of the story, a young man named Candide, encounters leave him stranded in strange lands. In the following the most awful disasters and human evils. In this passage, passage, Gulliver tries to win points with the king of Candide meets a slave in South America, who explains why Brobdingnag—a land of giants—by offering to show him he is missing a leg and a hand. how to make guns and cannons. “When we’re working at the sugar mill and catch our finger The king was struck with horror at the description I had in the grinding-wheel, they cut off our hand. When we try to given of those terrible engines.... He was amazed how so run away, they cut off a leg. I have been in both of these impotent and grovelling an insect as I (these were his situations. This is the price you pay for the sugar you eat in expressions) could entertain such inhuman ideas, and in so Europe.... familiar a manner as to appear wholly unmoved at all the “The Dutch fetishes [i.e., missionaries] who converted me scenes of blood and desolation, which I had painted as the [to Christianity] tell me every Sunday that we are all the common effects of those destructive machines; whereof, he sons of Adam, Whites and Blacks alike. I’m no genealogist, said, some evil genius, enemy to mankind, must have been but if these preachers are right, we are all cousins born of the first contriver [inventor]. first cousins. Well, you will grant me that you can’t treat a relative much worse than this.” C PRIMARY SOURCE William Hogarth The English artist William Hogarth often used satire in his paintings. In this painting, Canvassing for Votes, he comments on 1. What is the main point that political corruption. While Voltaire is making in Source A? the candidate flirts with the What technique does he use to ladies on the balcony, his reinforce his message? supporters offer a man 2. What does the king’s reaction in money for his vote. Source B say about Swift’s view of Europe’s military technology? 3. Why might Hogarth’s painting in Source C be difficult for modern audiences to understand? Does this take away from his message? 635  3 The Enlightenment Spreads MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY An “enlightened” problem- salon enlightened Enlightenment ideas spread solving approach to government baroque despot through the Western world and and society prevails in modern neoclassical Catherine profoundly influenced the arts civilization today. the Great and government. SETTING THE STAGE The philosophes’ views about society often got them in trouble. In France it was illegal to criticize either the Catholic Church or the gov- ernment. Many philosophes landed in jail or were exiled. Voltaire, for example, experienced both punishments. Nevertheless, the Enlightenment spread through- out Europe with the help of books, magazines, and word of mouth. In time, Enlightenment ideas influenced everything from the artistic world to the royal courts across the continent. TAKING NOTES A World of Ideas Summarizing Use a web diagram to list In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural and intellectual capital of Europe. Young examples of each people from around Europe—and also from the Americas—came to study, phi- concept related to the losophize, and enjoy the culture of the bustling city. The brightest minds of the spread of ideas. age gathered there. From their circles radiated the ideas of the Enlightenment. The buzz of Enlightenment ideas was most intense in the mansions of several art and wealthy women of Paris. There, in their large drawing rooms, these hostesses held literature monarchy regular social gatherings called salons. At these events, philosophers, writers, artists, scientists, and other great intellects met to discuss ideas. Spread of Enlightenment Ideas Diderot’s Encyclopedia The most influential of the salon hostesses in Voltaire’s time was Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin (zhuh frehn). She helped finance the project of circulation a leading philosophe named Denis Diderot (DEE duh ROH). Diderot created a of ideas large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe contributed articles and essays. He called it Encyclopedia and began publishing the first volumes in 1751. The Enlightenment views expressed in the articles soon angered both the French government and the Catholic Church. Their censors banned the work. They said it undermined royal authority, encouraged a spirit of revolt, and fos- tered “moral corruption, irreligion, and unbelief.” Nonetheless, Diderot contin- ued publishing his Encyclopedia. The salons and the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas to edu- cated people all over Europe. Enlightenment ideas also eventually spread through newspapers, pamphlets, and even political songs. Enlightenment ideas about government and equality attracted the attention of a growing literate mid- dle class, which could afford to buy many books and support the work of artists. 636 Chapter 22 Cybercafés These days, when people around the world gather to explore new ideas and discuss current events, many do so at Internet cafés. These are coffee shops or restaurants that also provide access to computers for a small fee. Internet cafés originated in the United States, but today they are more popular overseas. In China, for instance, there are roughly 113,000 licensed Internet cafés; and tens of thousands of unlicensed cafés have been shut down. Like the French in the 1700s, the Chinese recognize the power of ideas and have tried to limit their spread. Licensed Internet cafés are monitored by video, and must register customers and keep records of all websites viewed. As well, an estimated 30,000–40,000 Internet police are employed by the government to monitor and censor Internet traffic. New Artistic Styles The Enlightenment ideals of order and reason were reflected in the arts—music, literature, painting, and architecture. Neoclassical Style Emerges European art of the 1600s and early 1700s had been dominated by the style called baroque, which was characterized by a grand, ornate design. Baroque styles could be seen in elaborate palaces such as Versailles (see page 600) and in numerous paintings. Under the influence of the Enlightenment, styles began to change. Artists and architects worked in a simple and elegant style that borrowed ideas and themes from classical Greece and Rome. The artistic style of the late 1700s is therefore called neoclassical (“new classical”). Changes in Music and Literature Music styles also changed to reflect Enlightenment ideals. The music scene in Europe had been dominated by such composers as Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Friedrich Handel of England. These artists wrote dramatic organ and choral music. During the Enlightenment, a new, lighter, and more elegant style of music known as classical emerged. Three composers in Vienna, Austria, rank among the greatest figures of the classical period in music. They were Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven. Writers in the 18th century also developed new styles and forms of literature. A number of European authors began writing novels, which are lengthy works of prose fiction. Their works had carefully crafted plots, used suspense, and explored charac- ters’ thoughts and feelings. These books were popular with a wide middle-class audi- ence, who liked the entertaining stories written in everyday language. Writers, including many women, turned out a flood of popular novels in the 1700s. Samuel Richardson’s Pamela is often considered the first true English novel. It tells the story of a young servant girl who refuses the advances of her master. Another English masterpiece, Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding, tells the story of an orphan who travels all over England to win the hand of his lady. Enlightenment and Revolution 637  Enlightenment and Monarchy From the salons, artists’ studios, and concert halls of Europe, the Enlightenment spirit also swept through Europe’s royal courts. Many philosophes, including Voltaire, believed that the best form of government was a monarchy in which the ruler respected the people’s rights. The philosophes tried to convince monarchs to rule justly. Some monarchs embraced the new ideas and made reforms that reflected the Enlightenment spirit. They became known as enlightened despots. Despot means “absolute ruler.” The enlightened despots supported the philosophes’ ideas. But they also had no intention of giving up any power. The changes they made were motivated by two desires: they wanted to make their countries stronger and their own rule more effec- tive. The foremost of Europe’s enlightened despots were Frederick II of Prussia, Analyzing Motives Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia. Why did the enlightened despots Frederick the Great Frederick II, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, com- undertake reforms? mitted himself to reforming Prussia. He granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education. He also reformed the justice system and abol- ished the use of torture. However, Frederick’s changes only went so far. For exam- Vocabulary ple, he believed that serfdom was wrong, but he did nothing to end it since he Serfdom was a sys- needed the support of wealthy landowners. As a result, he never tried to change tem in which peas- ants were forced to the existing social order. live and work on a Perhaps Frederick’s most important contribution was his attitude toward landowner’s estate. being king. He called himself “the first servant of the state.” From the begin- ning of his reign, he made it clear that his goal was to serve and strengthen his country. This attitude was clearly one that appealed to the philosophes. Joseph II The most radical royal reformer was Joseph II of Austria. The son and successor of Maria Theresa, Joseph II ruled Austria from 1780 to 1790. He introduced legal reforms and freedom of the press. He also sup- ported freedom of worship, even for Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews. In his most radical reform, Joseph abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash. Not surprisingly, the nobles firmly resisted this change. Like many of Joseph’s reforms, it was undone after his death. ▲ Joseph II Catherine the Great The ruler most admired by the philosophes was Catherine II, known as Catherine the Great. She ruled Russia from 1762 to 1796. The well- educated empress read the works of philosophes, and she exchanged many letters with Voltaire. She ruled with absolute authority but also sought to reform Russia. In 1767, Catherine formed a commission to review Russia’s laws. She presented it with a brilliant proposal for reforms based on the ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria. Among other changes, she recommended allowing religious toleration and abolishing torture and capital punishment. Her commission, however, accom- plished none of these lofty goals. Catherine eventually put in place limited reforms, but she did little to improve the life of the Russian peasants. Her views about enlightened ideas changed after a mas- sive uprising of serfs in 1773. With great brutality, Catherine’s army crushed the Changing Idea: Relationship Between Ruler and State Old Idea New Idea The state and its citizens exist to serve the The monarch exists to serve the state and monarch. As Louis XIV reportedly said, “I support citizens’ welfare. As Frederick the am the state.” Great said, a ruler is only “the first servant of the state.” 638 Chapter 22  rebellion. Catherine had previously favored an end to serf- dom. However, the revolt convinced her that she needed the nobles’ support to keep her throne. Therefore, she gave the Synthesizing nobles absolute power over the serfs. As a result, Russian How accurately serfs lost their last traces of freedom. does the term Catherine Expands Russia Peter the Great, who ruled enlightened despot describe Catherine Russia in the early 1700s, had fought for years to win a port the Great? Explain. on the Baltic Sea. Likewise, Catherine sought access to the Black Sea. In two wars with the Ottoman Turks, her armies finally won control of the northern shore of the Black Sea. Russia also gained the right to send ships through Ottoman- controlled straits leading from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Catherine also expanded her empire westward into Catherine the Great Poland. In Poland, the king was relatively weak, and inde- 1729–1796 pendent nobles held the most power. The three neighboring The daughter of a minor German powers—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—each tried to assert prince, Catherine was 15 when she was handed over to marry the Grand Duke their influence over the country. In 1772, these land-hungry Peter, heir to the Russian throne. neighbors each took a piece of Poland in what is called the Peter was mentally unstable. First Partition of Poland. In further partitions in 1793 and Catherine viewed her husband’s 1795, they grabbed up the rest of Poland’s territory. With weakness as her chance for power. these partitions, Poland disappeared as an independent She made important friends among Russia’s army officers and became country for more than a century. known as the most intelligent and By the end of her remarkable reign, Catherine had vastly best-informed person at court. In enlarged the Russian empire. Meanwhile, as Russia was 1762, only months after her husband becoming an international power, another great power, became czar, Catherine had him Britain, faced a challenge from its North American arrested and confined. Soon colonies. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, colonial leaders afterward, Peter conveniently died, probably by murder. decided to do the unthinkable: break away from their ruling country and found an independent republic. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. salon baroque neoclassical enlightened despot Catherine the Great USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What are two generalizations 3. What were the defining aspects 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS What advantages did salons have you could make about the of neoclassical art? over earlier forms of communication in spreading ideas? spread of Enlightenment ideas? 4. What new form of literature 7. ANALYZING ISSUES In what way were the enlightened emerged during the 18th despots less than true reformers? Cite specific examples art and monarchy century and what were its main from the text. literature characteristics? 8. MAKING INFERENCES How did the Encyclopedia project Spread of 5. Why were several rulers in 18th reflect the age of Enlightenment? Enlightenment Ideas century Europe known as 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Imagine you enlightened despots? are a public relations consultant for an enlightened circulation of ideas despot. Write a press release explaining why your client is “Most Enlightened Despot of the 1700s.” INTERNET ACTIVITY Use the Internet to find out more about a composer or writer INTERNET KEYWORDS mentioned in this section. Then write a brief character sketch on that biography European Enlightenment artist, focusing on interesting pieces of information about his or her life. Enlightenment and Revolution 639