Philosophical Perspectives of the Self PDF

1 Philosophical Perspectives of the Self By: Asst.Prof. Gino A. Cabrera, MPsy, CSIOP, RPm Who am I? What I am? Are others aware of who they are? Who or what defines the self? These pressing questions have been asked and debated by philosophers, sc...

1 Philosophical Perspectives of the Self By: Asst.Prof. Gino A. Cabrera, MPsy, CSIOP, RPm Who am I? What I am? Are others aware of who they are? Who or what defines the self? These pressing questions have been asked and debated by philosophers, scholars, and religious thinkers since time immemorial. Their arguments were based on their own personal opinions, experiences, critical thinking, observations, and even imaginative speculations. In short, these philosophers or thinkers relied on their individualized way of looking at the self as an entity of analysis. As a result, they arrived at a wide array of conceptions about the self. Some of their perspectives come as a reaction to the other, making them sometimes opposing and distinctly unique. This chapter will introduce to you the various philosophical views of early thinkers that may help you in your quest for self-discovery, in understanding the self, others, and the world. We shall also discover a glimpse of these philosophers’ life experiences which might have influenced their philosophy about the self. In the same way, you may also reflect your own journey through life in order to come up with your own philosophical perspective about the self or self-developed theory that is grounded on your experiences. Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, students should be able to: 1. Familiarize the different philosophers and thinkers who offered a concept in understanding the self; 2. Appreciate the various philosophical viewpoints in understanding the self; and 3. Develop a deeper understanding of the self through the various philosophical perspectives. Discussion “An unexamined life is not worth living.” - Socrates The quest to understand the self started as early as the Greek civilization where ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle offered their philosophical frameworks. It continuous to flourish during the Medieval period with Christian thinkers like St. Augustine and with the likes of René Descartes during the pre- modern age. Until the post-modernism period, perspectives on understanding the self constantly grow to suggest that all reality should be questioned and that people construct meanings into their lives based on their culture and society (Neukrug, 2011). The word philosophy came from the Greek words “philos” which means love or loving, and “sophos” meaning wise that literally translates to love of wisdom. Philosophy employs the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of everything (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). It is a discipline that is different from science and does not engage in scientific method of investigation but rather explore to understand GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  2 reality and human existence through personal hunches and in-depth inquiries. Philosophy remains as the unique discipline that asks significant questions that other fields are unable to address (Bulaong et al., 2018). Understanding the self is one of the prime focus of philosophers and thinkers. We will now begin the journey of getting to know who these philosophers and thinkers and their respective viewpoints about the self. Socrates (470 - 399 BC) Socrates was known for his expression “an unexamined life is not worth living” or simply “know thyself.” Understanding the self has probably started during his time about 2, 000 years ago. His expression “know thyself” is considered the forerunner of the introspective method. He was the first one who suggested that we should rely on rational though and introspection or the careful examination of one’s own thoughts and emotions in order to achieve self- knowledge or to understand the self (Rathus, 2012). Followers of Socrates called this as the Socratic method. Later, introspection will be re-introduced by St. Augustine in a more systematic way. Socrates. © Pinterest.com He believed that the self is the soul and suggested that reality consists of two dichotomous realms – physical and ideal. The physical realm is changeable, transient, and imperfect. The ideal realm is unchanging, eternal, and immortal. The body belongs to the physical realms while the intellectual essences of the soul such as truth, goodness, and beauty belong to the ideal realm. For him, a person can have a happy and meaningful life by becoming virtuous and knowing one’s own significance which can be achieved through soul-searching or introspection (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). Plato (428/427 - 348/347 BC) Plato, also a Greek thinker, is credited as one of the pioneers of philosophy as his various writings brings up and discuss carefully and creatively some of the questions that later thinkers called Neo-platonic like St. Augustine, will find to be of great significance to humankind. He started a school in Athens which would be known as the Academy and is believed to be the first institution of higher learning in the Western World (Bulaong et al., 2018). As a student of Socrates, he also believed with the soul. For him, it is distinct to man and it is God-given. Thus, it inhibits the body Plato. © Pinterest.co.uk GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  3 as “knower,” “thinker,” and “determiner” of individual’s actions (Aguierre et al., 2012). He also introduced the three parts of the soul. First is the reason which is the divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices, and achieve a true understanding of eternal truths. Second is the physical appetite that includes our basic instinctual needs including hunger, thirst, and sexual desire. Thirdly, the spirit or passion includes basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition, aggressiveness, and empathy. These three elements are in dynamic and sometimes conflicting relationship. Reason has the responsibility to sort things out to restore the balance between these elements (Go- Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). To him, knowledge existed in the soul prior to any actual experience. In one of his writings, he questioned an uneducated slave boy in such a manner that the boy appears to have knowledge of geometry, even though he had never had any acquaintance with the subject. The implication is that the knowledge existed in the soul prior to birth (Lundin, 1991). Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) Aristotle studied philosophy under Plato in Athens. He was considered to be the brightest among Plato’s students in the Academy. He later founded his own school, Lyceum, where he became a very productive intellectual who also served as the mentor of Alexander the Great (Bulaong et al., 2018). He is considered to be the first person to put into writing an explanation pertaining to behavior of man (Aguierre et al., 2012). He also believed with the soul and introduced its three functions. The first function is vegetative which deals with the basic maintenance of life. The second one is appetitive which focuses on the desires and motives. Lastly, the rational governs reason that is located in the heart. For him, the brain is simply a gland Aristotle. © Nytimes.com that can only perform basic functions. He argued that human behavior, like movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and laws or how they exist or evolve (Rathus, 2012). For Aristotle, the rational makes us different from other living creatures. In addition, he also proposed four concepts which give way to understand any being. According to Aristotle, any being can have four causes. First, we recognize that any being is corporeal, possessed, or made up of physical materials. This refers to the material cause. Because it is made up of material stuff, it takes a shape that could identify that a man is different from a monkey. The shape refers to the form of the being, so each being has a formal cause. Also, there is something which brings about the presence of another being, such as a parent beget a child or a log was made into a table. This refers to the efficient cause. Lastly, since every being has an apparent end or goal, there must be a final cause (Bulaong et al., 2018). Like a child to become an adult, final cause gives a way to understand the self. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  4 Further, he also offered the concept of potency and act. A being may carry within itself certain potentials (potency), but this requires to be actualized (act). In such a way, a child is not yet a full-grown adult, this potency is latent in the child and will be actualized as the child grows up and achieves what he/ she is supposed to be (Bulaong et al., 2018). St. Augustine (354 - 430 AD) St. Augustine of Hippo was born in North Africa of a pagan father and a Christian mother. After a youth of revelry, he was converted to Christianity and later became the Bishop of Hippo in North Africa. He is a Catholic saint who combined the Greek Platonic though with Christian thinking. He introduced the method of introspection where in an individual tries to describe his own conscious process (Aguierre et al., 2012). He believed that one should detached from worldy affairs, for true knowledge can only be attained through God. Through introspection, the soul could know what was true and known by faith. The soul works like the Trinity of three functions: memory, intelligence (understanding), and will. Still like the Trinity, which was a three-in-one, the soul was a single unity not divisible into parts. In today’s world, St. Augustine. © Tylormarshall.com introspection works in therapies and projective testing in statements like “tell me anything that comes to your mind” (Lundin, 1991). The soul is the “spouse” of the body; united and attached to one another. But unlike the earlier philosopher, his definition of soul has a religious flavor. Augustine is convinced that the self is known only through knowing God. He espouses the significance of reflection, as well as the importance of prayers and confessions to arrive at a justification for the existence of God. For him, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us” and that truth is knowing God. The self seeks to be united with God through faith and reason (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). René Descartes (1596 - 1650) Descartes is revered as a philosopher, a mathematician, and a psychologist who was born in France. He is considered as the father of modern philosophy. He has brought an entirely new perspective to philosophy and the self. He wants to penetrate the nature of reasoning process and understand its relationship to the human self. The Latin phrase Cogito ergo sum – “I think therefore I am” is the keystone of his concept of self. For him, GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  5 the act of thinking about the self or of being self-conscious is in itself a solid basis that there is self that exists (Go- Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). He introduced the idea of dualism and the concept of reflex action which indicates that the mind and body interact. The mind is the spiritual entity – the thinking self and the body is the physical or material entity – the physical self. Although they are considered to be distinct from each other, they work together to make the individual functional (Aguierre et al., 2012). He explained his theory on reflexes by comparing the operation of the human body to a machine. He presumed the nerves were hallow tubes with animal spirits which are gaseous substances derived from the body by a process of distillation. He thought of the animal spirits as material substances which could move René Descartes. © imdb.com very quickly, like sparks shooting off from a flame. It is said that Descartes originated his idea of the action of the nervous system from observing how fountains worked in the gardens of the great palaces (Lundin, 1991). John Locke (1632 - 1704) Locke was born in England and was educated in Oxford. He introduced the idea that all experiences may be analyzed. He is also well-known for his term “Tabula Rasa” or a blank slate of which at birth, the mind is just a blank sheet that collects its contents through experiences that a person will go through in his/ her entire life (Aguierre et al., 2012). Locke had read the work of Descartes and he opposed his notion that some ideas were inborn through his own theory of knowledge. He argued that if ideas were innate, they should be constant in all minds, but neither the John Locke. © thegreatthinkers.org new-born nor the illiterate shared them. If innate, ideas should not show development, but they did. In his analysis, Locke wrote that all ideas came from experience. Basically, the mind was passive, and could only do two things. First, it could receive experiences from the outside world: this involved the act of sensing. Locke was actively concerned with the whole process of sensation, since it was the primary source of all knowledge. Second, the mind could reflect upon itself. It was basically through this process of reflection, or what we call it today as introspection, that it became possible for people to engage in the process we call thinking. (Lundin, 1991). In stating that all knowledge came from experience, he was obviously a follower of the Aristotelian thoughts. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  6 David Hume (1711 - 1776) Hume was a Scotsman who believed that the mind is nothing but a heap or collection of different perceptions, unified together by certain relationships (Lundin, 1991). As an empiricist, he believes that one can know what comes from the sense and experience. The self is nothing but the physical body. Empiricism is the school of thought that espouses the idea that knowledge can only be possible if it is sensed and experienced (Alata et al., 2018). To Hume, what people experience is just a bundle or collection of different perceptions. He maintains that if people carefully examine the contents of their experience through introspection, they will find that there are only distinct entities: impressions and ideas (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, David Hume. © onthisday.com 2018). All we knew was that we had impressions (sensations) and ideas. We believed there was a real object only because our impressions tended to fit together such as you cannot prove a table existed in the classroom after you have left the room (Lundin, 1991). Impressions are basic sensations that include hate, love, joy, grief, pain, cold, and heat that are so strong and lively. They are the core of our thoughts. Meanwhile, ideas are thoughts and images from impressions that are less lively and vivid (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). When one touches an ice cube, the cold sensation is an impression. Impressions therefore are vivid because they are products of our direct experience with the world while ideas are copies of impressions. Because of this, they are not as lively and vivid as our impressions. When one imagines the feelings of being in love for the first time, that is an idea (Alata et al., 2018). Hume claims that people have no experience of a simple and individual impression that they can call the self where the self is the totality of a person’s consciousness (Go- Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). Hence, for him, there is no self. Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) Kant is a German Enlightenment philosopher who brought our attention to the fact that we, human beings, have the faculty called rational will, which is the capacity to act according to principles that we determine ourselves (Bulaong et al., 2018). The word “faculty” here means inherent mental capacity. He opposed the concept of Locke that the mind is a blank slate, rather, according to him, it is capable of acquiring knowledge through sensory experience (Aguierre et al., 2012). GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  7 Rationality consists of the mental faculty to construct ideas and thoughts that are beyond our immediate surroundings. This is the capacity for mental abstraction, which arises from the operations of the faculty of reason. This makes humans different from animals, we have the ability to stop and think about what we are doing. We can remove ourselves mentally from the immediacy of our surroundings and reflect on our actions and how such actions affect the world. Thus, we do not only have the capacity to imagine, reflect on, and construct mental images, but we also have the ability to act on and make them real. This ability is the basis for the rational will (Bulaong et al., 2018). In other words, humans can act according to reasons while animals act according to their Immanuel Kant. © gosouth.co.za impulses. Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 1976) Gilbert Ryle was born in Brighton, Sussex, England. He solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a long time in the history of thought as reflected in the previous philosophers by denying blatantly the concept of an internal, non-physical self. For him, what truly matter is the behaviors that a person does. He referred to the self an entity no one can locate and analyze. It is rather a convenient name that people use to refer to all the behaviors that people make (Alata et al., 2018). Ryle’s concept of the human self provides us with the principle, “I act, therefore I am.” In short, the self is the same as bodily behaviors. He concludes the human mind is the totality of the human person, the way we behave, our system of thoughts, and our emotions (Go-Monilla & Gilbert Ryle. © jstor.org Ramirez, 2018). Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908 - 1961) Maurice Merleau-Ponty, a French philosopher and public intellectual, was the leading academic proponent of existentialism and phenomenology in post-war France. Best known for his original and influential work on embodiment, perception, and ontology, he also made important contributions to the philosophy of art, history, language, nature, and politics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016). GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  8 He asserted that the mind-body issue that has been going on for a long time is an invalid problem. Unlike Ryle who denied the self, Merleau-Ponty said that the mind and body are intertwined that they cannot be separated from one another. One cannot find any experience that is not an embodied experience. Because of this, he also dismissed the Cartesian Dualism which he described as a plain misunderstanding. The living body, thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all one (Alata et al., 2018). Paul Churchland (born 1942) Maurice Merleau-Ponty. © prabook.com Paul Churchland is a Canadian philosopher and author who is known for his "eliminative materialism", the view that the mind is the brain. The self, therefore, is inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body. Hence, “no brain, no self.” For him, the physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives people the sense of self. The mind does not really exist because it cannot be experienced by the senses (Go-Monilla & Ramirez, 2018). Paul Churchland. © alchet Evaluation Multiple Choice. Write the letter of your answer in the space provided before each number. _______ 1. During this period, perspectives on understanding the self suggest that all reality should be questioned, and that people construct meanings into their lives. a. Greek civilization c. Medieval period b. Pre-modern period d. Post-modern period _______ 2. When you engage yourself in the process of carefully examining your own thoughts and emotions, you are doing ___________. a. self-discovery c. introspection b. prayerful reflection d. phenomenology _______ 3. If body is to physical realm; truth, goodness, and beauty is to _________ realm. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  9 a. immortal c. imaginative b. ideal d. rational _______ 4. Plato’s three parts of the soul are reason, __________, and spirit or passion. a. vegetative c. rational b. appetitive d. form _______ 5. For Aristotle, the rational function is located at the ________. a. mind c. heart b. soul d. self _______ 6. Which of the following is not a function of the soul according to St. Augustine? a. memory c. intelligence b. will d. reason _______ 7. Which of the following pairs of philosophers have conflicting concept about knowledge? One said that knowledge existed even before the actual experience, while the other one argued that knowledge is acquired through experience. a. Socrates and Plato c. Churchland and Hume b. Descartes and Aristotle d. Plato and Locke _______ 8. Who said that “there is no self, only physical body”? a. Churchland c. Hume b. Ryle d. Socrates _______ 9. Who among the following thinkers is a known phenomenologist? a. Ryle c. Merleau-Ponty b. Churchland d. Kant _______ 10. He defined the self simply as bodily behaviors. a. Socrates c. Hume b. Ryle d. Kant Assignment/ Activity 1. Look for a detailed biography of one of the philosophers discussed in this module and make an analysis on how their life experiences influenced their concepts about the self. Cite your sources or references. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  10 _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. Complete the following matrix. Philosopher Concept about the self 1. Socrates 2. Plato 3. Aristotle 4. St. Augustine 5. Descartes 6. Locke 7. Hume 8. Kant 9. Ryle 10. Merleau-Ponty 11. Churchland Criteria for Assessment/ Rubrics for Scoring: Description Points The content of the answer is relevant, 2 points well-explained and directly answers the question. The thoughts or ideas presented are well- 2 points organized and coherent. The technical terminologies and 1 point punctuation marks are properly and correctly used. Total 5 points GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  11 References Aguirre, F. U., Monce, M. R. E., Dy, G. C., Caguioa, I. C., Pa-At, B. E., & Perez, V. G. (2012). Introduction to psychology (2011 ed.). Malabon City, Philippines: Mutya Publishing House, Inc. Alata, E. J. P., Caslib, B. N., Serafica, J. P. J., & Pawilen, R. A. (2018). Understanding the self. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Strore, Inc. Bulaong, O. G., Calano, M. J. T., Lagliva, A. M., Mariano, M. N. E., & Principe, J. D. Z. (2018). Ethics: Foundations of moral valuation. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Strore, Inc. Go-Monilla, M. J. A. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. Manila, Philippines: C & E Publishing, Inc. Lundin, R. W. (1991). Theories and systems of psychology (5th ed.). Lexingtin, MA: D. C. Health and Company. Neukrug, E. (2011). Counseling theory and practice. Belmont, CA: Brooks/ Cole, Cengage Learning. Rathus, S. A. (2012). Psychology (2nd ed.). Singapore: Cengage Learning. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2016). Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Retrieved August 10, 2020 from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/merleau-ponty/ GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  12 The Western and Eastern Concepts of Self By: Asst. Prof. Noreen P. Echague, RGC, RPm I. OVERVIEW This chapter outlines the Western and Eastern concepts of self and how they differ and agree on certain perspective. The Western thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous, unitary, and stable. In contrast, in Eastern thought, the emphasis is relational rather than individualistic. The self is considered not in isolation but in relation to others, society, and the universe. One unique feature of Eastern is its great reverence for nature. The Western conceptualization of the self is presented in the four aspects and divided into three periods of historical development while the Eastern concepts of the self- presented based on the four great systems of Eastern thought: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by taking seriously the culture of others. It forces you to pay attention to those details of life which differentiate them from you. -Edward T. Hall II. LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the chapter, you should be able to: 1. Recognize how individuals view the self as a product of socialization. 2. Understand how culture and self are complementary concepts. 3. Identify the western and eastern concepts of self. 4. Understand the western and eastern concepts of self as a way of life; and 5. Examine your own conceptualization of self. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  13 III. DISCUSSION Glimpse on Sociological and Anthropological Perspectives of Self Sociological Sociology is a part of everyday life. The self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves, others, and to social systems. The self is socially constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people. Monilla and Ramirez (2018), explained that the sociological perspective of the self assumes that human behavior is influenced by group life. A view of oneself is formed through interactions with other people, groups, or social institutions. How sociology impacts students’ everday lives and provide a pathway to self uderstanding of “who you are and “what you are” in contemporary society. True enough, modernization has significantly changed society, and this has affected how individual builds and develops his or her self-identity. Futhermore, according to Monilla and Ramirez, (2018), sociology as a scientific study of social groups and human relationships generates new insights into the interconnectedness between the self and other people. Hence, sociologist offer theories to explain how the self emerges as a product of social experience. Anthropological As defined by Monilla and Ramirez (2018), anthropology is concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human experience. Contemporary anthropologists believe that culture and self are complementary concepts that are to be understood in relation to one other. Also, the work of Otig, Gallinero, Bataga, et al., (2018), reported that how individuals see themselves, how they relate to other people, and how they relate to the environment are deeply defined by culture. If one finds the view that the “self” is a product of society, then it is plausible that the ways of how the self is developed are bound to cultural differences as well. In short, the self as embedded in culture. Moreover, Haviland et al., (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) explained that anthopology considers human experience as an interplay of “nature”, referrings to genetic inheritance which sets the individul’s potentials, and “nurture”, referring to the sociocultural environment. Therefore, it could be understood that both biological and cultural factors have significant influence on the development of self-awareness among individuals within the society. This could be the answer to the question, “Who am I?”. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  14 Western Concept of Self Geertz (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) defined the Western concept of self as “a bounded, unique, more or less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment, and action organized into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and against its social and natural background”. Moreover, Ho (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) described the Western self as an individualistic self that is deeply aware of itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose, and volition. The self is located at the center within the individual through which the world is perceived. The self is also seen as “an entity distinct from other selves and other entities”. This implies that the self belongs to the individual and to no other. The focus is always looking toward the self. The Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the following aspects. This is how the term ‘self” is used in contemporary western discussion, according to Johnson and Goldin (as cited in Otig et al., 2018) 1. Western Self as Analytic - this is the “tendency to see reality as an aggregate of parts.” The “self” is an observer separate and distinct from external objects (Me versus Other). This implies that the Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on the causal links (part-to-whole relationships). The whole is understood when differentiated into parts. One must categorize and make distinctions to pursue cause (Monilla and Ramirez, 2018). 2. Western Self as Monotheistic - it involved the tendency toward unitary explanations of phenomena and a closed- system view of “self” as modeled after a unitary, omnipotent power (“Man was created by God, in His image). According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), this is the belief in one Supreme being coexisting with the universe condenses the supernatural and human capabilities into bipolarity of both qualities and existence (e.g. beautiful/ugly; kind/cruel; sacred/profane; strong/weak; etc.) and categories of identity or experience (e.g., God/Satan; body/soul; love/lust; sinner/saint; etc.) 3. Western Self as Individualistic - this is a quality of western thinking where self-expressiona and self-actualization are important ways of establishing who one is, as well as in finding satisfaction in the world. Monilla and Ramirez (2018) explained that Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent in personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides opportunities GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  15 for self-fulfilment, it also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration. 4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic - Western thinking tends to discredit explanations that do not use anayltic- deductive modes of thinking. According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the western way of thinking is focused on material “things” and favors a rational- empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial “things”. The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self (Monilla and Ramirez. 2018. Understanding the Self) Stage Period Historical Development 1 Pre-christian There were philosophical and theological attempts to times until characterize the self through the concepts of soul and mind 1850 with emphasis on conscious experience of the individual, distinction between physical and mental nature of man (mind- body dualism), and the causality of human behavior. 2 1850-1940 The establishment of experimental psychology in mid- nineteenth century led to a change in emphasis from abstract concepts of soul and mind to observable and measurable aspects of human faculties. The concept of self-re-emerged within the social- interactionist framework in the early the early 1900s. 3 1940-present There is multidirectional and continuous development of concept of self: a. Sociological and psychological theories of self-encompass all three levels of self, namely inner self, interpersonal self, social self. b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy and psychology, engaged in holistic approach integrating the inner, interpersonal, and social aspects of self. c. At present, there is convergence in some conceptualization of the self among psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, and linguists whose studies focus on the actual, multivariate, and situational contexts of the self- employing new frameworks and methodologies. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  16 Eastern Concept of Self The most well-known conceptions of the self in Eastern are represented by the views of Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. This is because in the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. According to Garcia (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), these Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and approaches to various issues about selfhood. For this reason, the eastern thought is described as pluralistic. Moreover, Villaba (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) reported that although these four systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self, they share the same goal – to teach how to become a perfect person. The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought 1. Hinduism Hinduism views the essence of human life as consisting in suffering and asserts that this is caused by having a fallacious conception of the self. Therefore, the true self is permanent and unchanging, the non-true self is impermanent and changes continually. According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the Hindu concept of self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian though based on Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman absolute reality; and Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman. Moreover, Monilla et al., (2018), explained that vedanta characterizes human suffering as the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes continually). The goal of the person is to have a knowledge of the true reality – Brahman. Ho (as cited in Monilla et al., 2018) reported that self-realization is being united to all embracing Brahman. But the realization of true selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of individual identity. The vast cultural differences in India led to the emergence of different strands of Hindu traditions, each different for every region, villages or families. Nevertheless, all believe in the spiritual progress of the human soul called karma. This works through reincarnation in which a person goes through a cycle of death and rebirth which depends on the moral quality of a previous life. The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes. This is equivalent of the old saying, “what you sow is what you reap”. To receive happiness, peace, love and friendship, one must be happy, peaceful, loving and a true friend. People get exactly what they GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  17 deserve. If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will be punished. Thus, it is important for Hindus to know and follow one’s dharma or moral responsibilities. 2. Buddhism It began in India when Siddharta Gautama travelled and meditated in search for the answers troubling him concerning human suffering. During his meditation under the Bodhi tree, he obtained Bodhi or enlightenment. Thus, he became the Buddha or the Enlightened One. The root word of Buddhism is budh meaning to awake which leads to more undestanding of the self and the world. According to Mansukhani (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), based to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. But the seed shall be nurtured. Monilla et al., (2018), explained that the Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism: (1) life is suffering; (2) suffering is caused by attachement to desires; (3) suffering can be eliminated; and (4) elimination of suffering of suffering is through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right view, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. Futhermore, Villaba (as cited in Monilla et al., 2018) reported that in Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter, sensation, perception, mental constructs, and consciousness) that compose the individual, however each of the parts distinctly is not man. Man has no self (or no- soul). There is only nothing and all else is an illusion. There is nothing permanent but change. The ignorance of the impermanence of everything may lead to an illusion of selfhood. Thus, Buddhists believe that any person can also achieve what that Buddha attained-enlightenment. By following the Buddha’s teachings which are the four noble truths and the observation of the eightfold path, one certain can attain Nirvana or the state of spiritual enlightenment and peace. This is also called a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference which can be achieved through meditation. 3. Confucianism The concept of self, according to Confucianism, is related to the social aspect of human existence. The self is conceived as a “relational self” – “one which is intensely aware of the social presence of other human beings”. In this way, the individual self is dependent on all other selves. The self is thus an obedient self, which follows the appeals of social requirements, rather than its own needs and desires. The ideal self, according to this doctrine, can be achieved through a harmonization of one’s everyday communication with other individuals in society at large. Thus, the core of Confucian thought is the Golden GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  18 Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you.” According to Monilla and Ramirez (2018), the most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationships: between ruler and minster, between father and son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and between friends. Hence, the self is known as a relational self. Another important feature in Confucian though is the individual’s greatest mission of attaining self- actualization wherein self-cultivation is instrumental. Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one’s role in society and acting accordingly. 4. Taoism According to Ho (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018), Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. To them, the self an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self described as one of the limitless form of the Tao. Further, Garcia (as cited in Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) explained that the Tao is commonly regarded as the nature that is the foundation of all that exists. It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is to identify with the Tao. Chuang- tzu (as cited in Otig et al., 2018) expounded that “the perfect man has no self; the spiritual man has no achievement; the true sage has no name”. The ideal of Taoism, therefore, is the achievement of a lack of self or “selflessness”. Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and “other: dissolves. In sum, the conception of selfhood entails conscious self- transformation leading to the atttibutes of balanced life in harmony with both nature and society. Comparative Matrix of Western and Eastern Approaches to Understanding the Self (Monilla and Ramirez. 2018. Understanding the Self) Dimension Western Thought Eastern Thought Frame of Reference There is a separation Religion and philosophy are between philosophy and intertwined. religion/ spirituality. Examples of Schools of Scholasticism Hinduism Thought/Belief Systems Rationalism Buddhism Empiricism Confucianism Phenomenology Taoism Notable Philosophers Greek Triumvirate: Confucius, Lao Tzu Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Siddharta Gautama(Buddha) Rene Descartes, John Locke GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  19 Source of Knowledge Has made use of reason Has trusted intuition and is often rather to pursue wisdom. associated with religious beliefs. Modes of Cognition Analytic and deductive Synthetic and Inductive Emphasis Distinctions and Commonalities and harmonies oppositions. View of the Universe and Life Linear Circular View of Self Egocentric Sociocentric Subject-Object Distinction Duality of self-as- Simultaneously subject and object (Bipolar Qualities of Self) subject(knower) and self- (The experience of self as both the as-object(known) knower and known) Theological View Monotheistic Polytheistic(Pluralistic) Ideal Self-actualization through To achieve a balanced life and find personal growth one’s role in society Cultural Framework Individualism Collectivism a. The self is a distinct and a. The self is an integrated part of autonomous entity; it is the universe and the society. an independent part of the universe and the society. b. Independence and self- b. Interdependence and reliance are core values. connectedness are core values. c. Prioritize personal goals c. No distinctions between over group goals. personal and group goals, or if there is distinction, the personal goals are subordinate to the group goals. d. Characterized by d. Characterized by communal exchange relationship. relationship. e. Uniqueness, sense of e. Conformity and obedience are direction, purpose and essential social behaviors. volition are the acknowledged features of self. f. Personal success is f. Duty towards all others is important. important. The application of the different perspectives and approaches contributed to improvements in the conceptualization of self. The Western and Eastern perspectives of the self-grew from a combination of sociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and religion. The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt to combine the good elements of the diffirent disciplines to totally understand the self. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  20 IV. EVALUATE A. TRUE OR FALSE. Read and analyze the statements. Write T if the statement is correct and F if the statement is wrong. ______ 1. Human experience is not an interplay of nature and nurture. ______ 2. The eastern concept of self is collectivistic. ______ 3. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. ______ 4. For Hindus it is important to know and follow one’s dharma. ______ 5. In sociological perspective of self the self emerges as a product of social experience. ______ 6. The western concept of self is individualistic. ______ 7. Confucianism believes that there will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow the rules of proper social behavior. ______ 8. The self is not embedded in culture. ______ 9. The doctrince of Hinduism focused on the four noble truths. ______ 10. Siddharta Gautama is the founder of Taoism. B. IDENTIFICATION. Identify the terms and concepts described in the following terms. ______ 1. The most important doctrine of Hinduism. ______ 2. It means the enlightened one. ______ 3. The state of transcedence in Buddhism. ______ 4. The ideal of Taoism. ______ 5. The golden rule of Confucianism. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  21 V. ASSESS You already know the western and eastern concepts of self and their characteristics. Now, using a venn diagram, compare and contrast the western and eastern concepts of self and your representation of the Filipino self. Western Concept of Self GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  22 VI. REFLECT Why are Filipinos known for being a collectivistic culture? Do you personally agree that you are a collectivist? Why? Share a concrete experience why you think your orientation is on individualism or collectivism. VII. REFERENCES Alata, EJ. P., et al., (2018). Understanding the self. Rex Book Store, Inc. Monilla, MJ. G. & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding the self. C & E Publishing, Inc. Vergie, S. O.,et. al. (2018). A holistic approach in understanding the self. Mutya Publishing House, Inc. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  23 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF By: Dr. MARISSA C. ESPERAL, RGC, RP This chapter provides the students an overview of the psychological perspective in understanding the self. This orients them to the various theories and concepts formulated to expound about the human being and his self-development. LEARNING OUTCOMES: After studying this chapter, the students are expected to: 1. Define what psychology is and how this discipline contributes to the complete understanding of oneself. 2. Explain some psychological theories about the self. 3. Identify factors that influence the development of the psychological self. 4. Assess one’s psychological self-using simple psychological techniques and tools. 5. Appreciate one’s uniqueness and individuality. Psychology: A Discipline that Studies the Self Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behavior. It started as a topic in philosophy and had taken much concepts from physiology until it emerged as an independent scientific discipline (Atkinson, H.E.R. et al., 2015). Through the years, the field of psychology has found its niche in almost any area of life. Psychology uses various methods in the investigation of human behavior. It ranges from simple observation to more complex methods of multivariate analysis and experimentations. Experts believed that psychology greatly contributes to an individual’s understanding of the self because it focuses on various forms of behaviors: overt or covert, simple or complex, direct or indirect, rational or irrational, and so on. These different behaviors form part of the self. The goals of psychology (Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. (2007) can be summarized as follows: 1. To describe human behavior; 2. To identify factors that help predict behavior 3. To understand or explain behavior by identifying causes that bring about certain effects; and 4. To control or changes behavior. Many experts who focused on the investigation of human behavior have come up with their respective conceptualization of the self: GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  24 Sigmund Freud’s Construction Theory of Self Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is an Austrian neurologist who was known as the founder of Psychoanalysis, a set of theories and therapeutic techniques related to the study of the unconscious mind. Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences in the development of the self. As he popularly noted, “The child is the father of the man.” Freud believed that there are 3 structures of the self: 1. ID – the biological component of self which is based on the pleasure principle. This concerns the need to satisfy basic urges and desires. Freud believes that the id is pleasure-seeking, impulsive, child-like and demanding of instant gratification. 2. EGO – refers to the I or the self which serves as mediator between the Id and Superego. It is the objective component of personality and is based on Reality Principle. 3. SUPEREGO – consists of the conscience and ego ideals. It serves as the moral arm of personality. Freud used the term “ego strength” to refer to the ego’s ability to resolve the conflict between the structures. If constant conflicts happen and remain unresolved, problems and internal conflicts may arise within oneself. In Freud’s view, the id, ego and superego develop in a series of stages. He proposed that psychological development in childhood takes place during the five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure or both. Freud (1905) believed that life was built around tension and pleasure. Accordingly, tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its discharge. In describing human personality as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what develops ins the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature biologically (Freud used the term “sexual” in a very general way to mean all pleasurable actions and thoughts.). Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult self. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social norms. The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual. Out of his practice, Freud came up with his theory on the psychosexual stages of self- development (Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P., 1996) which is presented in Table 1. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  25 Table 1 Psychosexual Stages of Self-Development STAGES AGE SOURCE OF Characteristics & MANIFESTATIONS RANGE GRATIFICATION Oral Birth to Mouth Self gets much satisfaction from all sort of things in 1 year its mouth to satisfy the libido and its id demands. Self is oral, or mouth oriented, such as sucking, biting and breastfeeding Adults: smokers, nail-biters, finer chewers and thumb suckers, particularly when under stress. Anal 1 to 3 Anus Self derives great pleasure from defecating. Self is years now fully aware that he is a person in his own right and that his wishes can bring him into conflict with the demands of the outside world. Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in toilet training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority. Adult manifestations: Early or harsh toilet training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions. On the other hand, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things away. An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage. Phallic 3 to 6 Genitals Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals years and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent. Latency 6 years Libido is dormant Freud’s theory thought that most sexual impulses are to repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy Puberty can be sublimated (defense mechanism) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  26 Genital Puberty Heterosexual Self is settling down in a loving one-to-one to Adult relationship relationship with another person in our 20's. Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop. Erik Erickson’s Theory of Self-Development Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) formulated the Psychosocial Theory of Development which pointed out that development of self-proceeds by stages – eight in all. The first four stages occur during infancy and childhood, the fifth stage during adolescence, and the last three stages during the adult years up to and including old age. In each stage, there are conflicts that need to be resolved and those are critical in the development of the self. Accordingly, each stage is not passed through and then left behind. Instead, each stage contributes to the formation of the self. Table 2 presents the summary of the conflicts, important events and outcomes of those important events in each stage of development of an individual. The succeeding elaboration of the theory is based on the discussions by Hall, et. al (2007) and Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S. (2017). Table 2 Psychosocial Stage of Self-Development Age Conflict Important Events Outcome Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Will Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Fidelity Relationships Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Care Parenthood Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom Source: Verywell mind, for illustration purposes only Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust The first stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child’s care givers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  27 provide adequate care and love, the self will come to feel that he cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life. If a child successfully develops trust, the self will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erick son believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erickson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt The second stage of Erickson’s theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and care givers can help children develop a sense of autonomy. The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erickson’s reasoning was quite different than that of Freud’s. Erikson believed that learning to control one’s bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection. Children who struggle and who are ashamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits. Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  28 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them. Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person’s life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. During adolescence, individuals explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. What is Identity? When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person’s behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society’s standards and expectations. While Erickson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development. According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity. Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs and behaviors as we age. Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure. Remember that GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  29 each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggle with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people. Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage. Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn’t do. Erikson’s theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have. Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. Alfred Adler’s Theory of Creative Self Alfred Adler (1870-1937) is a Viennese psychiatrist who became known for his Individual Psychology. He discovered the creative power of the self, that is, the ability of the individual to create and re-create himself and set his own directions to take. Adler believed that individuals are the masters of their own life, and not victims, of their fate (Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. 2007). For him, the creative self is the prime mover, the philosopher’s stone, the elixir of life, the first cause of everything human. In essence, the doctrine of a creative self asserts that GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  30 humans make their own self and personality. They construct them out of the raw materials of heredity and experience (Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S., 2017). As he put it, “Heredity only endows man with certain abilities. Environment only gives him certain impressions. These abilities and impressions, and the manner in which he experiences them – that is to say, the interpretation he makes of these experiences – are the bricks, or in other words his attitude towards life, which determines this relationship to the outside world (Adler, 1935, p.5).” Carl Rogers’ Self Theory Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is an American psychologist who formulated the Person- centered Theory which was also referred to as Self-Theory. The self is one of the central constructs in Roger’s Theory and he has given an interesting account of how this came about. “Speaking personally, I began my work with the settled notion that the self was a vague, ambiguous, scientifically meaningless term which had gone out of the psychologist’s vocabulary with the departure of the introspectionists. Consequently, I was slow in recognizing that when clients were given the opportunity to express their problems and their attitudes in their own terms, without any guidance or interpretation, they tended to talk in terms of the self… It seemed clear… that the self was an important element in the experience of the client, that in some odd sense his goal was to become his real self (1959, pp.200-201).” Rogers came up with the concept of the ideal self which is what the person would like to be. Accordingly, when the symbolized experiences that constitute the self faithfully mirror the experiences of the organism, the person is said to be adjusted, mature and fully functioning. Such a person accepts the entire range of experience without threat or anxiety. He is able to think realistically. Incongruence between self and organism makes individuals feel threatened and anxious. They behave defensively and their thinking becomes constricted and rigid. If the discrepancy between self and ideal self is large, the person is dissatisfied and maladjusted and GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  31 thus, incongruence is present (Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C., 2018). It is important then, that individuals have realistic goals for the self. Figure 1 The Incongruent Self Ideal Real Real Ideal Self Self Self Self Figure 1 The Congruent Self Real Self Ideal Self William James’ Concept of the Self: The Me-Self and the I-Self William James (1842-1910) was a philosopher who first offered a psychology course in the United States, earning him the title 'Father of American Psychology.’ He then, became a psychologist and a leading thinker of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After completing medical school, James focused on the human psyche, writing a masterwork on the subject, entitled The Principles of Psychology. He later became known for the literary piece The Will to Believe and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, which was published in 1897. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  32 William James looks at the self in two divided categories: the I-Self and the Me-Self. The I-Self refers to the self that knows who he or she is which is also called the thinking self. The I- Self reflect the soul of a person or the mind which is also called the pure ego. The Me-Self, on the other hand, is the empirical self which refers to the person’s personal experiences and is further divided into subcategories: the material self, social self and spirituals elf. The material self is attributed to an individual’s physical attributes and material possessions that contribute to one’s self-image. The social self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social situations. James believes that people have different social selves depending on the context of a social situation. For example, a student may act differently in school and at home with his or her family. The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that includes the person’s purpose, core values, conscience, and moral behavior. James believes that the path to understanding the spiritual self requires introspection (Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C., 2018). “One must know what one wants and that one wants.” – Nietzc GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  33 EVALUATION: Answer the following questions: 1. In what situations do you find the conflict between the Id and the Superego becoming real in your life? How do you resolve the conflict between the two? _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. In Erikson’s theory of self-development, if a child developed mistrust early in life, how can guardians help change his direction towards integrity instead of despair? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 3. Explain important factors that may have impact in creating the self. __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 4. What is the importance of congruent real and ideal self? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 5. How does the field of psychology help in the understanding of the self? __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  34 ASSIGNMENT Instruction: In the two boxes below, draw symbols that represent you real self and ideal self respectively. Symbols may be in the form of actual objects or anything that may symbolize your perception of who you are (real) and those that portray the things that you would like to become. My Real Self My Ideal Self Questions for Reflection: 1. What did you feel while you were doing the activity? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  35 ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 2. Compare your drawings of your real self and ideal self. Are the two the same? If so, why do you think those are the same? If the drawings in the real self-box and ideal self-box are not the same, why do you think? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 3. What are your insights from this activity? ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ REFERENCES Atkinson, H.E.R. & Atkinson, R. & Atkinson, R.C. (2015) Introduction to Psychology. New York: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Fisher, S. & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the theories and therapy. New York: Wiley. Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition 7 : 123- 246. Go-Monilla, M.J.A. & Ramirez, N.C. (2018) Understanding the Self Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc. Hall, C.S., Lindzey, G., Campbell, J. (2007) Theories of Personality 4th Edition. Wiley & Sons New York: Schultz, D.P. & Schultz, E.S. (2017) Theories of Personality 11th Edition Australia: Cengage Learning. Teh, L.A. & Macapagal, M.E.J. (2007) General Psychology for Filipino College Students Quezon City: Ateneo De Manila University Press. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  36 By: Dr. MA. ELNA R. COSEJO (Adapted from Go-Monilla and Ramirez, 2018) OVERVIE W The two important representations of self are physical and sexual. The first identifies biological sexual and environmental factors that affects the physical self as well as issues and challenges that individual face with regards to the physical characteristics. The second discusses sexual attributes, characteristics, gender, and responsible sexual behavior. OBJECTIVES Identify the stages of life and explain the physical changes that occur during each stage Recognize the contributions of genetic and environmental factors to the physical development Describe the factors that affect body image Examine the impact of culture on body image and self Develop a positive body image Identify the development of sex characteristics and the human reproductive system Determine between attraction, love and attachment Identify the causes and consequences of sexually transmitted infections and early pregnancy Familiarize on the importance of contraception and Reproductive Health Law GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  37 THE PHYSICAL SELF The physical self refers to the body such as physical extremities and internal organs They both perform and work together to perform there functions (ex: respiratory system for breathing) In addition there ability changes through individual’s aging. (at peak bet, the age of 20 and 30 slowly declines at middle age) Adolescence begins with the onset puberty Life Span Refers to the development from conception to death 1. Prenatal - Fertilization to birth 2. Infancy - Birth to 2 weeks to life 3. Babyhood - 2 weeks of life to 2nd year 4. Early Childhood - 2 to 6 years old 5. Late Childhood - 6 to 10 or 12 years 6. Puberty - 10 or 12 to 14 years old 7. Adolescence - 14 to 18 years old 8. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40 years old 9. Middle Adulthood - 40 to 60 years years old 10. Late Adulthood or Senescene - 60 to death Factors Affecting Physical Growth and Development There are two factors affecting the Physical Growth and Development 1. Heredity - is the biological of the inheritance of traits from parents to offspring 2. Environment - refers to the factors an individual is exposed to throughout life which includes learning experience. Environment factors such as diet, nutrition, and diseases play an important role in an individual’s physical development. GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  38 Chromosomes Are threadlike tissues that carries the genes and are usually found in pairs. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes which are classified as autosome or trait chromosomes (22 pairs) and gonosomes or sex chromosomes Genes are basic carrier of hereditary traits and are classified as dominant (strong genes) and recessive (weak genes) Theories of Physical Self Theory of Physiognomy Person’s physical characteristics such as facial features and expressions and body structures could be related to a person’s character or personality Five Element Theory Asserts the world and changes according to the five elements’ generating and overcoming relationships. water wood fire earth metal wer Generating and overcoming are the complementary elements. ✓ Generating processes – promote development ✓ Overcoming processes – control development Five Generating Interactions Five Overcoming Interactions Fueling Melting Forming Penetrating Containing Separating Carrying Absorbing Feeding Quenching Theory of Hippocrates A theory based on the prominence of the body fluids Excess of/or deficiency in an any the four bodily fluids (or humors) in a person influences their personality, temperament, and wellbeing. Sanguine Type – has the prominence of red bile Melancholic Type – has the prominence of black bile Choleric Type – has the prominence of yellow bile Phlegmatic Type – has the excess phlegm GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  39 Body Type Theory William Sheldon (1940’s) Ectomorph Mesomorph Endomorph Body Type is tall and thin. Strong Muscular body. Energetic Body type is soft and plump Restrained, quiet, introverted, and artistic adventurous, assertive and courageous. Easy going and sociable. The Wisdom of Your Face According to Jean Haner (2008) ✓ Oval – Shaped Face – hospitable and tactful ✓ Round – Shaped Face – friendly, kindhearted and selfless ✓ Square Face – witty, analytical, and great leade rs ✓ Heart – Shaped Face – patient and intuitive by nature ✓ Long - Shaped Face – perfectionist and tend to be aggressive ✓ Triangle – Shaped Face – creative, artistic, sensitive and determined ✓ Diamond Face – detail-oriented and like to be control According to Squier and Mew (1981) ✓ Long and Angular – Shaped Face – responsive, assertive genuine ✓ Short and Square – Shaped Face – restrained, conforming and shrewd GEC 02: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF  40 Body Image Refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their physical appearance. Body image is related to self-esteem which is a person’s overall evaluation of his or her own worth. Refers to everything about a person that others can observe such as height, weight, skin, color. Clothes and hairstyle. The way adolescents react to their physical appearance depends in part on socio-cultural factors. The emphasis that peers, parents, or the media put on ideal body types which is slim or thin leads girls to experience body dissatisfaction. Girls who have higher body dissatisfaction are likely to experience depression, low self- esteem, and eating disorders (damello 2014) The Importance of Beauty In Egyptian art, b