Unit 3 - Analyzing Arguments PDF

ANALYZING ARGUMENTS UNIT 3  Outline Identifying Arguments – Arguments and Non-arguments – Well-Crafted Arguments – Argument Diagrams  Arguments An argument is a set of statements where some of the statements, called the premises, are intended to...

ANALYZING ARGUMENTS UNIT 3  Outline Identifying Arguments – Arguments and Non-arguments – Well-Crafted Arguments – Argument Diagrams  Arguments An argument is a set of statements where some of the statements, called the premises, are intended to support another, called the conclusion. Premises and conclusions are distinct complete statements that are either true or false. They may be found in any number and in any location in a passage or utterance. You must be careful since a complete sentence may contain more than one complete statement. Notice three important things that follow from the definition of an argument: 1. Arguments consist entirely of statements, i.e., sentences that it makes sense to regard as either true or false. Questions, commands, exclamations, and other kinds of nonstatements cannot be parts of arguments. (Keep in mind, however, that rhetorical questions should be treated as statements.) 2. No single statement, however long, complex, or controversial, is an argument. Arguments always consist of at least two statements. 3. Nothing counts as an argument unless it is claimed or intended that one statement follows from one or more other statements in the passage. In other words, a passage is an argument only if the speaker or writer intends to offer evidence or reasons why another statement should be accepted as true.  Non-Arguments Four kinds of passages that are sometimes confused with arguments (Unsupported Assertions) are: 1. Reports Set of statements intended to provide information about a situation, topic or event. 2. Illustrations Statements together with explanatory or clarifying examples. 3. Explanatory Statements Statements that provide a causal or other reason for some phenomenon 4. Conditional Statements If-then statements  Example ARGUMENT Thirteen years ago Jamaica's crime rate was high, but still nowhere near the horrendous levels that it has now reached. A record number of people were killed in Jamaica last year, police said, confirming the island's reputation as having one of the world's highest murder rates. The majority of the 1,680 killings – six more than the previous record set in 2005 – involved victims of drug and extortion gangs. Most were shootings. Therefore the possibility of being murdered in Jamaica have increased rapidly over the last decade.  Example REPORT Conveying information about the economy The Jamaican economy recorded growth of 0.7 per cent during the third quarter of 2009. This was due mainly to a 1.7 per cent increase in the Goods Producing industries. The economy however declined by 2.3 per cent when compared to the similar quarter in 2008. Both the Goods Producing and Services industries declined by 8.7 per cent and 0.2 per cent, respectively.  Example ILLUSTRATIONS Statements with explanatory or clarifying examples. Prime numbers are divisible only by themselves and one. For example, 3, 5, 7, and 11 are prime numbers. Jamaica continues to face a variety of development challenges. For instance, the nation struggles with a persistent fiscal deficit, heavy indebtedness and a high crime rate. (USAID) Illustrations are intended to exemplify the author's claim, rather than to prove it. An illustration is a passage intended to provide examples that illustrate or support a claim, not to provide convincing evidence that the claim is true.  Example EXPLANATORY STATEMENTS - show why something is the case, not to prove that it is the case Jamaica has missed numerous opportunities to make necessary adjustments because of the politics of opportunism. Capital punishment should be abolished since innocent people may be mistakenly executed.  Example CONDITIONAL STATEMENS If-Then Statements If Jamaica was serious about education, then teachers would be the highest paid in our society. (Wilmot 'Mutty' Perkins) If Jamaica's economic programme is designed to maintain relative exchange rate stability while lowering interest rates, then fiscal adjustment is unavoidable. (Colin Bullock) The speaker is not asserting that A or B will happen, he is asserting that B will occur provided that an event has already occurred. It is also a non-argument because arguments always contain at least two statements and conditional statements consist of only a single statement.  Well-Crafted Argument (WCA) A WCA is an argument that is stated in such a way that its important logical features are explicit.  Well-Crafted Argument Principles: 1. Identify the Premises and the Conclusion. 2. Eliminate excess verbiage (words and statements which add nothing to the argument). 3. Employ uniform language. 4. Be fair and charitable in interpreting an argument. 5. Do not confuse sub conclusions with final conclusions. 6. Make implicit premises explicit in a charitable way.  1. Identify the Premises & the Conclusion Premises of an argument are statements on the basis of which the conclusion is affirmed. Statements are sentences or parts of sentences that are either true or false Premise indicators are words that are typically followed by a premise. Conclusion indicators are words that are typically followed by a conclusion.  Premises & Conclusion Indicators PREMISE INDICATORS CONCLUSION INDICATORS Since therefore Because hence for/for one thing thus/ergo for the reason that so follows from follows that inasmuch as consequently as shown by which entails that given that which proves that seeing that which implies that owing to necessarily seeing that must be the case that as/as indicated by which means that assuming that demonstrates that considering that we can conclude that as a result  Limitations of premise and conclusion indicators There is no complete list of indicators. Not all premises and conclusions have indicators. Words, phrases, symbols, etc. that indicate premises or conclusions in some contexts do not do so in other contexts. NB: Not all sentences are statements e.g., questions are not statements. However, rhetorical questions often serve as disguised statements. Additionally, commands can be used as premises and conclusion. 15 Example: Premises & Conclusion We should abolish the death penalty because it does not deter crime. Conclusion: we should abolish the death penalty Premise: the death penalty does not deter crime – Words like “because” and “since” are always followed by a premise.  2. Eliminate Excess Verbiage Excess verbiage is a word or statement that adds nothing to the argument: Four types of excess verbiage: 1. Discounts 2. Repetition 3. Assurances 4. Hedges  Discounts Discount is an acknowledgement of a fact or possibility that might be thought to render the argument invalid, weak, unsound, or uncogent. Ignore discounts such as: although while it may be true that even though while I admit that despite the fact that in spite of the fact that  Example - Discount Although certain events in the subatomic realm occur at random, I still say that the universe displays a marvelous order. Perhaps the best evidence for this is the fact that scientists continue to discover regularities that can be formulated as laws. Premises: Scientists continue to discover regularities that can be formulated as laws. Conclusion: The universe has a marvelous order 19  Repetition Restating premises and conclusions using slightly different language. When rewriting the argument, choose the statement that best seems to capture the essence of the claim, and ignore the other version. 20  Example - Repetition The study of logic will increase both your attention span and your patience with difficult concepts. In other words, if you apply yourself to the subject of logic, you’ll find yourself able to concentrate for longer periods of time. You will also find yourself increasingly able to approach complex material without feeling restless or frustrated. Therefore, a course in logic is well worth the effort. 21  Assurance Assurance - words or phrases to indicate a high confidence in the truth of the premises or conclusion. Some common assurances are: obviously the fact is that clearly it is undeniable that no one will deny that it is well known that no doubt everyone knows that 22  Example: Assurance Sarah will do well on the logic test, for she is bright and has obviously studied very hard. Premises: – Sarah is bright. – Sarah studied very hard. Conclusion: – Sarah will do well on the test. 23  Hedges Hedges indicate either a tentativeness about a premise or inference (the opposite of an assurance). Some common hedges are: I think that I guess that it seems that in my opinion perhaps it is reasonable to suppose that Maybe it is plausible that I believe that this seems reasonable 24  Example – Hedges In my opinion, it is wrong to kill animals for food. Therefore, we should all be vegetarians. Premises: It is wrong to kill animals for food. Conclusion: We should all be vegetarians. 25  Exception for Assurances & Hedges Sometimes assurances and hedges cannot be dropped from an argument because they might contribute to the validity, strength, soundness of cogency of the argument. For example: 1. If it seems to me that I am in pain, then I am in pain 2. It seems to me that I am in pain 3. So, I am in pain 26  3. Employ Uniform Language There should be a logical link between the premises and conclusion of an argument. Consider the following argument: If God is omniscient, then God knows whether or not you will steal a car tomorrow. And, in fact, God is all-knowing. So, God is cognizant of whether or not you will commit car theft tomorrow. The linkage between premises and conclusion is obscured in this case. 27  3. Employ Uniform Language Stick with one term throughout the argument as to highlight the logical form of reasoning (see example on page 79) 28 Page 79 – Consider the following argument: 1. If you study other cultures, then you realize what a variety of human customs there is. If you understand the diversity of social practices, then you question your own customs. If you acquire doubts about the way you do things, then you become more tolerant. Therefore, if you expand your knowledge of anthropology, then you become more likely to accept other people and practices without criticism. 29 Well-Crafted Version: 1. If you study other cultures, then you realize what a variety of human customs there is. 2. If you realize what a variety of human customs there is, then you question your own customs. 3. If you question your own customs, then you become more tolerant. 4. So, If you study other cultures, then you become more tolerant. 30  4. Be Fair and charitable in interpreting an argument A fair reconstruction will be loyal to the author’s original meaning Consider an argument: 1. Morality is objective only if God exists. 2. Morality is objective. 3. So, God exists. Now consider this unfair rendition: 1. If Morality is objective then an invisible space ghost exists. 2. Morality is objective. 3. So, an invisible space ghost exists. 31  The basic idea: when confronted with an interpretative choice, it is best to pick the interpretation that best preserves the rationality of the author. Example (pg 80): An American news reporter argues as follows: Oh, yes, we are all deeply appreciative of the full and accurate information from our government during the Vietnam War. So, how can anyone doubt that we received full and accurate information during the war in the Persian Gulf? 32 Well-crafted version: 1. Americans did not receive accurate information from their government during the Vietnam War. 2. So, Americans probably did not receive full and accurate information from their government during the war in the Persian Gulf. 33  5. Do not confuse sub-conclusions with (final) conclusions. Consider this example: It is not always moral to save five lives at the cost of one life. For if it is always moral to save five lives at the cost of one life, then it is moral to remove the organs of a healthy person against his wishes and transplant them in five people who need organ transplants. But it is not moral to perform such transplants because doing so violates the rights of the healthy person. Therefore, it is not always morally right to save five lives at the cost of one life. 34 Well-crafted version: 1. If it is always moral to save five lives at the cost of one life, then it is moral to remove the organs of a healthy person against his wishes and transplant them in five people who need organ transplants. 2. Removing the organs of a healthy person against his wishes and transplanting them in five people who need organ transplants violates the rights of the healthy person. 3. So, it is not moral to remove the organs of a healthy person against his wishes and transplant them in five people who need organ transplants. 4. So, it is not always moral to save five lives at the cost of one life. 35  6. Make explicit obviously implicit premises in a charitable way. Arguments we encounter in everyday life or textbooks often leave premises or conclusions implicit. Such arguments are called enthymemes. For example: Obviously, not all mammals are land animals. Think of whales, porpoises, dolphins, and so on. 36 Well-crafted version: 1. Whales, porpoises, and dolphins are mammals. 2. Whales, porpoises, and dolphins are not land animals. 3. So, Not all mammals are land animals. 37  Argument Diagrams An argument may have several premises that jointly support the conclusion. It may contain a series of premises, the 1st supporting the 2nd and the 2nd supporting the conclusion which could be the 3rd statement. To diagram an argument, one first places brackets around each statement in the argument, taking note of any premise or conclusion indicators and numbering each statement. For Example: 1. 1[Campaign reform is needed] because 2 [many contributions to political campaigns are morally equivalent to bribes.] 38  Argument Diagrams 2 1 In the diagram above, the arrow is drawn down from premise to conclusion. The arrow means; (1), the conclusion, is confirmed, on the basis of (2), the premise. In other words, (2) supports (1). 39  Argument Diagrams Also, sub-conclusions can readily be accommodated using this procedure. Example: 1[Charles is unpleasant to work with] since 2[he interrupts people constantly.] Therefore, 3[I do not want to serve on a committee with Charles.] 2 1 3 40  Argument Diagrams The diagram above says that premise (2) supports (1), the sub-conclusion and (1) is given in support of (3). 41  Argument Diagrams Arguments – Sometimes two or more premises provide independent support for a single conclusion: Example: - Although 1[Americans like to think they have interfered with other countries only to defend the downtrodden and helpless], 2[there are aggressive episodes in America’s history.] For example, 3[the USA took Texas from Mexico by force.] 4[The USA seized Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Guam.] And 5[in the 1st third of the 20th century, the USA intervened militarily in all the following countries without being invited to do so: Cuba, Nicaragua, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Honduras.] 42  Argument Diagrams The diagram is as follows: 3 4 5 2 NB: Statement (1) is omitted as it is a discount and so it is neither premise nor conclusion. The premises support the conclusion independently. 43  Argument Diagrams Statements joined by the words “and” or “but” often need to be separated into distinct units for diagramming. Whenever the word “and” joins two premises, the diagram must indicate whether the premises operate independently or interdependently. Example: 1[The defendant is guilty.] After all, 2[he confessed to stealing the jewels] and 3[he was undoubtedly present at the scene of the crime] since 4[his fingerprints are on the safe.] 44  Argument Diagrams Interdependent Premises Below: 4 2 3 1 The diagram indicates that premises (2) and (3) support conclusion (1) independently. In addition, (4) supports (3) but not (2). 45  Summary 1. The principles of WCA are used to help you detect faults and problems with arguments. 2. The principles of WCA enables you to see the content of the argument more clearly. 3. By observing these principles in crafting arguments enables you to distinguish between arguments and non-arguments. 4. Argument diagrams help the reader to identify the logical connections between statements and propositions in an argument. 46  Summary Argument diagrams helps the reader to determine what adds value to the argument, and what statements detract from the value of it. With the aid of argument diagrams the reader is more able to analyze and meticulously examine the argument to determine validity and invalidity. The diagrams help the reader to identify and discard excess verbiages such as discounts, hedges, assurances and so on. 47