Understanding the Self - Module in Understanding the Self PDF

MODULE IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF FIRST EDITION 2021 For ESSU Use Only  Table of Content Unit 1 DEFINING THE SELF: LOOKING THROUGH THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES CHAPTER 1: Philosophy 1 CHAPTER...

MODULE IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF FIRST EDITION 2021 For ESSU Use Only  Table of Content Unit 1 DEFINING THE SELF: LOOKING THROUGH THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES CHAPTER 1: Philosophy 1 CHAPTER 2: Sociology and Anthropology 8 CHAPTER 3: Psychology 16 CHAPTER 4: The Self in Eastern Thought 24 Unit 2 UNPACKING THE SELF: DISCOVERING THE COMPONENTS OF THE SELF CHAPTER 1: The Physical and Sexual Self 28 CHAPTER 2: The Material Self 40 CHAPTER 3: The Spiritual Self 43 CHAPTER 4: The Political Self 48 CHAPTER 5: The Digital Self 52 Unit 3 MANAGING AND CARING FOR THE SELF CHAPTER 1: Learning to be a Better Student 57 CHAPTER 2: Setting Goals for Success 60 CHAPTER 3: Stress and Mental Health Care 62 References 66 Course Guide UNIT 1 DEFINING THE SELF: LOOKING THROUGH THE DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY Introduction Whenever someone asks the question ―Who are you?‖ we automatically answer with our name, where we came from, or who our parents are. We attribute this idea of who we are to the most obvious labels like our name, our accent, and our physical characteristics. But notice how the perspective shifts when the question is replaced with ―Who am I?‖ It forces us to go in deep, to ask the question to ourselves and find the answers ourselves as well. To answer the most essential questions (which are often the most difficult to answer), we also need to have the courage to confront whatever daunting thoughts we have in our mind. Understanding the Self will ask you to do that. It is in the hope that by studying the different fields of the social sciences you will get a grasp on how you can answer the existential questions of your being: Who am I? What is the essence of my being? What makes me, Me? Learning Outcomes At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:  Discuss how the self is represented in the philosophical perspective;  Evaluate the applicability of the different philosopher‘s view of the self in your own life; and  Create your own philosophy of the self. Lesson 1: What is Philosophy? From the Greek words philos (meaning love) and sophia (meaning wisdom), Philosophy seeks to answer the fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, truth, morality, nature of man, and other aspects of life through the use of rational or logical thinking (Alata et al., 2018). It provides a platform in which you can explore the depths of your own insights. Although the ideas in philosophy are by nature ultimate, it does not offer ultimate answers to the fundamental questions of existence. Instead, philosophy will help you to open your mind, to ask and provide answers to your own questions. Furthermore, you have probably heard people say that Philosophy is the mother of all sciences. This is in part true as most of the sciences branched out from Philosophy. However, Philosophy in itself is not a science. It provided the foundation for the development of contemporary sources of knowledge but it does not utilize the scientific method. So how does Philosophy view the Self? The answer to this question will depend on which school of thought will be utilized as a foundation to answering that question. It can be seen as a part of a duality between the body and soul, a part of the cosmos, a mere collection of sensations, or a separate entity that is a product of one‘s experience in the environment. In this chapter, we will see how some of the great Philosophers viewed the self. Your part at the end of the discussion is to identify which of the philosophies you were able to relate and create your own philosophy of the Self. Lesson 2: Ancient Philosophy Ancient philosophy is philosophy in antiquity, or before the end of the Roman Empire. It usually refers to ancient Greek philosophy. It can also encompass various other intellectual traditions, such as Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy, and Iranian philosophy. Ancient philosophies are generally deeply rooted in religious traditions. Accordingly, ancient philosophies have a comprehensive outlook as opposed to modern or contemporary 1 philosophies, which tend to have more narrow methodologies and areas of focus (―Ancient Philosophy,‖ n.d.). 2.1. Socrates and Plato: The Ancient Greek Philosophers Socrates It is said that Philosophy originated in the ancient civilization of Greece. While the earliest philosophers were mostly concerned about the composition of the cosmos, Socrates and his student Plato were more concerned about the nature of man. Socrates was known as the wondering philosopher who would roam around public places, asking people the most intriguing questions. Socrates did not claim that he know the answers to all the questions but believes that he is wiser than most people because he admits that he doesn‘t know. He Source: held that ignorance stems from the assertion of knowing. Because of his https://owlcation.com/humanitie unconventional method, Socrates became very popular among the young s/The-Life-and-Times-of-the- Ancient-Greek-Philosopher- generation but was detested by the academicians. Eventually, he was accused Socrates of corrupting the minds of the youth and was forced to drink poison. It was through his student Plato, who wrote most of Socrates‘ teachings that we are able Plato to get to know his idea of the Self (Morzinski, 2002). Socrates believed that the self exists in two parts: one that is tangible, mortal and constantly changing and one that is believed to be immortal. He also dons the idea that man is innately good and that evilness stems from not knowing the Self. If you know that you are ―good‖, it will follow that you will do your best to avoid ―evil deed‖ because this is not part of your nature. But you may ask, how do we know ourselves? Socrates proposed the method of introspection as a way to know who we really are. Through introspection, we examine our actions, our Source: thoughts, our perceptions. Once we get a grasp of how we process things, this https://www.popularmechani cs.com/science/a33372667/e will eventually lead to the knowledge of our own strengths and weaknesses, our arth-cubes-plato-theory/ capabilities and areas of improvement, as well as our way of doing things. Simply put, Socrates believes that a person who is ―self-aware‖ can maximize his/her potential and use that potential to do things that are true to his nature – which is good (―Socrates,‖ n.d.; ―Socrates,‖ 2018; ―The Common Good,‖ 2018). Known as Socrates‘ greatest student, Plato also believes in the dual nature of man, that is, the self is composed of body and soul (mind). In relation to this, Plato‘s Theory of Forms asserts that everything that we see in the world of senses (physical world) existed because of their existence in the world of ideas, where every single matter in the physical world has a perfect form. Have you asked yourself, how did we know that a square should be called a square? Where did the ―idea‖ of a square come from? According to Plato, all ―ideas‖ or knowledge existed even before we got our physical form – in the world of ideas. When we were born, however, and our soul entered our physical body, most of what we know was forgotten. This is because our soul which is ―perfect, infinite, and eternal‖ inhabited a body that is ―limited, flawed, and corruptible.‖ It is our goal, therefore, is to rediscover the things that we have ―forgotten‖ through the process of self-awareness (De Landazuri, 2015). Plato believed that our soul is divided into three parts: appetite, will/spirit, and reason (Meinwald, 2020). Appetite refers to physical urges such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire while the will includes passion, aggression, and emotions that we feel. Reason gives us the faculty to make sound judgments, make wise choices and understand Source: https://www.gamerevolution.com/guides/72007-persona-5-a-soul-is-composed-of- appetite-spirit-and 2 eternal truths. These three parts interact with each other either in agreement or in conflict. The will/spirit can either work with reason so we can arrive at self-knowledge or it can be pulled by appetite making us slaves of the materialistic pleasures of the world. These three parts clearly play different roles but Plato emphasized that reason should rule to restore the harmony in our mind. Therefore, achieving harmony through reason is the only way to know ourselves. 2.2. St. Augustine: The Medieval Philosopher The Medieval Ages is widely known as the Dark Ages. This is a period in history when there were little advances in the field of science. When the Greek civilization flourished and made history in the advancement of the scientific realm, the medieval period took history to an opposite direction. When the Roman Empire fell, kingdoms went to the Church for protection and guidance. This made the Catholic Church the most powerful element in the European society. To unite people, the church used faith to discourage people to think for themselves and instead told to trust Source: the ways of the Church; literacy was limited to memorizing prayers https://probaway.wordpress.com/2013 /08/28/philosophers-squared-st- and the doctrines of the Church; freedom of thought and education augustine-of-hippo/ was barred to favor those in the pedestal. To combat free thinking and disobedience, the Church destroyed most of the writings of the ancient civilization. The books of Plato and other Greek philosophers were banned and anyone seen carrying forbidden books were severely punished. Indeed, the development of society stood still during this period. With the way that the Church treated people who displayed interest in the discourse of knowledge, it may be impossible to think that philosophy and religion could ever be reconciled. One church leader however, proved that philosophy can be used to understand God and religion can be integrated to the wisdom of the ancient philosophers. St. Augustine was a Catholic bishop who was exposed to the teachings of the ancient Greek philosophers while he was studying to become a priest. The Catholic bishop soon realized as he was reading that Plato‘s Theory of Forms could be the ―missing link‖ to finally reconcile the dispute between faith and knowledge. Plato‘s belief in dualism (that is, a human person has a body and a soul which are separate but are interdependent with each other), was probably the door that opened for St. Augustine‘s journey to reconciliation. In his explanation, he likened the world of senses to the material or physical world where everything is bound to perish. Just like the physical world, our body will eventually return to dust as it is not eternal - unlike the soul. The soul, which is perfect and immutable has existed even before the physical body existed – in the hands of God, the only one who is infinite, perfect and the only source of truth and knowledge. As a clever man, St. Augustine defended the ideas of Plato as something that does not discredit the teachings of the Church but instead supports it with logical and reasonable arguments. In Plato‘s philosophy, he called the source of knowledge and truth as the ―world of ideas‖ and that we can only achieve our perfect form, or get to know ourselves better, if we reach this world through reason and logic. St. Augustine used this argument to inject faith in Plato‘s philosophy. St. Augustine could only think of one entity whose characteristics are the same with the world of ideas – and that is God: perfect, incorruptible, eternal. Plato, according to him, was not Christianized that‘s why he could not find the ―correct‖ word to describe the world of ideas. Thus in knowing the self, the human person can only achieve enlightenment and true knowledge of the self by seeking God first – the one and only source of truth and genuine knowledge. 3 Lesson 3: Modern Philosophy The Age of Enlightenment, sometimes called the Age of Reason, refers to the time of the guiding intellectual movement, called The Enlightenment. It advocated reason as a means to establishing an authoritative system of aesthetics, ethics, government, and even religion, which would allow human beings to obtain objective truth about the whole of reality. Enlightenment thinkers argued that reason could free humankind from superstition and religious authoritarianism that had brought suffering and death to millions in religious wars. Also, the wide availability of knowledge was made possible through the production of encyclopedias, serving the Enlightenment cause of educating the human race (―Age of Enlightenment,‖ n.d.). 3.1. Rene Descartes: The Rationalist Try to ponder on these questions: Do you exist? What proof do you have that you can say that you are truly awake and not just a part of someone else‘s dream? These kinds of questions have bothered Rene Descartes a very long time ago. Like most thinkers of his time, Descartes believe that truth can only be derived through independent rational thinking and should not be based on decrees handed down by authority. He started his arguments by giving the assumption that Source: https://www.worldhistory.org/Rene_D human beings are imperfect but has an idea of perfection. For escartes/ something that is flawed and imperfect, it would be incorrect to assume that the idea of perfection could come from something imperfect. Just as how a chicken could not possibly produce a dog as an offspring, human beings could not have been the source of perfection. And yet, there exists in our mind that very same idea. Descartes then concluded that the source of this idea of perfection is outside the flawed human being. And what other idea fits to perfection but only the ―idea‖ of God (―Descartes, Rene | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,‖ n.d.). Rene Descartes came up with this valid conclusion through his method of doubting. Contrary to the medieval period, where the things that people in authority are regarded as truth, Rene Descartes believed that the only way that he can possibly arrive at truths is by doubting every single idea that he has. If a particular idea cannot be proven through reasoning and logic, that idea is incorrect or false and should be discarded. In this way, the only idea that would persist are those that are logical enough. As he proved that the existence of God is true, he now turns to prove his existence. Yes, he even doubted his own existence but eventually proved his existence. How did he do this? By asking the questions I asked above. He cannot prove that his existence is not something that only exists in someone else‘s mind. He was also uncertain if he was really awake or was just dreaming. All the more, he doubted that the environment that he sees is not an illusion. However, he was certain of one thing. And that is, he was doubting. And because he was doubting, he could not possibly deny the fact that he was thinking. And because he was thinking, he was aware that he was thinking, there could only be one explanation for that. And that he was alive, that he exists. Meaning, the self is a thinking thing. Descartes, like Plato, believed that man has a separate body and mind. The mind can independently exist from the body but does not deny the association between the two. However, the mind (which is governed by the laws of reason) surpasses the physical self (governed by laws of nature) (―Descartes, Rene | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,‖ n.d.). 4 3.2. John Locke, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant: The British Empiricists In the same time that the Rationalists in Europe were emerging, a separate school of thought was also blooming in England – empiricism. Just like the rationalist, they also condemned ideas that are baseless and simply handed by authority. However, the empiricists were more skeptical on the validity of claiming truth by merely thinking and logic. They believed that an idea can only be true if it can be experienced by our senses. John Locke believed that the mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate John Locke when we are born. He does not subscribe to Plato‘s or Descartes‘ belief of innate ideas. For him, the thoughts and ideas we acquire are products of our experience in the environment. The self, therefore is something that is shaped by our conscious experience of the world. We can only know our identity when we learn from our experience. Unlike the rationalists, Locke believes that the self is not embedded in a single entity like the mind. Instead, the self exists in space and time. Your identity, therefore is integrated in each part of your body. Source: Particularly, your memory of the experiences that you have had is the https://www.laphamsquarterly. org/contributors/locke reason why your identity endures. David Hume, an empiricist and nihilist took empiricism and the David Hume idea of the self into the extreme. ―There is no self‖ according to Hume. For him, the ―self‖ is nothing more than a bundle of different perceptions in inconceivable rapid successions in perpetual flux and movement. If reality or truth lies in sensations experienced by our sense organs – ear, eyes, mouth, skin and nose – then there would be an uncountable number of ―self‖ from the moment of birth until a person‘s last breathe. This is because, a second of conscious experience, there would be a different experience as second after the Source: http://www.philosophypages.co first experience. The previous sensations would no longer be part of m/ph/hume.htm the conscious experience, but rather, only a part of our memory – which is not an authentic source of information. If we are to consider the self as the one that exists because of conscious experience, we would all end up having an infinite number of selves. David Hume thus insists that there is no such thing as a self, just a collection of experiences. A one minute video, for example is not really moving image but gives us the illusion of movement because the images captured by the camera were arranged in very rapid successions that we can no longer perceive the transitioning from one image to another but instead, perceive movement. The philosophy of the self presented by Locke and Hume were Immanuel Kant not appealing to Immanuel Kant, another empiricist. He contests Hume‘s idea as he believes that our experience with the world is not disconnected (simple collection of experiences) but is actually continuous like a flowing stream of consciousness. Unlike the two previous empiricists, Kant believes that we have an innate mechanism that helps organize our experiences that makes it intelligible. This mechanism is called the a priori concepts, the fundamental organizing rules or principles built into the architecture of the mind, which categorize, Source: organize and synthesize sense data into the familiar fabric of our lives, https://gohighbrow.com/philo bounded by space and time (Vanzo, 2013) Through the a priori sophy-of-immanuel-kant/ concepts, we are able to organize our experience in the environment and make meaning out of those experiences. Meaning, we are the ones who construct the self. The self actively organizes all the sensations and thoughts into a picture that makes sense to each one of us. Kant believes that the self is not an object located in the consciousness, but rather, it is a subject, an organizing principle that makes a unified and intelligible experience possible. The self is a transcendental unifying principle of consciousness. 5 3.3. Gilbert Ryle and Paul Churchland: The Physicalists While the rationalists have been busy examining the duality of human nature, the physicalists have moved on with the unobservable, the unmeasurable, and the subjective experience. For the physicalists, there is nothing more to be known than the physical. If you want to know what a banana is, you have to see the actual object to know what it is. In short, there is nothing beyond the physical. Gilbert Ryle asserts to deny all forms of dichotomy concerning Gilbert Ryle the nature of man. He rejected altogether the notions about the unconscious, consciousness, souls, and inner selves because these things cannot be measured, cannot be directly observed. If we have to explain a phenomenon, we need to acquire information from measurable sources, for example, behavior. To know a person, we have to observe his/her behavior. To know yourself, you have to observe your own behavior. The self, for Gilbert Ryle, is known through a person‘s behavior presented to the world. It is a pattern of behavior, the tendency Source: or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain https://www.philosophybasics.com/philosophers_ryle.html circumstances. Paul Churchland (1981) stands in the materialistic belief that Paul Churchland nothing but matter exists, for example, the thing you are holding right now, the thing right beside you or in front of you. Meaning, anything that can be seen, felt, heard, tasted or smelled exists, nothing beyond what our senses can experience. With this in mind, can we say that the soul exists? In Churchland‘s view, it doesn‘t because our senses cannot directly experience it. But how about the self? He believes that the self is the brain itself. And our conception of the self is a product of the chemical processes inside our brain. Our identity, therefore, is directly Source: influenced by the how our brain works. http://www.integralworld.net/ lane210.html Lesson 4: Contemporary Philosophy Contemporary philosophy goes beyond the mind-body problem and even finds it unnecessary. They argue that life is more than identifying how the mind and body work but rather, it is living through life and finding meaning as we live it. We are born without the innate or predetermined essence (as what the ancient philosophers believe) but we are able to shape our own destiny and make own choices. Furthermore, the contemporary philosophers emphasize the importance of free will and our ability to make choices for ourselves. Life is meaningless, until you give it its own meaning. 4.1. Maurice Merleau-Ponty: The Phenomenologist Merleau-Ponty is a French philosopher who believed that the mind and body should not be subjected to a competition because both the thoughts and ideas in our mind as well as our physical body comprise the whole person. The mind and the body are so intertwined that you cannot separate them from one another. He is a firm believer of phenomenology, the field of study that emphasizes lived-experiences. Merleau-Ponty considers the self as the sum of all your experiences in the past or in the present, your Source: https://literariness.org/2017/05/2 emotions, your thoughts, and your behavior. It is having the ability to 8/key-theories-of-maurice- experience the world that we live in that makes a human being a merleau-ponty/ person. Without these experiences, we become nothing but mere vessels of our organs. He asserts that your direct, lived experience is the only source of knowledge about the world. Furthermore, he stresses that the self is a product of our own human experience. Therefore, 6 our identity is created based on how we perceive our experience and how we interpret those experiences. To explore more, you may also watch: Socrates's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0InjgHFpco Plato's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bge5EUL89BE Descartes's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0vVVy4dFuA Kant's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B0vVVy4dFuA Hume's Concept of the Self by PHILO-notes https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDhidRr_PWs Assessment I. Read each item carefully and identify whether the statement is true or false. Write TRUE if the statement is true. If false, replace the underlined word/s with the word/s which will make the statement true. Write your answers in a ½ sheet of yellow paper. 1. Philosophy is a science that deals with the fundamental questions of life and existence. 2. Introspection allows a person to examine one‘s self by looking outside of one‘s self. 3. Socrates emphasized the need to observe the cosmos to know the self. 4. Plato believed that the will should be the driving force of one‘s mind. 5. According to St. Augustine, it is only through philosophy that one can know the self. 6. Empiricism supports the idea that knowledge can be acquired through reason and logic. 7. Locke, Hume and Kant believed that the self is known through reason and logic. 8. Physicalists give importance to the tangible phenomenon and concepts in understanding the self. 9. Existentialism believes that essence precedes existence. 10. Private thoughts are requirements to the development of the self according to Ryle. II. In matrix, choose two of your favorite philosophers, specify their most meaningful philosophical thought about the self and make a personal reflection on how it would guide you in becoming a better student in the university/ professional in the future. Write your answer in ½ sheet yellow paper. MEANINGFUL PERSONAL REFLECTION PHILOSOPHER/S PHILOSOPHICAL As a University As a Future THOUGHTS Student Professional 1. 2. 7 CHAPTER 2: SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY Introduction Most people would know who Tarzan is – either as an animated series or a movie. The fictional character is supposed to have lived in the jungle after his parents met an unfortunate accident. With no parents to take care of him, the gorillas in the jungle sheltered him and treated him as their own. Until a group of explorers found him, Tarzan didn‘t know how to be a ―person.‖ Outside of the fictional world, Vietnam recently discovered a real-life Tarzan. Ho Van Lang, 44 and his father Ho Van Than, 85 fled to the forests of a province in Vietnam after an American bomb killed his mother and siblings during World War II. For 41 years, Ho Van Lang had no contact with human civilization except for his ill father. He spoke very little of the language and didn‘t know the ways of ―men.‖ He is likened to an innocent child who does not have the moral awareness of what is considered right or wrong (Pavlou, 2018). Ho Van Lang‘s case begs us the question: does being human automatically equate to being a person? Learning outcomes At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:  Differentiate the sociological view of the self from the anthropological view of the self;  Identify the SOGIE of an individual based on a given scenario; and  Apply the different concepts of Sikolohiyang Pilipino in your own life. Lesson 1: What is Sociology and Anthropology? Have you ever heard your grandparents tell you not to cut your finger nails at night? How about avoiding taking pictures in groups of three? Were you told not to sing while cooking or else you‘ll end up #FOREVERALONE? You‘ve probably heard MORE of these funny superstitions (which most of us still probably practice until now) as you were growing up. Some of us may think they‘re ridiculous but still end up following in fear of it being true. Now take this scenario: You are in a foreign country and you tell your foreigner friend to knock three times whenever he/she says something bad or not to cut his/her hair before taking an important exam. What do you think will be your friend‘s reaction? Yes, you may probably sound crazy to them and might be tagged as the weird Asian friend. From the scenarios above, we can see how our society and culture can affect our behavior and eventually develop our identity. Sociology and Anthropology are two scientific fields of study that deals with the elements of society and culture and how they relate to the human person. Although interrelated, Sociology and Anthropology are not the same. When we study what makes our species human, we study Anthropology. It looks into the origin of our species, and the evolution of our existence around the world through time. An anthropologist will dig fossil remains to understand human evolution; they will examine material remains of past civilizations and compare it with the present to understand how our society evolved through time and space. On the other hand, social organizations, societies, people‘s social lives and culture are the fields of interest when we study sociology. Sociology wants to know how people affect other people, how the culture of a certain society affects the behavior of its members and how different societies are related with one another (Alata et al. 2018). In close examination, the common feature between the two is culture. By definition, culture is summed up as the way of life in a certain society. The culture dictates what acceptable and unacceptable behavior is in a society. Culture also creates social glue that bonds the people in a community together. It is therefore important that we examine how the elements of culture shape people‘s behavior in the society. In the succeeding discussion, we will know how the self develops according to sociology and anthropology as well as look into the important role it has in our development. 8 Lesson 2: Development of the Self 2.1. Sociology and the Development of Self George Herbert Mead is a sociologist who advanced the idea that the development of the self is influenced by significant persons in one‘s life. For Mead, the self develops in a chronological order or stages wherein one has to undergo the first stage before proceeding to the next stage. He clarified that very young children were in no way influenced by others. Instead, they create their own world and do not have the ability to understand other people‘s perspectives. However, as children grow up, other people‘s opinion about them takes a central role in the development of the self. Here are Mead‘s developmental stages. PREPARATORY STAGE Source: https://www.fatherly.com/news/babies-imitating-adult- facial-expressions-might-be-a-coincidence/ PLAY STAGE Source: https://singlemomontherun.files.wordpress.com/2012/ 10/preschlrs-pretend-1600x1200.jpg GAME STAGE Source: https://eventinvalsi.it/en/event/i-dati-invalsi-uno-strumento- per-la-ricerca-e-la-didattica/ First, the child learns to imitate others, usually the primary care givers. There is no actual interaction since the child only mimics the doer. Important elements in this stage include symbols such as language, gestures, and objects that form the basis of communication. This changes when the child transitions to the Play Stage. This goes beyond imitation as the relationship between the child and others becomes more social which can be observed when children start to pretend play as other people. For example you might recall that when you were a child, you‘ve probably played Bahay-bahayan and you and your playmates would assume the roles of Nanay, Tatay, Ate, Kuya, etc. During the play stage, children can already assume the perspective of others making it possible for them to act like any family member. The last stage is characterized by the influence of the generalized other, or society as a whole. Understanding how the society works is no longer just limited to the people who are closest to them but also considers the people outside of one‘s immediate family. In the Game Stage, children start to understand that Nanay is not only a mother but she can also assume other roles. For example, Nanay is mother at home, but she is also Ma’am at work and Madi when she‘s with her suki buyers. Children are now capable of understanding that people have multiple roles. 9  As children understand the multiple roles that people have, they also start to To explore more, you may also watch: become aware that other people also have Mead: Stages of the Self =) by Amirul Hafiz https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DIrrvYCjiSs opinions about them. And these opinions are derived from how they behave around them which in turn, influences their perception of their own self. However, not all people‘s opinions matter – only those with whom they have important relationships or significant others (not limited to romantic relations). Undergoing through the three stages will lead to the development of the ―Me‖ and the ―I‖ self. The Me can be considered as the social self while the I is the response to the social self. The Me is developed through the perception of the generalized others. The I then interprets these perceptions and acts accordingly. The I is our individual responses to what society thinks. For example, society may think that it is necessary for you to take the program that your significant others chose for you but the evaluation whether you should follow what they want for you and what you want for yourself is entirely up to you. Although the I and the Me self may sometimes be conflicting, according to Mead, the healthy self should be a balance between these two. 2.2. Anthropology’s Conception of the Self Clifford Geertz, a French anthropologist was one of the best anthropologists of the th 20 century. He emphasized the importance of studying the cultural context of a certain behavior to understand it. In his famous wink example, the behavior of winking can mean different things in different situations. At certain contexts, winking can mean an understanding between two people or it could mean nothing but a reflex because of a tic disorder. For the first circumstance, an observer must know the situation, the context where the behavior is happening to understand the meaning of the wink. Through this example, Geertz wanted to emphasize that to understand culture, it is not enough that you study culture. One must be ―in‖ the culture. Geertz believed that culture serves as a control mechanism that guides behavior. Studying culture means looking into the small details of that culture and drawing conclusion from those details. In the study of anthropology, it is therefore important to understand culture to understand the people. In understanding the collective, we will be able to understand our individual behavior, to understand the Self. (Sökefeld, 1999). A Filipino anthropologist, Prospero Covar (2015) acknowledges the importance of knowing the Filipino culture in understanding the Filipino identity. A person, particularly a Filipino person has biological givenness but this personhood is only completed through the immersion in the Filipino culture. You are born as a human being but becoming a person is a process embedded in culture thus the saying, ―Madaling maging tao, mahirap magpakatao.‖ It only takes approximately nine months to be born as a human being, but becoming a person takes a lifetime of learning. Covar likened the Filipino identity to a jar – it has labas, loob, and lalim; the jar is made of clay, man (in the Biblical sense) is also made from the earth. Covar used the method of tambalang lapit (dynamic dualism) to dissect the Filipino identity. When we use dynamic dualism as a method, this is ME that is, if there is labas, there is loob; if there is kaluluwa, there is budhi. It is in the labas that we witness the Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307168569_Hinggil_k reflection of the person‘s experience of culture. ay_Prospero_Covar_Pagkataong_Pilipino_Isang_Teorya_sa_Lali The loob is a broad concept which needs to be m_ng_Banga 10 understood deeply. It is not merely a two-dimensional figure but is like a container that has depth. The loob, as a container, can contain something. When you put something inside the containe r, it becomes a vessel – no longer just an empty container. It is therefore necessary to look at loob not only with labas but also has lalim which gives the loob its profound meaning. In the context of the person, one should not merely look into the exterior (labas) of the individual as this is an incomplete concept of the person. Looking at the interior (loob) of the person, his thoughts, his feelings and internal systems working inside the body is not enough to capture the whole personhood. But if one will include depth, the person‘s convictions, beliefs, and principles To explore more, you may also watch: (which are largely influenced by Module 3 (The Humanities and the Filipino Personhood culture), we get to perceive the Pagkatao) by Manuel, Jr. Tana totality of the human person https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u2bn7FkgO0U&t=189s (Navarro, Petras, Ujano-Batangan, 2013). Lesson 3: The Self in Different Contexts 3.1. The Self as a Product of the Social World The family plays a significant role in our acquisition of culture. It is through the family that we first learn to socialize with people. Our family is our first experience of the social world and the culture embedded in it making it one of the most important elements of society. Human beings are born vulnerable and needs care and support for a relatively longer period of time than that of other animals. The acquisition of the learning to adapt to the society is one of the crucial roles that families play in the life of a person. In children, the development of healthy self-esteem is largely influenced by family upbringing. You can recall that Mead discussed the first and second stage of self- development which is characterized by imitation and role play. Children perceive their family members as role models and as a reflection of the society that they belong. The family is where we first learn gender roles or the expected behaviors based on one‘s biological or perceived sex. For example, young girls are expected to take gentle personalities while young boys are encouraged to play rough. Pink is attributed to being feminine and blue, masculine. Because of the rigid belief of these gender roles in our society, men and women are often limited by the strong belief of these roles. That‘s why men who cry are seen as weak (even though they are also humans who can feel and biologically speaking, capable of crying) and women who are outspoken are seen as dominating (but same thing would merit men as a leader). From the discussion above, we can immediately see how expectations of the society based on one‘s gender can affect the shaping of the sex. However, gender should not be equated to biological sex. It should be emphasized that gender is shaped by a person‘s experiences in the environment or the way that one perceives our self in relation to the environment. In 2019, Gretchen Diaz became a sensational figure when she posted a video of a mall security personnel calling her out for using the women‘s bathroom (Parsons, 2019). In 2018, Barnett, Nesbit and Sorrentino investigated the relationship of allowing transgender individuals into restrooms and the number of sexual offenses. The debate over whether transgender individuals should be allowed to use the public restrooms (including locker rooms and changing rooms) that correspond to their currently expressed gender rather than their biological sex has been of recent interest. The study concluded that from a scientific and evidence-based perspective, there is no current evidence that granting transgender individuals access to gender-corresponding restrooms results in an increase in sexual offenses. They added, however, that the arguments for and against legislating access to public accommodations are not simply answered by science. The basis for differing opinions 11  includes whether transgender individuals are mentally ill and whether there are legal and ethics-related justifications for gender- inclusive restrooms. The Genderbread Person shows how diverse gender is and why we should start looking at it as a spectrum of colors instead of a binary construct. A quick guide on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, Gender Expression and Sexual Characteristics 12 Illustration source: https://twitter.com/kalikhaupd/status/1162337158545301504 3.2. The Self as Embedded in Culture Culture is dynamic and always changing. The norms or standards of behavior in a society change through time. During the Pre-colonial Philippines, men and women had a relatively equal status in society. When we were colonized by the patriarchal culture of Spain, the role of women in the society became less important. In today‘s society however, we see how some of the most successful people in diverse industries are women. In the same manner, we have seen how young generations would adapt to the changes in society and evolve through the passing of time. Time as an element of the changes in culture is a widely recognized fact. The evolution of culture is largely dependent on what the members of the organization values. For example, honor is highly valued in Japan, explaining why suicide following a scandal is an acceptable option even at modern times. In the Philippines, family extends to the fourth and even fifth degree because we place a high value in close family ties. Language is another aspect that influences the development of the self in the context of culture. You must know the language to participate in the culture. And to understand language also means to understand the cultural context. Needless to say therefore, the Filipino language is a reflection of our cultural identity. Let‘s take for example the statement ―Mahal kita‖ and the English translation, ―I love you‖. In the English language, the subject and the object of love is separate. We can easily distinguish the I, being the object and the you, being the subject of love. The Filipino expression of love does not permit this because the object and the subject of affection are considered as one – kita. Can you see why conservative Filipinos don‘t approve divorce here in the Philippines? 3.3. Cultural Diversity The concept of cultural relativism accentuates the idea that understanding the self is a process that involves knowing one‘s own culture instead of other unfamiliar cultures. It recognizes the diversity of culture around the world and even within one‘s own country. Cultural relativism emphasizes that no culture is dominant over the other – only different. Meaning, the Filipino culture is different from the American culture but no one can say that the American culture is over and beyond the Filipino culture and vice versa. But we acknowledge the differences in the two cultures. The most apparent difference between 13 Western Culture (for example, American Culture) and Eastern Culture (for example, Filipino Culture) is the degree to which individual needs and goals are preferred over the needs and goals of the group. In Individualistic cultures, people are considered "good" if they are strong, self-reliant, assertive, and independent. This contrasts with Collectivist cultures where characteristics like being self-sacrificing, dependable, generous, and helpful to others are of greater importance. Individualistic cultures give importance to autonomy, independence, self-sufficiency, and uniqueness while in Collectivist cultures, family takes the central role in shaping the person as a social being. Early on, children in collectivist cultures are taught that one is part of a greater whole – the society. Can you see why American youth moves out of their parent‘s house when they reach 18 while the Filipino children stay with their parents even after they have their own family? 3.4. Sikolohiyang Pilipino Virgilio G. Enriquez, the father of Sikolohiyang Pilipino envisioned a time when the Filipino identity is understood in the context of the Filipino culture instead of Western standards of self- knowledge. According to Enriquez (1977), unlike the individualist culture of Western countries, the Filipino always acts in relation to ―others‖. The heart of Enriquez‘ Sikolohiyang Pilipino is the Filipino understanding of Kapwa, the selves outside of the self. Kapwa has two categories: Ibang Tao and Hindi Ibang Tao. Ibang Tao are people who are considered ―outsider‖ while Hindi Ibang Tao are those who are ―one-of-us‖. Each category merits a levels of interaction (Pe-pua & Source: https://www.pssp.org.ph/sp2/ Protacio-Marcelino, 2000). The table below shows the different levels of interaction with Kapwa according to Enriquez. Interaction with Ibang Tao starts with Pakikitungo, Pakikisalamuha, Pakikilahok, Pakikibagay, and lastly Pakikisama. In the case of Hindi Ibang Tao, it is iniated through Pakikipagpalagayang-loob, then Pakikisangkot, and lastly, Pakikipagkaisa. Ibang Tao Hindi Ibang Tao Pakikitungo Pakikipagpalagayang-loob Pakikisalamuha Pakikisangkot Pakikilahok Pakikipagkaisa Pakikibagay Pakikisama As a final note, Sikolohiyang Pilipino wants you to understand that the search for your identity entails not only the journey towards understanding your thoughts and behavior. You also have to know your beliefs, and values in relation to your own culture. It is only then that you can have a full understanding of the self. Assessment I. Read the statements for each item. Identify their SOGIE-SC based on how they describe themselves. Options are found in the table below. Write your answers on the ¼ yellow paper. Sexual Orientation Sexual Characteristics Gender Identity (GI) Gender Expression (GE) (SO) (SC) Heterosexual Cisgender Feminine Male Gay Transgender Masculine Female Lesbian Non-binary trans identity Androgynous Intersex Bisexual Queer Asexual 14 Example: ―Hi! I‘m S. I have a vagina, I love men but I am more comfortable with men‘s clothes. However, I still believe I‘m a woman.‖ Answer: SO – Heterosexual GI – Cisfemale GE – Masculine SC – Female Start here: 1. ―Hi! I‘m E. I am born with a penis, I am attracted to cisfemales, I like to wear comfortable jeans and shirt for males. I am a man.‖ 2. ―Hi, F here. I am born with a vagina, I don‘t feel sexual attraction to anyone, I prefer jeans and shirt for females. I feel that I am a woman.‖ 3. ―K, 23. I have a penis. I have been in a relationship with a gay man, a straight woman, a bisexual, and another man. I prefer polo shirt and comfortable jeans. I feel that I am a woman.‖ 4. ―I‘m D. I look like a man. I have a vagina. I have a girlfriend. If I was born again, I‘d like to be born with a penis.‖ 5. ―Call me L. I was given a penis. I have a beard and dress according to may SC. I am both attracted to male and female; I get emotionally attached to males but I find sexual intercourse with female more satisfying. I know I can be both male and female, but I see myself as a man.‖ II. In a 1 whole yellow paper, answer the following questions in not more than 10 sentences. 1. Is your self-concept affected by how others see you? 2. Do you contribute to the development of others‘ positive self-concept? 3. What are the influences of your family in your development as an individual? 4. What social pressures help shape yourself? 15 CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGY Introduction We may only have one physical body, but it may feel like having several selves all at once. In our little corner, this might not be bothersome. Nevertheless, to be asked in public, "Who are you?" could be stressful. This question seems to force us to come up with a satisfying answer that we might begin to feel unsatisfied after saying it. Questioning who we are or engaging in self-reflection to figure out and understand why we behave in a certain way is normal (Weiten et al., 2014) and is beneficial in increasing self-awareness. This chapter will let you think about you, your thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The theories in Psychology will help you understand why you feel and behave that way. Psychology may focus on the individual and the cognitive functions, but it does not discount the context and other possible factors that affect the individual. To help us understand ourselves a bit clearer and somehow ease the pressure of coming up with a definite answer to who we are, let us look into some of the theories and concepts in psychology regarding the self. Learning outcomes At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:  Differentiate the different Psychological theories;  Discuss how different theories in Psychology represent the self; and  Identify one Psychological theory that has the most influence on you. Lesson 1: Theories and Concepts in Psychology Psychology is the science that deals with human behavior and mental processes. Many people misunderstand psychology as simply mind reading or stating the obvious. As you read through the module, however, you will soon realize how these notions are misconceptions. As a field that focuses on the human being, Psychology draw findings based on empirical data. The self in psychology pertains to how one creates a schema of his/her person. Awareness of the self is similar to having a conception of the self. A schema describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. Self is ―the sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals‖ (Stangor, Jhangiani &Tarry, 2014). 1.1. Individual Self: The Biological Foundations of Behavior The center of all our bodily activities is the brain. It is composed of billions of specialized cells called neurons that receive and send the signal from the central nervous system (brain) to different parts of the body. These signals or neural impulses are the messages that are being carried for the brain to interpret the external stimulus coming from the environment. Depending on the stimulus, a corresponding Source: neuron https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/explainer-what-is-a- signal will be sent, which will cause certain types of responses or behavior. Aside from the signals coming from the environment, chemicals in our brains also affect our responses or behavior. These brain chemicals are called neurotransmitters (Prasad, Kumar, & Ali, 2020; Passer & Smith, 2007). The following neurotransmitters are known to have a direct influence on human behavior: 16  Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Chemical-Structures-of-Neurotransmitters-Reproduced-from_fig1_323400992 However, this influence does not mean that they are the direct and sole cause of such behavior. What needs to be understood in this section is that human behavior can also be explained through the inner workings of the brain (Prasad, Kumar, & Ali, 2020). Especially in the discussion regarding mental disorders, explaining an imbalance in brain chemicals will help people understand that having a mental condition does not equate to being weak or not having faith. In some instances, vulnerability to To explore more, you may also watch: The Chemical Mind: Crash Course Psychology #3 developing mental disorders can be by CrashCourse attributed to our genetic disposition https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4N-7AlzK7s and the composition of these chemicals in our brains. 1.2. Individual Self: Stages of Human Development There are theories that explain the development of a human being throughout the life span. The most popular among them are the Psychosexual Stages as proposed by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages. Both theories believe in the influence of the unconscious mind in the development of an individual. The two approaches differ in the number of stages that they have. As Freud believed that childhood experiences primarily shape the adult personality, his stages are limited only up until the puberty stage. Erikson expanded this belief to include the later years of life. Furthermore, while Freud emphasized the sexual drive as the main reason for our behavior, Erikson believed that interpersonal relationships take the central role in the development of the individual (Knight, 2017). The following figures summarize the Psychosexual and Psychosocial Stages of Development: Freud‘s 5 stages of Psychosexual Development Pleasure center is on the mouth – sucking, biting and Satisfaction focuses on the expulsion of bowel and chewing. If oral needs are not met, the person may bladder elimination; coping with demands for control. If develop thumb sucking, fingernail biting or pencil they are trained before they are ready or not trained on chewing in childhood and overeating or smoking in time, it may result to extreme orderliness or messiness later life. as part of the individual’s personality. 17  Pleasure zone is the genitals; dealing with incestuous Dormant sexual feelings. The child acquires new sexual feelings towards opposite sex parent. To avoid social values and spends time with same sex peers. punishment to the incest feelings, they adopt the same sex parent’s characteristics or values. To explore more, you may also watch: Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development by Sprouts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhG-twzaE_g&t=3s Illustration source: https://sproutsschools.com/psychosexual- Maturation of sexual interest. Sexual impulses reappear. development-theory-freud/ If development in earlier stages is successful, it can lead to marriage, mature sexuality and bearing of children. Erikson‘s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development If needs are dependably met, they develop a sense of trust. Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities. Pre-schoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or Children learn the pleasure of doing tasks or they feel they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent. inferior. 18 Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to and integrating them to form a single identity or they gain the capacity for intimate love or they feel socially become confused of who they are. isolated. The middle aged discover a sense of contributing to the When reflecting on his/her life, the older adult may feel a world, usually through the work, or they may feel lack of sense of satisfaction or failure. purpose. Illustration source: To explore more, you may also watch: https://sproutsschools.com/erikson-psychosocial- 8 Stages of Development by Erik Erikson by Sprouts development-8-stages/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ&t=12s 1.3. Individual Self: The Subjective Being Freud (1905) believed that the human mind is divided into three levels:  The conscious mind comprises all those thoughts that you are aware of.  The subconscious mind on the other hand are thoughts that are not currently in present awareness but could easily be remembered when needed. For example, you may not be thinking about your favorite teacher's name while reading but when someone asks for his/ her name, you will be able to give them this information easily.  The unconscious mind resides in the deepest and the hard to access part of our mind. It nurses our unwanted memories, deep-seated guilt feelings, unacceptable thoughts, and desires. Freud stressed that conscious thoughts are already Source: filtered with the influence of society's expectations and http://www.loreto.herts.sch.uk/wp- content/uploads/Psychodynamic-PPT.pdf are not the accurate representation of the self. If we want to understand the self, we should not be looking into what we are conscious of, but instead, look into the dark realm of our unconscious mind because it is where our most primitive instincts lay (McLeod, 2019; Feist and Feist, 2008). Just like an iceberg, only a small portion of the mind is exposed to reality. A more significant portion of it is submerged and is unaware of reality (Mcleod, 2019). Freud (1905) 19 further noted that the mind has three provinces and the interaction between these three is what dictates human behavior. The three provinces of the mind are as follows:  the id which follows the pleasure principle  the superego follows the morality principle  the ego follows the reality principle. The id, which is totally submerged in the unconscious mind, only considers what it wants. Although partly aware, the superego is not exempted from the shadows of the unconscious mind, prompting it to make unreasonable demands often in conflict with id. The ego, aware of the situation, is the one that makes sense of the situation. It often acts according to the balance of the id, supergo and reality (Feist & Feist, 2008). Further, Carl Jung (1921) who was a former colleague of Sigmund Freud, just like Freud, believed that the unconscious mind should be the center in the study of the self. In fact, he thought that just as how genes are passed from one generation to another, the term he called collective unconscious are the ideas or thoughts we have inherited from our ancestors. In the collective unconscious, we can find the archetypes (Jung, 1921/ 1948). Anima Helps us understand feminine Mask that is adopted in behavior in males (moods & (feminine) feelings) response to the demands of social convention SELF Shadow Persona One’s striving (Evil side) for unity Unpleasant and socially Helps us understand reprehensible thoughts, masculine behaviour in feelings, and actions females (thinking & Animus reasoning) (masculine) Lesson 2: Me-Self and I-Self: William James James (1890) identified two understandings of the self, the self as "Me" and the self as "I." This distinction was initially based on the idea that the "Me" self refers to the self as an "object of experience" (self as object), and the "I" self reflects the self as a subject of experience (self as subject). (Woźniak, 2018) James‘ (1890) categorization of the Me-self and I-self can be seen through the table below: ME-SELF I-SELF Material Self Individual Self (mine, “my arm, my bag”) (Individual traits, abilities, and possessions) - Tangible objects, people, or places that - Spiritual self and aspects of the material self carry the designation of mine (body, possessions, initials) - Bodily self and extracorporeal self - Example: I am shy. I am tall. (beyond the body, e.g., emotional investment) ME-SELF I-SELF Social Self Relational Self (ours, e.g., our parents, siblings, romantic (Other people with whom we have a personal partners) relationship) - How we are regarded and recognized - Aspects of the social self by others - Example: I am my parents‘ child. - Relational self: interpersonal relationships 20  Spiritual Self Collective Self (Inner or psychological self, subjective being) (Social roles, social categories, and social group - Self-perceived abilities, attitudes, membership) emotions, interests, values, motives - Aspects of the social self - Example: I am a Filipino The ―ME‖ can be considered as a separate individual or object a person can refer to when narrating his/personal experience. Meanwhile the ―I‖ is the one who knows who he/she is and what he/she has done in his/her own life. Lesson 3: Real and Ideal Selves 3.1. Tenets of Karen Horney’s Theory (1950)  Idealized self is created when individuals feel alienated from self  An idealized self-image is an extravagantly positive picture of themselves  The Real Self can only be achieved through self-realization  Incongruence of ideal self and real self leads to self-hatred 3.2. Carl Rogers’ Theory of Self Concept Carl Rogers (1959) asserted that self- concept has three (3) different components: 1. Self-image – how you view yourself influenced by external factors such as expectations from significant others. 2. Self-esteem or self-worth – is the value you assign to yourself. 3. Ideal-self – is what you desire or expect of the ‗self.‘ He further added that we have two selves: Ideal self and Actual self. At this point, you already have an idea of your ideal and real self. Looking into your ideal and real self, how aligned are they? According to Rogers, the congruence or incongruence between the ideal and real self affects our self-esteem. Congruence Self-concept meshes well with experience (some Experience Self-concept incongruence is probably unavoidable) Incongruence Self-concept does not Self-concept Actual overlap with experience. experience When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment or there is a small gap between our real self and ideal self. When there is congruence, we feel more confident, satisfied and become self-actualized, leading to a high self-esteem. There is incongruence if there is misalignment or a big gap between the real and ideal self. In effect, we become distressed and anxious, leading to a low self-esteem or self- worth and be defensive in our actions. Experiencing incongruence could happen from time to time. In situations like this, we need to reflect, evaluate our behavior, and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back on 21 track. We have to learn to separate behaviors from the totality of one's being. We may have misbehaved but it does not mean that we are automatically an entirely bad person. Lesson 4: Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy Self-esteem refers to one‘s overall assessment of one‘s worth as a person (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2014). People with high self-esteem succeed more, have better relationships, and are happier than those with low self-esteem (Orth, Robins, & Widaman, 2012). Our self-esteem refers to how much we value ourselves and perceive our worth as a person. Self-efficacy is directly correlated with self-esteem. When our performance improves, our self-esteem improves which lead to congruence. However, an increase in self-esteem does not always lead to increase self-efficacy most especially if no effort was exerted to enhance performance. (Frank, Plunkett & Otten, 2010) It is crucial that we continuously remind ourselves to be motivated and put that motivation into action. Rogers believed that a fully functioning person is one who is, "in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing" (McLeod, 2014). Assessment I. Choose the letter of the BEST answer. Write it your answers in a ¼ yellow paper. 1. Baby Lily likes to defecate and present her feces to her parents. According to Sigmund Freud, she is in what stage of development? a. Oral c. Phallic b. Anal d. Latency 2. Jude engages in Taekwondo. At first he did not win in competitions so he trained very hard every day. Later on, he was already winning gold medals in different competitions. This can be explained by what stage of psychosocial development? a. Industry vs. Inferiority b. Intimacy vs. Isolation c. Ego identity vs. Role Confusion d. Generativity vs. Stagnation 3. This is one of Carl Jung‘s archetypes that help us understand feminine behavior. a. Persona c. Animus b. Shadow d. Anima 4. Chris is hungry however he forgot to bring his wallet in the market. He saw a fruit stall with no one looking after it. Chris rapidly grabbed an apple and run swiftly in order to escape the scene. According to Freud‘s Theory, Chris followed his ____________. a. Id c. Ego b. Superego d. Reality 5. It refers to how much we value ourselves and perceive our worth as a person. a. Self-confidence c. Self-esteem b. Self-efficacy d. Selfishness 6. This is the stage in the psychosexual development where the sexual drives reawaken but this time is directed towards other individual. a. Genital c. Phallic b. Latency d. Anal 7. Mila who is 15 years old attended the Organizations‘ Fair held in their school in order for her to figure out which clubs or organizations she can join and have fun with during her stay in the school. This is Erikson‘s _______________ stage of psychosocial development. a. Industry vs. Inferiority b. Intimacy vs. Isolation c. Ego identity vs. Role Confusion d. Generativity vs. Stagnation 22  8. This psychologist theorizes that incongruence between ideal self and real self can lead to self-hatred. a. Sigmund Freud c. Erik Erikson b. Karen Horney d. William James 9. Refer to item #2. In Freud‘s psychosexual stages, what stage is Jude in? a. Oral c. Latency b. Anal d. Phallic 10. Gerald Santos is an accomplished businessman. He likes to conduct outreach programs in far flung barangays as well as mentor young entrepreneurs. According to Erikson, Mr. Santos is in the ___________ stage of development. a. Industry vs. Inferiority b. Intimacy vs. Isolation c. Ego identity vs. Role Confusion d. Generativity vs. Stagnation 11. This psychologist proposed that can be categorized in ―I‖ self and ―Me‖ self. a. Sigmund Freud c. Erik Erikson b. Karen Horney d. William James 12. At the age of 4, Ben unconsciously gets attracted to his mother and fears that because of this, his penis might be cut-off. Ben is in what stage of Freud‘s Psychosexual Development? a. Phallic c. Latency b. Genital d. Anal 13. These are chemicals in our body that influence our behabvior. a. Neurons c. Vitamins b. Neurotransmitters d. Minerals 14. In the psychosocial development, trust and mistrust is learned through what activity? a. Defecating c. Learning b. Masturbating d. Feeding 15. When there is a small gap between your ideal self and real self, you experience ________. a. Congruence c. Incongruence b. Self-esteem d. Self-efficacy II. Make a Tiktok video with maximum 3-minute duration depicting how you personally experienced ONE of the Psychosocial Stages of Development of Erik Erikson. Make your presentation a one-man show so you are not allowed to recruit other individuals to be featured in the video but they can help in the behind the scenes (video recording and editing). 23 CHAPTER 4: THE SELF IN EASTERN THOUGHT Introduction Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the ―self‖ and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern- vs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America. It must be understood that this distinction and the countries included was politically colored at the time aforementioned concepts were accepted and used in the social sciences. Furthermore, it must be reiterated that while countries who are geographically closer to each other may share commonalities, there are also a lot of factors that create differences. In the Philippines alone, each region may have a similar or varying perception regarding the ―self‖. Learning Outcomes At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:  Differentiate the concept of self according to western thought against Eastern/oriental perspectives;  Explain the concept of self as found in Asian thoughts; and  Create a representation of the Filipino self. Lesson 1: The Self in the Eastern Thought There is no single Eastern philosophy of self. It is often argued that in the East there is no meaning of self that is independent of a person‘s relations to others. The self is fundamentally social. The different aspects of self may receive greater or lesser emphasis in different culture. The Eastern self is connected, changeable, flexible, committed being that is bound to others. This social-oriented self-view emphasizes interdependence, role-obligation, moderation and harmony within one‘s social relationships. Eastern social customs, institutions and the media all combine to foster the relational way of being, emphasizing roles, statuses and in-group membership. Many Asian cultures advocate priority of collective welfare over personal interests and reward self-control and diligent role performance. In so doing, group welfare and social harmony are ensured. Asians frequently exhibit a tendency to self-criticism and self-effacement which help to cultivate a modest self who is considerate to others‘ needs and sensitive to social mandates making him a better member of society. Lesson 1: The Self in Individualistic and Collective Cultures Culture influences how people behave as well as how the self-concept is constructed. In an attempt to promote an appreciation for diversity among individuals, it is important to understand what cross-cultural perspective is. This perspective examines differences in expressions of the self in individualistic and collectivistic cultures that represent the Eastern concepts of the self. Individualism is defined as a situation in which people are concerned with themselves and close family members only, while collectivism is defined as a situation in which people feel they belong to larger in-groups or collectives which care for them in exchange for loyalty and vice versa (Hofstede & Bond, 1984). Individualism and collectivism are so deeply ingrained in a culture that they mold self- conceptions and identities. According to Markus and Kitayama (1991), most North Americans and Europeans have an independent view of the self as an entity that is distinct, autonomous, self-contained and endowed with unique dispositions. Yet in much of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, people hold an interdependent view of the self as part of a larger social network that includes their family, co-workers and others to whom they are socially connected. Consequently, Markus and Kitayama report that Americans are most likely to express jealousy, pride, and other ―ego-focused‖ emotions that affirm the self as an autonomous entity. 24 Lesson 2: Notions of the Self in Classical Eastern Thoughts To explore more fully the Eastern conceptions of selfhood and identity, four (4) Asian traditions are discussed – Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism or Daoism. 2.1. HINDUISM The best place to begin in examining the classical Eastern thoughts is by looking at Hinduism. Hinduism is a religion, a way of life, a philosophy as well as a social system. Hinduism centers on the Vedic notion of Atman or soul. The Atman is the true self that lies at the inner core of man‘s human identity, and it is only this inner core that is identical with Brahman. The Brahman is essentially the sacred, the Self-God who is the God of the Cosmos – the Universe. Within each individual there is the Self-God, Brahman. The Hindu philosophy conceives of three (3) states of existence – 1) Waking (Jagrta) 2) Dream (Swapna), and 3) Deep Dreamless Sleep (Sushupti). These states are based on another state that forms the unobservable framework – the Turiya. The Turiya has been variously described as the self that is identical with the larger self. Further, the three states of existence – Deep Sleep, Dream, and Waking are linked to the three forms of bodies the Hindus believe in – Causal body (Kaarana), Subtle body (Sukshma), and Gross body (Sthula) respectively. 2.2. BUDDHISM Buddhism was founded in India by Gautama Siddharta (563 -483 BCE) better known as Buddha, a term which means the “Enlightened One”. Buddhism in essence, is not a religion nor is it a philosophy. It is rather a way of salvation, a way of life. It enables a person to achieve a sense of detachment from the inherent problems of existence. The foundation of all Buddhist teaching is the four (4) Noble Truths – 1) Life is suffering, 2) the cause of suffering is desire, 3) The end of suffering is achieved by extinguishing the desire. This is the state of Nirvana, meaning ―to extinguish‖, and 4) Nirvana is achieved by adopting a series of moral attitudes, beliefs, and actions which Buddha collectively calls the Noble eightfold paths. Briefly, these are the eight (8) paths: 1. Adopt right views that are free from superstition or delusion. 2. Have right aims that are high and worthy of the intelligent person. 3. Practice right speech which is kind, open, and truthful. 4. Perform right conduct that is peaceful, honest, and pure. 5. Adopt a right livelihood that brings no harm or danger to living things. 6. Put forth the right effort in self-training and self-control. 7. Have right mindfulness insofar as you are fully aware of the present moment and not preoccupied with hopes or worries. 8. Engage in right concentration which involves proper meditation that leads to Nirvana. The Eightfold path endorses many of the values that since childhood a person been taught to adopt. They are recommendations for one to conduct a normal desire-filled life in a civilized manner. 2.3. CONFUCIANISM Confucius (551 – 479 BCE) was born in China‘s Shandong province. His family name was ―Kung‖ and the name ―Confucius‖ is a Latinized version of ―Kung Fu Tzu‖ which means Master King. Confucianism, the teachings of Confucius, has played an important role in forming Chinese character, behavior, and way of living (Eliot, 2001; Guo, 1995). Its purpose is to achieve harmony, the most important social value. Confucianism strongly emphasizes 25 mercy, social order, and fulfilment of responsibilities. This is achieved by everyone having well defined roles and acting towards others in a proper way. ―Ren‖ is the central ethical principle, and is equivalent to the concepts of love, mercy, and humanity. It is best explicated by Confucius in the Golden Rule: ―Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.‖ Confucianism is humanistic in seeking goodness and happiness not in nature or beyond nature but in humanity itself. It is pragmatic which believes in the unity of thought and action. Confucian ideals were brought more ―down to earth‖, made more concrete and practical, more utility-based and oriented at the welfare of others. A central value in Confucianism is filial piety wherein the family is the center/core and comes before the individual. There are five (5) cardinal relations – 1) Ruler and Minister, 2) Father and Son, 3) Elder and Younger Brother, 4) husband and Wife, and 5) between Friends. With regard to filial piety, sons, especially the oldest son, have specific obligations toward the family and are expected to respect and care for parents. 2.4. TAOISM/DAOISM The founding of Taoism/Daoism is credited to two Chines philosophers, Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu. The path of understanding Taoism is accepting oneself. Live life and discern who you are. The Taoists concept of self is like a deconstructed Western self. Taoism represents the Chinese counter culture. To them, the good life is the simple life, spontaneous, in harmony with nature, and unaffected by societal regulations. The Taoist‘s self is without a center and is not hierarchically organized. It does not seek sovereignty. He is a selfless person whose mind is likened to a mirror according to Chuang-tzu. By seeing through the self and others, the person is able ―to mirror things as they are.‖ Taoism teaches a person to live in his heart, to accept life as it is, and following his breath to find peace. Taoism also teaches a person to drop expectations. The expectations a person has in his life, the less he will become. The Tao has three (3) jewels (virtues) that they endear – 1) compassion, kindness, love (ci), 2) moderation, simplicity, frugality (jian), and 3) humility, and modesty (Bugan wei tian xia xian). To explore more, you may also watch: What Is Hinduism?? by Cogito https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlBEEuYIWwY What Is Buddhism? by Cogito https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNdgT6VCuu0 Intro to Confucianism by ReligionForBreakfast https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PG-XUE0CyQk What Is Taoism? by Cogito https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6hslRjGaww 26  Assessment I. Identification Column A Column B 1. This philosophy in essence is not a religion nor a. Hinduism is it a philosophy but rather a way of salvation, a b. Buddhism way of life. c. Confucianism 2. It is defined as a situation in which people are d. Taoism/Daoism concerned with themselves and close family e. Individualism members only. f. Collectivism 3. ______ strongly emphasizes mercy, social order, and fulfilment of responsibilities. 4. It is considered a religion, a way of life, a philosophy as well as a social system. 5. It is a philosophy that states that Nirvana is achieved by adopting a series of moral attitudes, beliefs, and actions which Buddha collectively calls the Noble eightfold paths. 6. This philosophy believes in the Golden Rule: ―Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.‖ 7. The path of understanding this philosophy is accepting oneself. 8. According to _____, the Tao has three virtues that they endear – 1) compassion, kindness, love; 2) moderation, simplicity, frugality; and 3) humility, and modesty. 9. It is defined as a situation in which people feel they belong to larger in-groups or collectives which care for them in exchange for loyalty and vice versa. 10. This philosophy believes that within each individual there is the Self-God, Brahman. II. Using a Venn diagram, how would you describe the differences and similarities of Eastern Thought and Western Philosophy? Similarities Eastern Western Thought Thought (differences) (differences) 27 UNIT 2 UNPACKING THE SELF: DISCOVERING THE COMPONENTS OF THE SELF CHAPTER 1: PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL SELF Introduction As observed, people especially generation nowadays are so conscious with the way they look. Some are already satisfied and happy with who they are and what they have but then, others are also busy making improvements with their faces and bodies; believing that they would be more acceptable to the society. This often builds or breaks relationships. Some people exert too much effort, time and money just to look better to others. Beauty is sometimes associated with physical attractiveness. This topic will give us a wider view and understanding of ourselves through the discussion of the development of our physical and sexual characteristics and behaviour. Learning Outcomes At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:  define physical self;  discuss the different views of one‘s physical self;  determine the factors that influence the change of view of one‘s physical self;  discuss the developmental aspect of the reproductive system;  describe the erogenous zones;  explain human sexual behaviour;  characterize the diversity of sexual behaviour;  describe sexually transmitted diseases; and  differentiate natural and artificial methods of contraception. Lesson 1: Physical Self There is always a pressure in our society to look good, and to seek a visually better version of ourselves. We often get so caught up with the ways we can make sure that we look beautiful and nice, that sometimes, we frown at our natural looks, our dark complexion perhaps, or even our short stature. Our physical selves have become so dependent on the judgment of our appearance, and not with the celebration of it. Physical self refers to the body, a spectacular and complicated machine which we associate with the surroundings and fellow beings. It is the tangible element, the concrete aspects of a person that can be observed and examined directly. A man is born, he grows, he ages, and then he dies. Growth and development are ongoing process that begins at conception and continues through the rest of man‘s life. There are a lot of physical and psychological changes that are part of man‘s maturation and life. Growth is a physical change. Development is psychological and social changes in an individual such as behavioural and thinking patterns. 1.1. Factors that Influence Growth and Development The integrated nature of growth and development is largely maintained by a constant interaction of different factors. These factors also influence physical performance: HEREDITY – Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs. Different characteristics of growth and development like intelligence, aptitudes, body structure, height, weight, hair, and eyes are highly influenced by heredity. 28 NUTRITION – Growth is directly related to nutrition. The human body requires an adequate supply of calories for its normal growth and this need of requirements varies with the phase of development. ENVIRONMENT – Fresh air, sunlight, and hygienic surroundings help in the proper development of the body. Pollution is part of the environment. According to studies, air pollution not only affects the respiratory organs but also has harmful effects on human growth. Other forms of pollution that can affect growth and development include water pollution, sound pollution, soil pollution, and mind pollution. SOCIOECONOMIC – Socioeconomic influence on human growth is also a well-known factor. Children from different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages. The upper level families are always more advanced. The most important reasons behind this are better nutrition, better facilities, regular meals, and home conditions. Home conditions reflect the intelligence and personality of parents. Family size also influence growth rate as in big families with limited income sometimes have children that do not get the proper nutrition. Hence, the growth is affected. HEALTH HABITS – Keeping clean through daily bath, washing of hands as often as needed, brushing the teeth, cleaning nose and ears are commendable health habits. By keeping the body clean, diseases and body illnesses are minimized. Exercise makes muscles strong, improves body flexibility, heart, lungs, and other body parts to function efficiently. Sleep and rest are very helpful health habits. Recreation helps one develop physically, socially, and mentally. CULTURAL – Physical growth and development of human beings is definitely affected by cultural factors. Cultures differ from one ethnic group to another. Racial factors also influence height, weight, color, features, and body constitution. LOVE – Love is a very vital factor influencing a person‘s all-around development without which he develops into a person with criminal tendencies. Children who are loved grow up with a feeling of security and are more confident of their selves. They also have better self- esteem and higher self-worth. 1.2. Theories of Physical Self PHYSIOGNOMY – Physiognomy is a practice of assessing a person‘s character or personality from his outer appearance especially the face. It can also refer to the general appearance of a person, object, or terrain. Notions of the relationship between a person‘s outward appearance and inner character are historically ancient. Chinese physiognomy shows a person how to live his life in alignment with his own natural flow. It can help him find the life path that gives him joy, attracts relationships that can nurture him and most of all enables him to feel compassion from himself and others. Every feature of a person has a message about him. For example, a rounded forehead, and the intuitive, strong eyebrows, is the warrior. Crow‘s feet, the diagonal lines at the sides of the eyes, sometimes called the ―joy lines‖ reveal warm and affectionate personality with an open heart. An angular face may mean having criminal tendency. Lavater, the principal promoter of physiognomy confirms the ideas of Browne (1605 – 1682) and Della Porta (1535 – 1615) on the possibility of the discernment of inner qualities from the outer appearance of the face. Physiognomy also became of use in the field of Criminology. Cesare Lombroso championed the notion that ―criminality‖ was inherited and that criminals could be identified by physical attributes such as hawk-like noses, bloodshot eyes, large jaws, forward projection of jaws, low sloping forehead, and high cheekbones. Lombroso used the term ―atavism‖ to describe these primitive, ape-like behaviors that he found in many of those whom he deemed prone to criminality. Lombroso‘s ideologies are now recognized as pseudo-science. Modern criminology finds many of his teachings incorrect but he had a great influence over criminology and physiognomy. MORPHOPSYCHOLOGY – In France, the concept of Morphopsychology was developed by Louis Corman (1901 – 1995). He argued that the workings of vital forces within the human body resulted in different facial shapes and body forms. For example, full and 29 round body shapes are considered the expression of the instinct of expansion while the hollow or flat shapes are an expression of self-preservation. William Herbert Sheldon Jr., an American psychologist created the field of somatotype and constitutional psychology that tried to correlate body types with behavior, intelligence, an social hierarchy. In somatotypology, he classified people according to three (3) body types. These are the endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs. Endomorphs are rounded and soft, said to have a tendency toward a ―viscerotonic‖ personality – one who is relaxed, comfortable and extroverted. Mesomorphs are square and muscular, said to have a tendency toward ―somotonic‖ personality – active, dynamic, assertive, and aggressive. Ectomorphs are thin and fine-boned, said to have a tendency toward ―cerebrotonic‖ personality – introvert, thoughtful inhibited, and sensitive. Sheldon, later used this classification system to explain delinquent behavior, finding the deliquents were likely to be high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy. He argued that mesomorphy‘s temperaments as active and aggressive but lacking in sensitivity and inhibition tended to cause delinquency and criminal bahavior. 1.3. Body Image and Self- Esteem Body image is both the mental picture a person has of his own body and how he sees himself when he looks in the mirror. Self-esteem is how he values and respects himself as a person. Self-esteem affects how that person takes care of himself emotionally, physically and spiritually. Both body image and self-esteem directly influence one another. A positive environment where family and friends are supportive of each other and accept each other‘s appearance is essential to self-esteem and body image. Despite the strong association of self-esteem and body image, a decline in one‘s body image does not necessarily produce a corresponding change in self-esteem. Here are some tips to boost the body image by Jessie‘s Legacy. 1. ACCEPT YOUR BODY a. Nobody is perfect. Everybody wants t