Unit 1 Test Review - Philosophical Foundations and Epistemology PDF

Unit 1 Test Review - Philosophical Foundations and Epistemology PART 1 KNOWLEDGE and UNDERSTANDING Explain the various terms on a separate sheet of paper. You will need to define 8 terms selected from the group below. [1 mark for each one out of 8 = 8 marks] 1. Philosophy: The love...

Unit 1 Test Review - Philosophical Foundations and Epistemology PART 1 KNOWLEDGE and UNDERSTANDING Explain the various terms on a separate sheet of paper. You will need to define 8 terms selected from the group below. [1 mark for each one out of 8 = 8 marks] 1. Philosophy: The love of wisdom, a discipline that values truth and knowledge above all, originating from the Greek words "philein" (to love) and "sophia" (wisdom) 3. 2. Autonomy: The ability to form one’s own opinion through independent thinking and evaluating situations, a characteristic of a self-actualized person 24. 3. Metaphysics: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of being and reality, including the characteristics of existence, the nature of the self, and the existence of God 6. 4. Ethics: The study of morals and values, focusing on how we should conduct ourselves and what constitutes good actions 7. 5. Epistemology: The branch of philosophy that studies knowledge, including its nature, sources, limitations, and validity 7. 6. Logic: is the study of reasoning and attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad reasoning. 7. Allegory: A narrative that uses symbolic figures and actions to convey deeper meanings, often moral or philosophical. 8. Cognitive Dissonance: an individual experiences discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or values, leading to a change in attitudes or beliefs to reduce the dissonance. 9. Groupthink: a group of people, where the desire for harmony or conformity results out of touch with reality 10. Self-Actualization: The realization of one's potential and the development of personal creativity and expression, often seen as the ultimate goal of personal development 24. 11. Pre-Socratics: Early Greek philosophers before Socrates who focused on cosmology, metaphysics, and the nature of existence. 12. Natural Philosophy: An early term for the study of nature and the physical universe, which later evolved into modern science. 13. Mythos: A traditional or legendary story, often involving supernatural beings or events, used to explain natural or social phenomena.  14. Logos: A principle of order and knowledge, often associated with reason and rationality in philosophical discourse. 15. Reductionist Thinking: An approach that breaks down complex phenomena into simpler components, often oversimplifying the nature of the subject. 16. Cognitive Misers: A term describing individuals who prefer to use minimal cognitive resources, often relying on heuristics or mental shortcuts. 17. Cognitive Biases: Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment, leading to illogical conclusions. 18. Rationalism: A philosophical view that emphasizes reason as the primary source of knowledge, often associated with the belief in innate ideas 68. 19. A Priori: Knowledge that is independent of experience, often derived from logical reasoning or innate ideas. 20. René Descartes: A French philosopher known for his contributions to rationalism and his famous dictum "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am). 21. Innate Ideas: Concepts or principles that are believed to be present in the mind from birth, as proposed by rationalist philosophers like Plato 68. 22. Empiricism: A philosophical stance that emphasizes knowledge derived from sensory experience and evidence. 23. A Posteriori: Knowledge that is dependent on experience or empirical evidence. 24. Tabula Rasa: The theory that individuals are born as a "blank slate," with no innate ideas, and that knowledge is acquired through experience. 25. Primary Qualities: Characteristics of objects that exist independently of perception, such as shape, size, and motion. 26. Secondary Qualities: Characteristics that depend on the perception of the observer, such as color, taste, and sound. 27. Solipsism: The philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist, leading to skepticism about the existence of the external world. 28. Correspondence Theory: A theory of truth that asserts that statements are true if they correspond to reality or facts. 29. Coherence Theory: A theory of truth that suggests that the truth of a belief is determined by its coherence with a set of beliefs. 30. Pragmatic Theory: A theory of truth that evaluates the truth of a belief based on its practical consequences and usefulness. Part 2: Thinking Match eight logical fallacies to their corresponding examples. Each fallacy should be paired with the example that best illustrates it. [1 mark for each one out of 8 = 8 marks] Appeal to Authority Definition: Justifying a practice because it is supported by a person with authority Example: "Albert Einstein was a genius and he did not believe in a personal god. Therefore, the Bible is bogus." Appeal to Ignorance Definition: The lack of evidence for· something is used to prove the opposite. Example: "There are unicoms. After all, no one has been able to prove that there are no unicorns." Appeal to Tradition Definition: Justifying a practice because it is tradition. Example: Father to daughter: "lt is our tradition for a bride's family to provide a large dowry to the groom. I know that you want to argue that gender equality is changing all this, but it is our tradition." Attack on the Person Definition: Attacking the arguer and not his or her argument Example: U.S. President George W. Bush may have had reasons for invading Iraq, but he is nothing other than a simpleminded fool bent on bullying the world with his powerful military toys. Bandwagon Argument Definition: Appeal to what is accepted by many Example: "The vast majority of people deem it unacceptable for a person to pick his or her nose in public. Therefore, you should not pick your nose in public." Circular Argument Definition: A argument that concludes with one of its premises. Example: "The past, far the most part, has been successful in enabling me to predict future events. Therefore, the past will continue to be successful far predicting futura events!" False Dichotomy Definition: Two alternative statements are given as the only possible option when, in reality, there are more. Example: ''They spoke out against capitalism therefore, they must be a communist." False Equivalence Definition: An argument or claim in which two completely opposing arguments appear to be logically equivalent when in fact they are not. Example: A knife and dynamite are both tools that can be used as weapons, so they're pretty much the same thing, and therefore if we allow people to buy knives at the store, then we should also allow them to also buy dynamite. Hasty Generalization Definition: When a atypical situation is used to undermine or argue for a general rule. Example: ''They were allowed to hand in their assignment late, after they recovered from surgery and were released from the hospital. So, everyone else in the class, including me, should be allowed to hand in the assignment late." Post Hoc (False Cause) Definition: The assumption that is one event chronologically follows another the first event must have cause the second. Example: "I drank bottle water and now I am sick, so the water must have made me sick." Red Herring Definition: The arguer brings up irrelevant information in an attempt to distract from the topic being discussed. Example: Child "i'm so hurt that they broke up with me." Parent: "Just think of all the starving children in Africa. Your problems will seem pretty insignificant then." Slippery Slope Definition: Attack on an action or policy because it will trigger a future chain of undesirable results. Example: "How deep will the screening process become? lf you allow this kind of intrusion into your personal life, it will not be long before you are asked for your papers while on your way to the store for a quart of milk. Single Cause Definition: Belief that there can only be one cause for an event. Example: "The recent drop in crime is due to better policing." Straw Man Definition: A weaker misrepresentation of another person's argument is made, which is easier to dismiss. Example: "People who don't support the proposed increase to the mínimum wage hate the poor." Part 3 : Communication [Two of the following questions will appear on the test] 1) Four Branches of Philosophy Branches: 1. Metaphysics 2. Epistemology 3. Ethics 4. Logic Explanations: Metaphysics: This branch studies the nature of being and reality. It explores questions about existence, the nature of the self, and the existence of God. Key questions include "Is there a God?" and "What is truth?" 6. Epistemology: This area focuses on the nature and scope of knowledge. It examines what knowledge is, how it is acquired, and the limits of what can be known. It addresses questions like "What is knowledge?" and "How do we know what we know?" Ethics: This branch deals with questions of morality and examines what is right and wrong, good and bad. It explores moral principles and how they apply to human behavior and decision-making. Logic: Logic studies the principles of valid reasoning and argumentation. It involves the analysis of arguments, the structure of propositions, and the rules that govern sound reasoning. 2) Four Pre-Socratic Philosophers Explanations: 1. Thales Contribution: Thales is often considered the first philosopher and is known for proposing that water is the fundamental substance of all things. This marked a significant shift from mythological explanations to a more rational understanding of the world. Thales is seen to introduce reductionist thinking 2. Anaximander Contribution: Anaximander introduced the concept of the "apeiron" (the infinite or boundless) as the source of all things. He contributed to early cosmology and suggested that life evolved from simpler forms, laying the groundwork for later scientific thought.  3. Heraclitus Contribution: Heraclitus is famous for his assertion that "everything flows," emphasizing the idea of constant change in the universe. He introduced the concept of the unity of opposites, which has influenced philosophical discussions about the nature of reality. 4. Pythagoras Contribution: Pythagoras is best known for his contributions to mathematics, particularly the Pythagorean theorem. He believed that numbers and mathematical relationships are fundamental to understanding the cosmos, influencing both philosophy and science. 5. Parmenides Contribution: Parmenides argued that change is an illusion and that reality is unchanging and eternal. His ideas challenged the views of Heraclitus and laid the groundwork for metaphysical discussions about being and existence. 6. Zeno of Elea Contribution: Zeno is known for his paradoxes, which challenge the notions of motion and plurality. His paradoxes, such as Achilles and the Tortoise, illustrate the difficulties in understanding infinity and continuity, prompting significant philosophical inquiry. 7. Anaxagoras Contribution: Anaxagoras introduced the concept of "nous" (mind or intellect) as a cosmic principle that organizes matter. He proposed that everything is composed of infinitely divisible particles, contributing to the development of metaphysics and cosmology. 8. Empedocles Contribution: Empedocles is known for his theory of the four classical elements: earth, water, air, and fire. He proposed that these elements combine and separate through the forces of Love and Strife, influencing later scientific thought about the composition of matter. 9. Democritus Contribution: Democritus is best known for his atomic theory, positing that everything is composed of indivisible particles called atoms. His ideas about atomic motion and interaction laid the foundation for modern atomic theory and influenced scientific developments. 10. Heraclitus (Note: This is a repeat; please replace with another philosopher) Contribution: Heraclitus is known for his doctrine of change, famously stating that "everything flows" (panta rhei). He emphasized the idea that reality is in constant flux and that opposites are necessary for harmony. His thoughts on change and the unity of opposites influenced later philosophical discussions on the nature of reality. 3) Key Points from Socrates in The Apology Key Points: 1. The Unexamined Life: Socrates famously stated that "the unexamined life is not worth living," emphasizing the importance of self-reflection and critical thinking. 2. Knowledge and Ignorance: He claimed that true wisdom comes from recognizing one's own ignorance. Socrates believed that acknowledging what one does not know is the first step toward gaining knowledge. 3. Moral Integrity: Socrates maintained that one should prioritize virtue and moral integrity over societal approval or material success. He argued that it is better to suffer injustice than to commit it. Significance to Philosophy: Socrates is often considered the "father of Western philosophy" because he shifted the focus of philosophical inquiry from the natural world to ethical and epistemological questions, laying the foundation for future philosophical thought and the Socratic method of dialogue and questioning. 4) Rationalism and Empiricism Rationalism: Explanation: Rationalism is the philosophical view that reason and intellect are the primary sources of knowledge, as opposed to sensory experience. Rationalists believe that certain truths can be known a priori, independent of experience. Rationalist Philosopher: René Descartes. He is known for his method of doubt and the famous dictum "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). Descartes argued that the mind is the primary source of knowledge and that clear and distinct ideas are the foundation of true knowledge. Empiricism: Explanation: Empiricism is the philosophical stance that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. Empiricists argue that all knowledge is ultimately rooted in what we can observe and experience in the world. Empiricist Philosopher: John Locke. Locke proposed that the mind is a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) at birth and that knowledge is acquired through experience and reflection on those experiences. He emphasized the importance of observation and evidence in forming ideas and beliefs. Part 4 : Application 1) Symbols from The Allegory of the Cave Symbol 1: The Cave Explanation: The cave represents ignorance and the limited perspective of individuals who are confined to their own beliefs and perceptions. Application to Topic: In the context of [topic shared on test], the cave symbolizes the societal norms and preconceived notions that restrict critical thinking and understanding. Just as prisoners in the cave are unaware of the outside world, individuals may be trapped in their own biases, preventing them from seeing the broader truth. Symbol 2: The Shadows Explanation: The shadows on the wall symbolize the distorted reality that people perceive when they rely solely on their senses and external influences. Application to Topic: Relating to [topic shared on test], the shadows can represent misinformation or superficial understanding of complex issues. This highlights the importance of seeking deeper knowledge rather than accepting surface-level interpretations. Symbol 3: The Journey Out of the Cave Explanation: The journey symbolizes the philosophical quest for knowledge and enlightenment, representing the struggle to overcome ignorance. Application to Topic: In relation to [topic shared on test], the journey signifies the process of education and self-discovery. It emphasizes the need for individuals to challenge their beliefs and seek truth beyond their immediate experiences. Symbol 4: The Sun Explanation: The sun represents the ultimate truth and knowledge, illuminating the reality beyond the cave. Application to Topic: In the context of [topic shared on test], the sun symbolizes the pursuit of enlightenment and understanding. It encourages individuals to strive for clarity and  insight, moving beyond misconceptions to grasp the fundamental truths of their subject matter. 2) Examples of Truth According to Different Theories i. Correspondence Theory Example: "The Earth revolves around the Sun." Explanation: This statement is considered true according to the correspondence theory because it accurately reflects the observable reality of the solar system. The truth of this statement corresponds to the actual arrangement and movement of celestial bodies. ii. Coherence Theory Example: "All humans are mortal." Explanation: This statement is considered true according to the coherence theory because it fits within a larger, consistent framework of knowledge about life, death, and biology. It coherently aligns with other beliefs and facts about human existence and mortality. iii. Pragmatic Theory Example: "Exercise improves physical health." Explanation: This statement is considered true according to the pragmatic theory because it has practical consequences and benefits. The truth of this statement is validated by the positive outcomes observed in individuals who engage in regular exercise, demonstrating its effectiveness in promoting health. 3) Traits of a Self-Actualized Person i. List of Traits 1. Autonomy 2. Self - awareness 3. Flexibility 4. Unique Explanation of How Socrates Exemplified Each Trait 1. Autonomy: ○ Socrates exemplified autonomy through his method of dialectical questioning, known as the Socratic method. He encouraged individuals to think critically and independently, rather than accepting the views of others without scrutiny. By engaging in discussions that challenged assumptions, Socrates empowered his interlocutors to form their own opinions based on reasoned evaluation rather than societal norms or authority figures. 2. Self-awareness: ○ Socrates demonstrated self-awareness by famously stating, "Know thyself." He believed that understanding oneself was crucial to living a virtuous life. Socrates  practiced self-examination and encouraged others to reflect on their beliefs and motivations. He avoided easy rationalizations, instead confronting uncomfortable truths about himself and his knowledge, which allowed him to maintain a clear understanding of his own limitations and values. 3. Flexibility: ○ Socrates showed flexibility in his philosophical approach by being open to new ideas and willing to change his views when presented with compelling arguments. He did not cling rigidly to his beliefs; instead, he embraced uncertainty and the complexity of philosophical inquiry. This adaptability allowed him to navigate challenging discussions and remain calm in the face of opposition, demonstrating a philosophical calm even during times of uncertainty. 4. Unique: ○ Socrates was unique in his approach to philosophy, as he prioritized ethical questions and the pursuit of virtue over abstract theorizing. His method of engaging others in dialogue and his insistence on personal integrity and moral reasoning set him apart from other philosophers of his time. Socrates' creative thinking and personal expression were evident in his ability to provoke thought and inspire others to explore their own beliefs, making his contributions to philosophy distinct and impactful.