Unit 1 Psychology PDF

Unit 1 Thursday, September 5, 2024 5:48 PM Key Points Section 1.1 1. Definition : ○ Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior ○ It explores questions about creativity, prejudice, discrimination, and consciousness 2. Scientific method in psychology: ○ P...

Unit 1 Thursday, September 5, 2024 5:48 PM Key Points Section 1.1 1. Definition : ○ Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior ○ It explores questions about creativity, prejudice, discrimination, and consciousness 2. Scientific method in psychology: ○ Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge ○ Process involves proposing hypotheses, conducting experiments, and testing theories ○ Focuses on measurable and observable phenomena 3. Nature of psychological science: ○ Empirical, based on measurable data ○ Deals with matter and energy, not values or morality ○ Limited in understanding the mind due to the nature of thoughts 4. Historical context: ○ Psychology became an independent academic discipline in the late 1800s ○ Previously considered part of philosophy 5. Interdisciplinary nature: ○ Incorporates aspects of natural sciences (e.g., biology) ○ Also considered a social science due to the influence of social interactions on behavior 6. Reasons to study psychology: 5. Interdisciplinary nature: ○ Incorporates aspects of natural sciences (e.g., biology) ○ Also considered a social science due to the influence of social interactions on behavior 6. Reasons to study psychology: ○ Interest in helping others and self-understanding ○ Fulfills general education or program requirements ○ Popular major in U.S. colleges 7. Value of psychology education: ○ Develops critical thinking skills ○ Trains in scientific method ○ Improves communication skills ○ Enhances scientific literacy 8. Skills and knowledge gained: ○ Understanding complex factors shaping behavior ○ Appreciating the interaction of biology, environment, and experiences ○ Recognizing diversity across individuals and cultures Section 1.2 History of Psychology: Key Figures and Movements 1. Early Founders 1. Early Founders Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) Known as the "father of experimental psychology" Focused on studying conscious experience through introspection Introspection: a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible Believed in voluntarism - the idea that people have free will Developed concept of internal perception for objective examination of conscious experiences William James (1842-1910) Developed functionalism: studied how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment Emphasized the importance of habit in human behavior Contributed to theories of emotion and pragmatism in philosophy 2. Structuralism Edward Titchener (student of Wundt) ○ Brought Wundt's ideas to the United States ○ Focused on identifying basic elements or "structures" of mental processes ○ Used introspection to break down mental processes into basic components ○ Criticized for subjective nature of introspection method 3. Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis Key concepts: ○ Unconscious mind: repository of suppressed feelings and urges ○ Id, ego, and superego as components of personality ○ Importance of early childhood experiences in shaping adult personality ○ Dream analysis as a way to access the unconscious Developed free association and talking cure techniques Influential but controversial; many ideas challenged by later research  ○ Importance of early childhood experiences in shaping adult personality ○ Dream analysis as a way to access the unconscious Developed free association and talking cure techniques Influential but controversial; many ideas challenged by later research 4. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler ○ Focused on perception and how we organize sensory information ○ Key principle: "The whole is different from the sum of its parts" ○ Identified principles of perceptual organization (e.g., similarity, proximity, continuity) ○ Influenced modern cognitive psychology and problem-solving theories 5. Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning Famous experiment: conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell Demonstrated how reflexes could be conditioned through association John B. Watson Rejected introspection. and focused solely on observable behavior Emphasized the role of environment in shaping behavior "Little Albert study"? B.F. Skinner Developed theory of operant conditioning Invented the Skinner box for studying animal behavior Key concepts: reinforcement, punishment, shaping, and schedules of reinforcement Applied behavioral principles to education 6. Humanism Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Developed hierarchy of needs theory ○ Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization Focused on human potential and self-actualization Studied characteristics of psychologically healthy individuals Contributed to positive psychology movement Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Developed client-centered (person-centered) therapy  ○ Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization Focused on human potential and self-actualization Studied characteristics of psychologically healthy individuals Contributed to positive psychology movement Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Developed client-centered (person-centered) therapy Key therapeutic concepts: ○ Unconditional positive regard ○ Empathy ○ Genuineness (congruence) Emphasized personal growth and self-actualization Influenced counseling psychology and psychotherapy practices 7. Cognitive Revolution (1950s) Noam Chomsky Critiqued Skinner's behaviorist approach to language acquisition Proposed innate language acquisition device (LAD) Influenced the shift from behaviorism to cognitive psychology Other Key Figures George Miller: Work on short-term memory capacity ("The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two") Ulric Neisser: Wrote first textbook on cognitive psychology (1967) Aaron Beck: Developed cognitive therapy for depression 9. Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology WEIRD stands for western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic. Francis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954) First African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the U.S Established psychology department at Howard University Researched racial bias in intelligence testing George I. Sanchez (1906-1972) Mexican American psychologist who challenged biased intelligence testing Advocated for bilingual education and equal educational opportunities Pointed out that the language and cultural barriers in testing were keeping children from equal opportunities Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983) and Kenneth Clark (1914-2005) Conducted "doll studies" showing effects of segregation on African American children Research was crucial evidence in Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case  Pointed out that the language and cultural barriers in testing were keeping children from equal opportunities Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983) and Kenneth Clark (1914-2005) Conducted "doll studies" showing effects of segregation on African American children Research was crucial evidence in Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case 10. Women in Psychology Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) First woman to receive a PhD in psychology (1894) Wrote influential book "The Animal Mind" (1908) Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) Completed PhD requirements at Harvard but denied degree due to gender Her memory research studied primacy and recency also wrote about how structuralism and functionalism both explained self-psychology Mary Cover Jones (1896-1987) Pioneer in behavior therapy Conducted "Little Peter" experiment, demonstrating how to eliminate fear in children Martha Bernal (1931-2001) First Latina to earn PhD in psychology in the U.S. (1962) Studied ethnic identity development in children Inez Beverly Prosser (1895-1934) First African American woman to receive PhD in psychology  Section 1.3 # Expanded Summary of Psychology Branches 1. Evolutionary Psychology - Studies behaviors with significant genetic causes - Predicts behavioral outcomes based on evolutionary theory, then conducts observa experiments - Challenges: - Difficulty proving adaptiveness and understanding past environmental conditions - Behaviors may not be adaptive in current conditions, only in past evolutionary con - Areas of study: Memory, mate choice, relationships between kin, friendship and cooperation, parenting, social organization, and status - Example study: Buss on mate preference differences across 37 cultures 2. Sensation and Perception - Interdisciplinary study of sensory systems and psychological experiences of sensory information - Explores how we process various sensory inputs (sight, sound, touch, smell, temper balance) - Emphasizes that perception is complex, influenced by attention, previous experienc cultural backgrounds - Example: The duck-rabbit illusion demonstrating how perception can vary while sen information remains constant 3. Cognitive Psychology - Studies thoughts and mental processes & relationship to behavior - Broad scope: attention, problem-solving, language, memory - Often involves collaborations across people with disciplinary backgrounds, sometim cognitive science 4. Developmental Psychology ations or ntexts y rature, ces, and nsory mes called  - Broad scope: attention, problem-solving, language, memory - Often involves collaborations across people with disciplinary backgrounds, sometim cognitive science 4. Developmental Psychology - Studies changes across the lifespan in physical, cognitive, moral, and social capacitie - Early focus was on changes from childhood to adulthood (e.g., Piaget's work on obje permanence) - Growing interest in later-life development due to aging populations - Projects significant growth in the 65+ population in the United States 5. Personality Psychology - Focuses on patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make individuals unique - Historical theories: Freud's psychosexual stages, Maslow's hierarchy, Allport's contr - Modern approach: identifying and measuring personality traits - Five Factor model (Big Five): Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openn Extraversion - Traits shown to be relatively stable over lifespan and influenced by genetics 6. Social Psychology - Studies human interactions and relationships - Topics: differences in explaining own vs others' behaviors, prejudice, attraction, interpersonal conflicts - Examines how being among others changes behavior and thinking - Notable study: Milgram's obedience experiment (1961) ○ Showed high compliance with authority even when seemingly causing harm others ○ Raised ethical concerns in psychological research 7. Industrial-Organizational Psychology - Applies psychological theories and principles in industrial and organizational setting - Addresses personnel management, organizational structure, workplace environmen - Aims to improve hiring decisions and create productive work environments - Involves both applied work & scientific research 8. Health Psychology - Uses biopsychosocial model (focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biolo psychological, and sociocultural factors.)\ - Aims to improve health through public policy, education, intervention, and research - May study relationships between genetics, behavior patterns, relationships, psycho mes called es ect ributions ness, and m to gs nt ogical, h ological 8. Health Psychology - Uses biopsychosocial model (focuses on how health is affected by the interaction of biolo psychological, and sociocultural factors.)\ - Aims to improve health through public policy, education, intervention, and research - May study relationships between genetics, behavior patterns, relationships, psycho stress, and health - Focuses on motivating healthier behaviors 9. Sport and Exercise Psychology - Studies psychological aspects of sport and exercise performance - Covers motivation, performance anxiety, effects on mental and emotional wellbeing - Extends to physical exercise in general and performance under demanding conditio firefighting, military operations, surgery) 10. Clinical Psychology - Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic beh patterns - Influenced by various theoretical approaches: - Psychoanalytic (Freud) - Humanistic (Rogers' client-centered therapy) - Behavioral and cognitive (behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, cognitive-behavio therapy) - Often confused with entire field of psychology due to media attention - Related field: Counseling psychology (focuses on emotionally healthy individuals) 11. Forensic Psychology - Applies psychology within the justice system - Roles include: - Assessing competency to stand trial - Evaluating defendants' state of mind - Consulting on child custody cases - Advising on sentencing and treatment - Providing expertise on eyewitness and children's testimony - Acts as expert witnesses in court cases - Assists in jury selection and witness preparation - May provide psychological treatment within criminal justice system - Includes criminal profiling  ogical, h ological g ons (e.g., havior oral - Assists in jury selection and witness preparation - May provide psychological treatment within criminal justice system - Includes criminal profiling Section 1.4 Educational Requirements Doctoral degree (PhD or PsyD) required for most specialties in 4-year institutions Master's degree sufficient for some areas PhD in Psychology Typically requires completing a dissertation Defended before expert reviewers Academic Careers Faculty positions involve teachi g, research, and service Time allocation varies by institution Adjunct positions available, often requiring advanced degree but not always PhD Research Careers Some positions focus exclusively on research, especially at large universities Postdoctoral training programs common before full- time faculty positions Clinical Psychology PsyD (Doctor of Psychology) focuses more on clinical application Licensure required for clinical practice Postdoctoral supervised work often required Non-Academic Careers Varied options based on specialization (e.g., pharmaceutical industry, forensic psychology) Master's degree sufficient for some counseling and therapy roles Bachelor's degree can lead to careers in case management, sales, HR, teaching Healthcare and Other Fields  pharmaceutical industry, forensic psychology) Master's degree sufficient for some counseling and therapy roles Bachelor's degree can lead to careers in case management, sales, HR, teaching Healthcare and Other Fields Psychology background valuable in healthcare professions MCAT now includes psychological foundations of behavior Top Occupations for Psychology BA Graduates 1. Mid- and top-level management 2. Sales 3. Social work 4. Other management positions 5. Human resources