unit_1 notes.docx

**Module 1: Fundamentals of Computer** **1. Computer Fundamentals** **Block Structure of a Computer** - **Input Unit:** This is where data and instructions enter the computer system. Input devices include keyboards, mice, scanners, etc. - **Central Processing Unit (CPU):** The CPU is...

**Module 1: Fundamentals of Computer** **1. Computer Fundamentals** **Block Structure of a Computer** - **Input Unit:** This is where data and instructions enter the computer system. Input devices include keyboards, mice, scanners, etc. - **Central Processing Unit (CPU):** The CPU is the brain of the computer and consists of: - **Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):** Performs arithmetic and logical operations. - **Control Unit (CU):** Directs the operations of the processor. - **Registers:** Small storage locations for immediate data processing. - **Memory/Storage Unit:** - **Primary Memory (RAM):** Temporarily holds data and instructions that the CPU needs. - **Secondary Memory (Hard Drive, SSD):** Stores data and instructions permanently. - **Output Unit:** The data processed by the computer is communicated to the outside world through output devices like monitors, printers, etc. - **Buses:** These are electrical pathways through which data and control signals move between different parts of the computer. **Characteristics of Computers** - **Speed:** Computers can process data at incredible speeds, typically measured in gigahertz (GHz). - **Accuracy:** Computers perform calculations and process data with high accuracy. - **Automation:** Once programmed, computers can operate automatically without human intervention. - **Storage Capacity:** Computers can store vast amounts of data, ranging from gigabytes (GB) to terabytes (TB) and beyond. - **Versatility:** Computers can perform a variety of tasks, from word processing to complex scientific calculations. - **Reliability:** Computers are highly reliable and can operate continuously without failure, given proper maintenance. **Generation of Computers** - **First Generation (1940-1956):** Vacuum tubes were used. Computers were large and power-hungry. Example: ENIAC. - **Second Generation (1956-1963):** Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and more efficient. Example: IBM 7094. - **Third Generation (1964-1971):** Integrated Circuits (ICs) allowed for even more compact and reliable computers. Example: IBM 360. - **Fourth Generation (1971-Present):** Microprocessors emerged, leading to the development of personal computers. Example: Intel 4004. - **Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):** This generation is marked by advancements in artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and the use of parallel processing. **Classification of Computers** - **Supercomputers:** The fastest and most powerful computers, used for complex simulations and calculations, such as climate modeling. - **Mainframe Computers:** Large and powerful systems used by organizations for bulk data processing, like census and transaction processing. - **Minicomputers:** Mid-range computers that are smaller than mainframes but still capable of supporting multiple users simultaneously. - **Microcomputers:** Personal computers (PCs) and laptops, used by individuals for a variety of applications. - **Embedded Computers:** Computers built into devices such as appliances, cars, and industrial machines for specific tasks. **2. Programming Languages** **Classification of Programming Languages** - **Machine Language:** The lowest-level programming language, consisting of binary code that the computer's hardware directly understands. - **Assembly Language:** A low-level programming language that uses symbolic code and is specific to a computer's architecture. It is one step above machine language and requires an assembler to convert it into machine code. - **High-Level Languages:** More abstract languages that are easier for humans to write and understand. Examples include Python, Java, and C++. These languages need to be compiled or interpreted into machine language. - **Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs):** High-level languages that are closer to human language and used for database management, report generation, and other high-level tasks. Examples include SQL and MATLAB. **Machine Code** - **Definition:** The fundamental language that computers understand, consisting of binary digits (0s and 1s). - **Execution:** Directly executed by the computer's CPU without any translation. It is hardware-specific and difficult for humans to read or write. **Assembly Language** - **Definition:** A low-level programming language that uses mnemonics (symbolic codes) to represent machine code instructions. - **Usage:** Used for performance-critical applications where fine control over hardware is necessary. **Higher-Level Languages** - **Examples:** C, C++, Java, Python, etc. - **Benefits:** Easier to write, read, and maintain. They are platform-independent (except for languages like C/C++ that require platform-specific compilation). **Fourth Generation Language (4GL)** - **Characteristics:** Designed to be closer to human languages, making them easier to use for non-programmers. - **Application:** Primarily used in database query languages, report generation, and application development. Examples include SQL, SAS, and MATLAB. **3. Number Systems** **Bit, Byte, Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal, and Octal Systems** - **Bit:** The smallest unit of data in a computer, representing a binary state (0 or 1). - **Byte:** A group of 8 bits, capable of representing 256 different values (0 to 255). - **Binary System:** A base-2 number system using digits 0 and 1. This is the fundamental number system for computers. - **Decimal System:** A base-10 number system using digits 0 to 9. This is the standard number system used by humans. - **Hexadecimal System:** A base-16 number system using digits 0-9 and letters A-F. It is used in computing as a more human-friendly representation of binary-coded values. - **Octal System:** A base-8 number system using digits 0-7. It was used in early computer systems and is sometimes used in Unix systems. **Conversion from One System to Another** - **Binary to Decimal:** Sum the values of each bit multiplied by 2 raised to the position of the bit (starting from 0). - **Decimal to Binary:** Divide the decimal number by 2 and record the remainders. The binary number is formed by reading the remainders in reverse order. - **Hexadecimal to Binary:** Each hex digit can be directly converted to a 4-bit binary equivalent. ### Binary to Hexadecimal: Group the binary digits into groups of 4 (starting from the right) and convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent. Number Systems Detailed Explanation **1. Bit, Byte, Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal, and Octal Systems** **Bit** - **Definition:** A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer and can have a value of either 0 or 1. Bits are the basic building blocks of all digital information and are used to represent data in binary form. - **Usage:** Bits are used to encode information in digital systems, with different combinations of 0s and 1s representing different data. **Byte** - **Definition:** A byte is a group of 8 bits and is the basic unit of storage in computer systems. It can represent 256 different values, ranging from 0 to 255. - **Usage:** Bytes are used to store data such as characters (e.g., a single letter or number), with each byte typically representing one character in text. **Binary System** - **Definition:** The binary system is a base-2 number system that uses only two digits, 0 and 1. This system is the foundation of all binary code, which is used in computers and digital devices to process and store data. - **Example:** The binary number 1010 represents the decimal number 10. **Decimal System** - **Definition:** The decimal system is a base-10 number system that uses digits 0 through 9. It is the standard number system used in everyday human activities, such as counting and arithmetic. - **Example:** The decimal number 345 represents the quantity three hundred forty-five. **Hexadecimal System** - **Definition:** The hexadecimal system is a base-16 number system that uses digits 0-9 and letters A-F (where A represents 10, B represents 11, and so on up to F which represents 15). Hexadecimal is commonly used in computing to represent binary-coded values more compactly. - **Example:** The hexadecimal number 2F represents the decimal number 47. **Octal System** - **Definition:** The octal system is a base-8 number system that uses digits 0-7. It was used in early computer systems and is still sometimes used in Unix systems to represent file permissions. - **Example:** The octal number 12 represents the decimal number 10. **2. Conversion from One System to Another** **Binary to Decimal Conversion** - **Method:** Sum the values of each binary digit multiplied by 2 raised to the power of its position (starting from 0 on the right). - **Example:** Convert the binary number 1011 to decimal. **Decimal to Binary Conversion** - **Method:** Divide the decimal number by 2 repeatedly, recording the remainder each time. The binary number is formed by reading the remainders in reverse order. - **Example:** Convert the decimal number 13 to binary. - 13 ÷ 2 = 6, remainder = 1 - 6 ÷ 2 = 3, remainder = 0 - 3 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder = 1 - 1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder = 1 **Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion** - **Method:** Convert each hexadecimal digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent. - **Example:** Convert the hexadecimal number 3F to binary. - 3 = 0011 - F = 1111 **Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion** - **Method:** Group the binary digits into groups of 4 (starting from the right) and convert each group to its hexadecimal equivalent. - **Example:** Convert the binary number 1101110 to hexadecimal. - Group the binary digits: 0110 1110 - 0110 = 6 - 1110 = E **Practice Questions on Conversion Between Number Systems** **1. Convert Binary to Decimal** **Question:** Convert the binary number 110101 to decimal. **Solution:** - Write down the binary number: 110101. - Calculate each binary digit\'s value (starting from the right, 0th position): 1×25+1×24+0×23+1×22+0×21+1×201 \\times 2\^5 + 1 \\times 2\^4 + 0 \\times 2\^3 + 1 \\times 2\^2 + 0 \\times 2\^1 + 1 \\times 2\^0 1×25+1×24+0×23+1×22+0×21+1×20 =32+16+0+4+0+1=53= 32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 53=32+16+0+4+0+1=53 - **Answer:** 110101 in binary is equal to 53 in decimal. **2. Convert Decimal to Binary** **Question:** Convert the decimal number 29 to binary. **Solution:** - Divide 29 by 2 and record the quotient and remainder: - 29 ÷ 2 = 14, remainder = 1 - 14 ÷ 2 = 7, remainder = 0 - 7 ÷ 2 = 3, remainder = 1 - 3 ÷ 2 = 1, remainder = 1 - 1 ÷ 2 = 0, remainder = 1 - Reading the remainders in reverse order gives us the binary number: 11101. - **Answer:** 29 in decimal is equal to 11101 in binary. **3. Convert Decimal to Hexadecimal** **Question:** Convert the decimal number 255 to hexadecimal. **Solution:** - Divide 255 by 16 and record the quotient and remainder: - 255 ÷ 16 = 15, remainder = 15 (F in hexadecimal) - 15 ÷ 16 = 0, remainder = 15 (F in hexadecimal) - Reading the remainders gives us the hexadecimal number: FF. - **Answer:** 255 in decimal is equal to FF in hexadecimal. **4. Convert Hexadecimal to Binary** **Question:** Convert the hexadecimal number 2A3 to binary. **Solution:** - Convert each hex digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent: - 2 = 0010 - A = 1010 - 3 = 0011 - Combine the binary equivalents: 0010 1010 0011. - **Answer:** 2A3 in hexadecimal is equal to 001010100011 in binary. **5. Convert Binary to Hexadecimal** **Question:** Convert the binary number 10111110 to hexadecimal. **Solution:** - Group the binary digits into sets of four from the right: - 1011 1110 - Convert each group to hexadecimal: - 1011 = B - 1110 = E - **Answer:** 10111110 in binary is equal to BE in hexadecimal. **6. Convert Octal to Decimal** **Question:** Convert the octal number 345 to decimal. **Solution:** - Write down the octal number: 345. - Calculate each digit\'s value (starting from the right, 0th position): 3×82+4×81+5×803 \\times 8\^2 + 4 \\times 8\^1 + 5 \\times 8\^03×82+4×81+5×80 =192+32+5=229= 192 + 32 + 5 = 229=192+32+5=229 - **Answer:** 345 in octal is equal to 229 in decimal. **7. Convert Decimal to Octal** **Question:** Convert the decimal number 156 to octal. **Solution:** - Divide 156 by 8 and record the quotient and remainder: - 156 ÷ 8 = 19, remainder = 4 - 19 ÷ 8 = 2, remainder = 3 - 2 ÷ 8 = 0, remainder = 2 - Reading the remainders in reverse order gives us the octal number: 234. - **Answer:** 156 in decimal is equal to 234 in octal. **8. Convert Octal to Binary** **Question:** Convert the octal number 752 to binary. **Solution:** - Convert each octal digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent: - 7 = 111 - 5 = 101 - 2 = 010 - Combine the binary equivalents: 111 101 010. - **Answer:** 752 in octal is equal to 111101010 in binary. **Summary of Conversion Techniques:** - **Binary to Decimal:** Multiply each bit by 2 raised to its position and sum the results. - **Decimal to Binary:** Divide by 2, record remainders, and reverse the remainders for the binary number. - **Decimal to Hexadecimal:** Divide by 16, record remainders, and use hex digits. - **Hexadecimal to Binary:** Convert each hex digit to its 4-bit binary equivalent. - **Binary to Hexadecimal:** Group binary digits into sets of four and convert to hex. - **Octal to Decimal:** Multiply each digit by 8 raised to its position and sum the results. - **Decimal to Octal:** Divide by 8, record remainders, and reverse the remainders for the octal number. - **Octal to Binary:** Convert each octal digit to its 3-bit binary equivalent. -.................................. **Binary Arithmetic** - **Addition:** - 0 + 0 = 0 - 1 + 0 = 1 - 1 + 1 = 10 (carry 1) - **Subtraction:** - 0 - 0 = 0 - 1 - 0 = 1 - 1 - 1 = 0 - 0 - 1 = 1 (borrow 1 from the next higher bit) - **Multiplication:** - Similar to decimal multiplication, but only involves multiplying by 0 or 1.