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Republic of the Philippines POLYTECHNIC UNIVIERSITY OF THE PHILIPPLINES COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR GEED 10013...

Republic of the Philippines POLYTECHNIC UNIVIERSITY OF THE PHILIPPLINES COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR GEED 10013 UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Filipinas Corazon B. Abadilla, RPm | Charlon Agos | Jonna Karla C. Bien, RN, MP Adrian Nicole S. Buan, MA, RPm | Barbara P. Camacho, RGC | Ma. Luz Centeno, RGC Rafael Lou Carlos L. Chinchilla, RPm | Ma. Corazon Constantino | Ma. Jeanette A. De Guzman Ma. Aurora De Leon | Zaila C. Decin, MP, RPm | John Mark S. Distor, PhD, RPm Adrian Guinto, MP | Maria Laya T. Lara, RPm | Aimee Rose A. Manda, MP Arianne Nicole Nachor, RPm | Alexander B. Prudente Jr., MP Victoria Antonia R. Rafanan, RPm | Krisette Romero, RPm Elfie M Samaniego, RPm, RGC | Geraldine Santos, MP, RPsy Felicitas C. Trinidad, MP, RPm  TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction to Course…………………………………………………. 3 Part 1: The Self from Various Perspectives ……………………….. 4 Lesson 1- Philosophy …………………………………………………… 4 Lesson 2 - Sociology ……………………………………………………. 9 Lesson 3 - Anthropology ………………………………………………… 14 Lesson 4 - Psychology ………………………………………………….. 16 Lesson 5 - The Self in Western and Oriental/Eastern Thought ……. 22 Part 2: Unpacking the Self ……………………………………………. 2 Lesson 6 - The Physical Self …………………………………………… 24 Lesson 7 - The Sexual Self …………………………………………….. 28 MIDTERM ASSESSMENT 37 Lesson 8 - The Material and Economic Self ………………………….. 39 Lesson 9 - The Spiritual Self……………………………………………. 42 Lesson 10 - The Political Self ………………………………………….. 49 Lesson 11 - The Digital Self ……………………………………………. 56 Part 3: Managing and Caring for the Self …………………………. 59 Lesson 12 - Learning to be a better student …………………………. 59 Lesson 13 - Setting goals for Success ……………………………….. 62 Lesson 14 - Taking charge of one's health …………………………... 66 FINAL ASSESSMENT 70 References………………………………………………………………… 73 o ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ o  INTRODUCTION The course deals with the nature of identity, as well as the factors and forces that affect the development and maintenance of personality identity. The directive to Know Oneself has inspired countless and varied ways to comply. Among the questions that everyone has had to grapple with at one time or other is “Who am I?” At no other period is this question asked more urgently than in adolescence – traditionally believed to be a time of vulnerability and great possibilities. Issues of self and identity are among the most critical for the young. This course is intended to facilitate the exploration of the issues and concerns regarding self and identity to arrive at a better understanding of one’s self. It strives to meet this goal by stressing the integration of the personal with the academic – contextualizing matters discussed in the classroom and in the everyday experience of students – making for better learning, generating a new appreciation for the learning process, and developing a more critical and reflective attitude while enabling them to manage and improve their selves to attain a better quality of life. The course is divided into three major parts: The first seeks to understand the construct of the self from various disciplinal perspectives: philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology – as well as the more traditional division between the East and West – each seeking to provide answers to the difficult but essential question of “What is the self?” And raising, among others, the question: “Is there even such a construct as the self?” The second part explores some of the various aspects that make up the self, such as the biological, material and the more recent Digital Self. The third and the final part identifies three areas of concern for young students: learning, goal setting, and managing stress. It also provides for the more practical application of the concepts discussed in this course and enables them the hands-on experience of developing self- help plans for self-regulated learning, goal setting, and self-care. This course includes the mandatory topics on Family Planning and Population Education.  THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this section, you are expected to: 1. Discuss the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from various disciplinal perspectives. 2. Examine the different influences, factors and forces that shape the self. 3. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the different disciplines and perspectives. 4. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one's self and identity by developing a theory of the self. PHILOSOPHY Philosophy is a training guide for your mind, showing how INTRODUCTION you think in clear, analytic, and powerful ways. Studying philosophy in a serious and reflective way will change you as a person. Learning to think philosophically will inspire you to be more thoughtful, more open-minded, more attuned to the complexities and subtleties of life, more willing to think critically about yourself and all of life’s important issues, and less willing to accept superficial interpretations and simplistic answers. And will help you develop the understanding and insight you will need to make intelligent choices and fulfill your potential as an individual. This is the special power of philosophy: to provide the conceptual tools required to craft a life inspiring in its challenges and rich in its fulfillment. Philosophy is not intended to limit your options or dictate your choices. Your responsibility as a student is to explore, to reflect, to think critically- and then to create yourself in the image you have envisioned. PHILOSOPHY OF THE SELF LESSON PROPER Philosophy is often called the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields of study began as philosophical discourses. What is Philosophy? study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that involves in answering questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world we live in. What is Self? It is defined as “a unified being, essentially connected to consciousness, awareness and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational choice).  PHILOSOPHERS A. SOCRATES - First martyr of education, knowledge, and philosophy. His philosophy underlies in the importance of the notion "knowing oneself". A person's acceptance of ignorance is the beginning of acquisition of knowledge. But, possession of knowledge is a virtue; ignorance is a depravity (evil, corruption, wickedness). Knowing ourselves, lies in our own abilities, and wisdom. Understanding ourselves is through internal questioning or introspection (understanding our strengths and weaknesses, like vs. Dislike) His way of teaching called Socratic Method or Socratic conversation (role of both the teacher and the student is known to the world; asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions). However, he was charged with corruption of minors and died as a martyr that fought against ignorance and narrow-mindedness. But for him, men's goal in life is to obtain happiness. It motivates us to act towards or avoid things that could have negative effects in our lives. As such, by fully knowing oneself a person will be able to achieve happiness. B. PLATO – He is a student of Socrates that is the reason he followed the idea of Socrates in knowing thyself. He was called the Father of academy (a place where learning and sharing of knowledge happens; Later became one of the pillars and basis of what schools and education is now in the present). He also wrote several literatures that tackles politics, human nature and established the idea of virtue and intelligence. According to Plato, a person who is a follower of truth and wisdom will not be tempted by vices and will always be correct/moral/ethical. He believed in the division of a person's body and soul which forms the person as a whole aside from the material things and that could be observed and associated with a person. He believed that the soul is divided into 3 different parts that has different views, leading to different behaviors 1. Appetitive soul - the part of the person that is driven by desire and need to satisfy oneself. This satisfaction involves physical needs, pleasures and desires, objects, and situations 2. Spirited soul- courageous part of a person. One who wants to do something or to right the wrongs that they observe. This is very competitive and is very active. Competitiveness drives one to expect positive results and winning. 3. Rational soul- the drive of our lives. The part that thinks and plan for the future (the conscious mind). It decides what to do, when to do it and the possible results one could have depending on their actions. C. ST. AUGUSTINE - A saint and a philosopher of the church. He follows the idea that God encompasses us all, that everything will be better if we are with God. He believed that God and his teachings affects various aspects in life (that everything is better if we devote ourselves in mending our relationship with God). His idea of a man and how to understand who we are as a person is related to our understanding of who we are and how we question ourselves. He also relates our existence to God being modelled in his likeness though being alive means that we are still far from god and has yet to be truly with him. But he rejected the doubtfulness of the academy in which one cannot or should not accept ideas from others. St. Augustine emphasized that we may not be able to give our agreement to everything other people tell us, but we can still agree to those who we are from our own perception. His believes that teaching the church and establishing our sense of self with God identifies the essence of our existence and role in the world (the reason for this is because our bodies are limited). D. RENE DESCARTES – a French philosopher known to be the father of modern philosophy because of his radical use of systematic and early scientific method to aid his ideas and assumptions. He believed in modern dualism or the existence of body and mind and its importance to on e's existence were presented with the evidences from experiments as well as philosophical reasoning. Descartes is known to be the proponent of the "methodical doubt" (continuous process of questioning) doubting, asking questions are part of one's existence. He defined the roles of the mind and body to the notion of one's existence and sense of self. He is known for the statement "cogito ergo sum" (I think therefore I am) and according to him, a person is comprised of mind (thinks and questions what the body has experienced) and body (perceives from the different senses). The body and its perceptions cannot fully be trusted or can easily be deceived (for example: there are times that we feel that a dream is real before actually waking up or having different perception of size based on an objects distance from the viewer). Descartes believes that we should focus on the mind in order to perceive as who we are or the essence of our existence because we cannot always trust our senses. He explained that the more we think and doubt what we perceived from our senses and the answer that came from such thin king or doubting leads to better understanding of ourselves. He also emphasizes that being in constant doubt regarding one's existence is proof that a person exists. E. JOHN LOCKE – An English philosopher and physician. He is the Father of Classical Liberation. His works paved the way to several revolutions to fight the absolute powers of monarchs and rulers of his time that led to the development of governance, politics, and economic system that we now know. He works on the self is most represented by the concept "tabula rasa" (blank slate). The experiences and perceptions of a person is important in the establishment of who that person can become. Locke does not disregard the experiences of the person in the identification and establishment of who we are as a person. He stated that a person is born with knowing nothing and that is susceptible to stimulation and accumulation of learning from the experiences, failures, references, and observations of the person F. DAVID HUME – A Scottish philosopher. He focused his work in the field of empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. He explained that the Self is the accumulation of different impressions and does not exceed the physical realm. For him, there is no permanent self because impressions of things are based from our experiences where we can create our ideas and knowledge. Thus, it may improve or totally be replaced G. IMMANUEL KANT – A German philosopher that is known for his works on empiricism and rationalism. He established that the collection of impressions and different contents is what it only takes to define a person. He believes that the awareness of different emotions that we have, impressions and behavior is only a part of ourselves. He emphasizes that a person who fully understand the self has a certain level of consciousness or sense that uses our intuition which synthesizes all the experiences, impressions and perceptions of ourselves will pave the way to define and know who we are really are. But he argued that the sense called "transcendental apperception" is an essence of our consciousness that provides basis for understanding and establishing the notion of self by synthesizing one's accumulation of experiences, intuition, and imagination H. SIGMUND FREUD – An Austrian psychologist and physician. The Father of psychoanalysis. Freud is well known for his work on human nature and the unconscious. He believed that man has different constructs of personality. He conceptualized about the different levels of consciousness that provides an idea how a person develops a sense of self: Man has 3 aspects of personality 1. Id- the child aspect of a person; attention is on satisfaction of one's needs and self- gratification. Driven by pleasure principle. 2. Super ego- the conscience of one's personality. Has the inclination to uphold justice and do what is morally right and socially acceptable actions. Involved in the notion of right or wrong that is imparted to us by our parents or people that took care for us during childhood 3. Ego - police or the mediator between id and super ego. Operates within the boundaries of reality, primary function is to maintain the impulses of the id to an acceptable degree. Introduced the Levels of Consciousness: 1. Conscious- where minority of our memories are being stored and the memories that are in the conscious is easier to be to be tapped or accessed 2. Pre-conscious - the middle part of the entirety of our consciousness; the memories stored in this area can still be accessed but with a little difficulty 3. Unconscious- this area is where majority of our memories since childhood are deeply stored. It is very difficult to tap the memories. It would need a trained professional and several special techniques in order to make some memories resurface He believed that we are a by-product of our experiences in the past and that are actions are driven by the idea of resisting or avoiding pain, and are molded from our need for pleasure or being happy I. GILBERT RYLE – He used behavioristic approach to self. According to him, self is the behavior presented by the person. The behavior that we show, emotions, and actions are the reflection of our mind and as such is the manifestation of who we are. He does not believe that the mind and body are two separate entities which is said to be evident in the unexplainable phenomenon or abilities of the mind where the soul is considered; however, to some they can co-exist. He explained that the self is exemplified in his "ghost in the machine" view (man is a complex machine with different functioning parts, and the intelligence, and other characteristic or behavior of man is represented by the ghost in the said machine. His idea is saying that the things that we do, how we behave and react and all other components like the way we talk, walk and look is generally who we are as a person J. PAUL CHURCHLAND - A Canadian philosopher whose focus is on the idea that people should improve our association and use of worth in identifying the self. The self is defined by the movement of our brain. A constant movement of the brain can be the basis of who the person is (emphasized by Churchland and his wife in the statement "the brain as the self"). He focuses on the philosophy of "eliminative materialism" and understanding the different neural pathways, how they work, and what implications are those movement to people is a measurable classification on one's behavior K. MAURICE JEAN JACQUES MERLEAU-PONTY – A French philosopher. He is known for his works on existentialism and phenomenology. He coined the idea of phenomenology of perception (unity of the function of the mind and the body) which is divided into three division. Merleau-Ponty regarded that the body and mind are not separate entities but rather those two components is one and the same. His idea of perception follows the idea of Gestalt psychology (gives importance on the whole rather than the sum of its parts). The perception guides our action based from our experiences. The body perceives while our consciousness provides the meaning or interprets the various perception we have in the world and the self could be established by the perceptions we have in the world. One's actions, behavior and language used could be said to be the reflection of our united perception of the world. L. THOMAS AQUINAS - The most eminent 13th century scholar and stalwart of the medieval philosophy, appended something to this Christian view. He explained that Man is composed of two parts: Matter or hyle in Greek, refers to the “common stuff that makes up everything in the universe.” and Form or morphe in Greek refers to the “essence of a substance or thing”. In the case of human person, the body of the human person is something that he shares even with animals. The cells in man's body are akin to the cells of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a human person a human person and not a dog, or a tiger is his soul, his essence. To Aquinas, the soul is what animates the body; it is what makes us humans. Write your philosophy in life. Express your ideas as completely and clearly as you can. Think deeply and beyond ACTIVITY I superficialities and refuse to be satisfied with the first idea that you have. Guide questions: 1. What do you most value in life? Why? 2. What gives your life meaning? 3. What is the purpose of your life? 4. What do you hope to achieve in your life? Answer the following questions about yourself as fully and precisely as you can. ASSESSMENT I 1. How would you characterize yourself? 2. What makes you stand out from the rest? What makes yourself special? 3. How has yourself transformed itself? 4. How is yourself connected to your body? 5. How is yourself related to other self? 6. What will happen to yourself after you die? SUMMARY The philosophical framework for understanding the self was first introduced by the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. In particular, Socrates: “Know thyself”. But what exactly does “know thyself” mean that is self and the qualities that define it. The different views of prominent philosophers regarding the nature of the self are discussed and while there are disagreements in how philosophers view of the self, most of them agree that self-knowledge is a prerequisite to a happy and meaningful life  SOCIOLOGY How do you see yourself in the social world? Do you need to INTRODUCTION just observe or are you oblige to interact with them just to get the definition of your self? These are just two questions that will be answered by different proponents in sociological perspective of self. Read more below and check how these ideas can be related to you. LESSON PROPER GEORGE HERBERT MEAD ✓ Sociologist from University of Chicago ✓ Symbolic Interactions Perspective THEORY OF SELF Two parts of Self: Self-awareness and Self-image Our bodies age biologically, but the self is something that emerges thorough social interaction Self is developed as we age, as we grow Self develops through interacting with others, through reflecting on that interaction, to thinking about how others are perceiving you, and that helps you generate an image of yourself Our self is mirrored in the reaction of the other Self-image was developed in recognizing how others are perceiving us, we are constantly trying to put ourselves in the shoes of another and think about how they are seeing this event or situation or this action transpiring – this is imitation When you have internalized the widespread cultural norms, mores, and expectations of behaviors – this is generalized others By taking the role of other, we can become self-aware THE “I” and “ME” of the SELF “I” – what is out there, acting, being spontaneous, doing things in the world ”me” – an object, the aggregate combined image of yourself that has been given to you from interacting with society HENRI de SAINT-SIMON (1760-1825) Historic founder of French Socialism Origin of many ideas elaborated into Comtism His idea of the reconstruction of society were conditioned by the French Revolution and by feudal and military system He insisted on the necessity of new and positive reorganization of society Industrial chiefs should control society In medieval church, spiritual direction of society should fall to the men of science Industrial state directed by modern science, in which universal association should suppress war  Men who are successfully able to organize society for productive labor are entitled to govern it The social aim was to produce things useful to life Call for “society of science” – influenced his disciple Auguste Comte HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903) Synthetic Philosophy - Encompasses realms of physical, psychological, biological, sociological, and ethical Moral Philosophy Social Statistics o Human happiness can be achieved only when individuals can satisfy their needs and desires without infringing on the right of others to do the same o In obtaining full satisfaction, one must derive pleasure from seeing pleasure in others Principles of Ethics – basic law of ethics and morality o Extension of laws in the natural world, and much of his scientific justification for his moral position o Moral dictum: Once physical and biological realms are discovered, humans should obey them and cease trying to construct, through political legislation, social forms that violate these laws o Scientific position: The laws of social organization can no more be violated than can those of the physical universe, and to seek to do so will create, in the long run, more severe problems o Humans should be as free from external regulation as possible – “implicitly obey them!” Social Statistics o Moral laws and laws of laissez-faire capitalism converge and how they reflect biological laws of unfettered competition and struggle among species o In the union of many men into one community – the law of individuation o While decrying war as destructive, it allows more organized “races” to conquer the ”less organized and inferior races,” increasing thereby, the level and complexity of social organization DAVID EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917) French sociologist, cited as the principal architect of modern social sciences Established academic discipline with Marx and Weber How societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in modernity, an era in which a traditional social and religious tie are no longer assumed, and in which new social institutions have come into being Acceptance of sociology as a legitimate science Sociology of Knowledge How concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life Certain aspects of logical thought common to all human did exist, but they were products of collective life and that they were not universal a priori since the content of categories differed from society to society  Collective representations The symbols and images that come to represent the ideas, beliefs, and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents Created through intense social interaction and are products of collective activity Controlled by society (as a whole) yet simultaneously by virtue of that individual’s participation within the society A language product of collective action, language contains within it a history accumulated knowledge and experience that no individual would be capable of creating on their own Language – a social product that structures and shapes our experience of reality ALBERT BANDURA (1925) Social Learning Theory Theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the development of the self It looks at the individual learning process, the formation of self, and influence of society in socializing individual Formation of one’s identity is a learned response to social stimuli An individual’s identity is not the product of the unconscious, but instead is the result of modeling oneself in response to the expectations of others Behaviors and attitudes develop in response to reinforcement and encouragement from people around us Self-Efficacy People’s belief about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives This belief determines how people feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave People with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided They set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them despite series of failures They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge and skills which are acquirable o Not on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes They approach threatening situations with assurance that they can exercise control over them Four Main Sources of Self-Efficacy 1. Mastery Experience Successes build a robust belief in one’s personal efficacy A resilient sense of efficacy requires experience in overcoming obstacles through perseverant effort 2. Vicarious Experience Provided by social models Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers’ beliefs that they too, possess the capabilities to master comparable activities required to succeed People seek proficient models who possess the competencies to which they aspire  3. Social Persuasion People who are persuaded verbally that they possess the capabilities to master given activities are likely to mobilize greater effort and sustain it than if they harbor self-doubts and dwell on personal deficiencies when problem arises People who have persuaded that they lack capabilities tend to avoid challenging activities that cultivate potentials and give up in the face of difficulty 4. Psychological Responses People rely partly on their somatic and emotional states in judging their capabilities They interpret their stress reactions and tensions as signs of vulnerability to poor performance KARL MARX (1818 – 1881) Theory of Self-Estrangement or Self-Alienation “the alienation of man’s essence, man’s loss of objectivity and his loss of realness as self-discovery, manifestation of his nature, objectification and realization” When a person feels alienated from others and society as a whole A person may feel alienated by his work by not feeling like he has meaning to his work, therefore losing their sense of self at the workplace MAX WEBER (1864 – 1920) German sociologist and political economist Capitalism developed out of a Protestant ethic, a religious calling “iron cage” – as the religion became peripheral, capitalism decoupled from its roots and established itself as the dominant force in society Exercise Self-Help Imagination ✓ “Personality” makes little sense in its modern usage ✓ “an inner devotion to the subject and only to the subject” ✓ which raises one “to the height and dignity of the subject” ✓ You gain personality within a field only by stepping out of your own self ✓ Teach the subject, not your interpretation of the subject ✓ Make your students interested in the subject itself, rather than in the person teaching it LEWIS MORGAN The Leasguge of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee or Iroquois (1851) This presented the complexity of Iroquois society in a path-breaking ethnography that was a model for future anthropologists He wanted to provide evidence for monogenesis, the theory that all human beings descended from a common source The structure of the family and social institutions develops and change according to a specific sequence Theory of Social Evolution Kinship relations as a basic part of society Critical link between social progress and technological progress  Interplay between the evolution of technology, of family relations, of property relations, of the larger social structure, and systems of governance, and intellectual development. Answer the following questions briefly. Use the idea of ACTIVITY II proponents discussed above. 1. How important are peer groups to socialization? In what ways do they influence individuals throughout the life course? 2. Have you ever observed someone experiencing a self-fulfilling prophecy? Explain. If you have not personally observed this, use an example from the media, books, movies, or TV. 3. Have you ever experienced role strain or role conflict? Describe the different roles and how they were strained or conflicted. How did you resolve this? Identify the correct answer in each statement: ASSESSMENT II _______1. He presented the theory of social evolution. _______2. It is what is out there, acting, being spontaneous, doing things in the world. What is it? _______3. It is the people’s belief about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives. What do you call this? _______4. It is the symbols and images that come to represent the ideas, beliefs, and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents. What it is particularly? _______5. When you have internalized the widespread cultural norms, mores, and expectations of behaviors, what is it? SUMMARY ✓ George Mead – Symbolic Interactions Perspective; two parts of Self: Self-awareness and Self-image ✓ Henri de Saint-Simon – French Socialism; synthetic and moral philosophies ✓ David Emile Durkheim – Sociology of Knowledge ✓ Albert Bandura – Social Learning Theory ✓ Karl Marx – Theory of Self-Estrangement or Self-Alienation ✓ Max Weber – Self-help Imagination ✓ Lewis Morgan – Theory of Social Evolution  ANTH ROPOLOGY INTRO DUCTI ON Anthropology is a relative newcomer to the debate on INTRODUCTION selfhood. It emerged as a subject from the imperial ambitions of European states during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and was initially an effort to identify the weaknesses and failings of other cultures so that they could be exploited and subjugated. It was only in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries that anthropology threw off its intimate links with the national and religious organisations it had been serving, and began to ask the big question that has informed its research ever since:‘ What does it mean to be human? Anthropology does express a unique view on the issue of selfhood: the anthropological approach both starts and finishes with the group. The self needs to be seen as a socially defined phenomenon, created by both the impression of the group upon the individual and the expression of the individual upon the group. Humans have a unique relationship with other members of their species, both communicatively and socially. Our capacity for group living and group institutions exceeds that of every other animal on the planet. Anthropology therefore has an important voice in the discussion of selfhood. MARCEL MAUSS - Remaining the same person and LESSON PROPER turning chameleon by adapting to one’s context seems paradoxical. However, French anthropologist Marcel Mauss has an explanation for this phenomenon. According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi. Moi refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological givenness. Moi is a person’s basic identity. Personne, on the other hand, is composed of the social concepts of what it means to be who he is. Personne has much to do with what it means to live in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a particular nationality, and how to behave given expectations and influences from others. He studied non-Western societies all over the world and proposed the “Total Social Phenomenon”, which tackles that every sector in a community or society should cooperate to have a well-balanced living. LANGUAGE Has something to do with culture. It is a salient part of culture and ultimately, has a tremendous effect in our crafting of the self. This might also be one of the reasons why cultural divide spells out differences in how one regards oneself. If a self is born into a particular society or culture, the self will have to adjust according to its exposure. Language and culture are intertwined. A particular language usually points out to a specific group of people. when you interact with another language, it means that you are also interacting with the culture that speaks the language. you cannot understand one’s culture without accessing its language directly. When you learn a new language, it not only involves learning its alphabet, the word arrangement and the rules of grammar, but also learning about the specific society’s customs and behavior. when learning or teaching a language, it is important that the culture where the language belongs be referenced, because language is very much ingrained in the culture. CLIFFORD GEERTZ An American cultural anthropologist who defined culture as “a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life. Basic premises of his work, "The Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man," The Interpretation of Cultures. (1966), include the following: Look for what makes people/cultures different, not the same; it is more effective to analyze human nature by noting the differences between cultures that arise over time and space than to try to form vague notions of universals Culture reveals the link between what man is capable of and how he actually behaves, which in turn helps define human nature. Culture is the "accumulated totality" of symbolic patterns that appear in different societies. Write your thoughts about these: ACTIVITY III When have you experienced cultural differences? Think about a setting in which you have worked/interacted with different people from a range of backgrounds. These differing backgrounds may have been about nationality but also about social class difference, religion difference, or about other features, such as ethnicity. How did cultural differences and differing ways of doing things according to culture become visible? List some of these. Essay: Answer the following questions briefly. ASSESSMENT III Differences are influenced by where people live, socioeconomic backgrounds, levels of education, religion, and individual lived experiences. These factors influence how people view and read their world (Gee, 1996; Vygotsky, 1986). Diversity exists within any cultural group. And it is common that people make generalizations based on unexamined assumptions and perceptions that can sustain stereotypes. Why is generalization dangerous and how do you avoid it? SUMMARY ✓ According to the anthropological perspective, the self is embedded in our culture. ✓ Personne is composed of the social concepts of what it means to be who he is. ✓ Moi refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological givenness. ✓ Language is a salient part of culture and ultimately, has a tremendous effect in our crafting of the self. ✓ Culture is a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life.  P S INTRO YCHOLOGY DUCTI ON The next perspective to be tackled is the Psychological View INTRODUCTION of the Self. The following ideas and principles are derived from the theories of different psychologists who theorized about the concept of Self. Let us see how you will be able interpret your own experiences through Psychology. Psychology delves in the Physiological having to with an LESSON PROPER organism’s physical processes and the Cognitive having to do with an organism’s thinking. Learning psychology can help you gain better understanding of your own behavior and give useful insight thereof said behaviors. It is derived from two Greek words, psyche meaning soul/mind; and logos meaning study”. Literally, psychology means the study of souls but now it is study of mind. Psychology primarily studies WHO and WHAT we are, WHY we act and think in a particular manner and what is our potential as an individual. Study of psychology is concerned with specific study of behavior and mental process. Psychology focus on the individual, cognitive functions and other possible factors that affect the individual. Who am I? o A lot of people say, “I am who I am”, yet this statement still begs the question “if you are who you are, then who are you that makes who you are?” “SELF” is the “sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).” Identity- concept of an individual about himself and often referred to as “self-identity” “Self-identity” - is the belief of what the individuals thinks and feels about him. And can also be influenced by how others perceive an individual Self-development is a continuous process throughout the lifespan; one’s sense of self may change, at least somewhat, throughout one’s life. Self-representation has important implications for socio-emotional functioning throughout the lifespan. WILLIAM JAMES (1890) William James was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and conceptualized the self as having 2 aspects – the “I” and the “me”. Both “me” and “I” are 1st person singular pronouns, which means that they are used by one person to refer to himself or herself. Difference is:... While “me” is the object pronoun, which means that it is used as the object of the verb. The "Me" is the social self and the "I" is the response to the "Me." In other words, the "I" is the response of an individual to the attitudes of others, while the "me" is the organized set of attitudes of others which an individual assumes. Mead develops William James' distinction between the "I" and the "me.” E.g. “Don’t wait for ME, I will be gone for long time.  Furthermore, according to James, the “I” is the thinking, acting, feeling self. While the “me” is the physical characteristics as well psychological capabilities that makes who you are. James’s further assumptions on the self: “I” (the self in action) Me” (the self as an object in the world) - Self in process, in the moment - The structured and determinate part of - The impulsive, spontaneous, and the self indeterminate part of the self - A product of interaction and conscious - Non-reflective reflection - Part of the self that produces - We know the “I” only through the “me” individuality Attitudinal Change Quoting William James himself “The greatest discovery of my generation is that human beings can alter their lives by altering their attitudes of the mind”. He meant that with just the simple change of attitude anyone even you can change your life for better or for worse. CARL ROGERS “When I look at the world I'm pessimistic, but when I look at people I am optimistic.” - Carl Rogers Carl Rogers’s theory of personality also used the same terms like William James. According to his theory, the “I” as the one who acts and decides while the “me” is what you think or feel about yourself as an object. The I Self reflects what people see or perceive themselves doing in the physical world (e.g., recognizing that one is walking, eating, writing), in other words, the one who acts and decides. Meanwhile, the Me Self is a more subjective and psychological phenomenon, referring to individuals’ reflections about themselves (e.g. characterizing oneself as athletic, smart, cooperative). Therefore, it is what you think or feel about yourself. Self-schema – is our organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are. It may also include our interests, work, course, age, name, and physical characteristics. As you grow and adapt to the changes around you, self-schema also changes. Example: a. When someone states your first name even if they are not talking about you, your attention is drawn to them. b. If you have provincial language and you hear someone using it, it catches your attention. c. If you consider yourself a book-lover, a bookstore may always entice you out of all other stores in a mall. Unconditional Positive Regard Unconditional positive regard, sometimes referred to as “UPR”, is a term attributed to Carl Rogers, the creator of person-centered counseling and one of the founders of humanistic therapy. UPR refers to accepting and supporting another exactly as they are, without evaluating or judging them. Identity and Self concept Overview Identity is composed of personal characteristics, social roles and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define who one is. SELF-CONCEPT - how someone thinks about or perceives themselves. “the individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the person’s attributes and who and what the self is." Identity- concept of an individual about himself and often referred to as “self-identity” or the self- belief of what the individuals thinks and feels about himself. And can also be influenced by how others perceive an individual Roles- are also part of his identity. (E.g. birth order in the family, nature of work, occupation or title, academic and social standing) SELF, IDENTITY, and SELF-CONCEPT are NOT FIXED in one-time frame. For example, when you are asked about who you are, you can say “ I was a varsity player in 5th grade” which pertains to the past, “ a college student” which may be the present, and “a future politician” which is the future. They are not also fixed for life nor are they ever-changing at every moment. Think of a malleable metal, strong and hard but can be bent and molded in other shapes. Think about water. It can take any shape of the container, but at its core, it is still the same element. Experiences of the Self The Self-concept includes two different experiences of the self: 1. The existential self - The concept that you are unique/different from others (Persian poet RUMI pondered, “Who am I in the midst of all this thought traffic?”), Subjective (I). 2. The Categorical self -concept (and the concept of others) tends to focus on his or her own visible characteristics, Objective (ME). Self-Concept The real self is WHO WE ACTUALLY ARE. It is HOW WE THINK, HOW WE FEEL, LOOK, AND ACT. The real self can be seen by others, but because we have no way of truly knowing how others view us, the real self is our self-image. Self-Concept/Self-Schema Composed of 3 Things: 1. Self-Image(Real Self) – who you are at the moment (e.g. – as a student you are interested in basketball but academically challenge in most of your subjects), Self image includes: Physical description, Social Roles, Personal traits, existential statements 2. Ideal Self – who you like to be (e.g.- to practice more and play with the varsity team) is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have developed over time, based on what we have learned and experienced. Could include components of what our parents have taught us, what we admire in others, what our society promotes, and what we think is in our best interest.  3. Ought Self ( Self-Esteem/Self-worth) – who you think you should be (e.g. – to pass your subjects as a responsible student) Our group identity and self-awareness also has a great impact on our SELF-ESTEEM, one of the common concepts associated with the “self. It is defined as our own positive and negative perception or evaluation of ourselves. A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with their actual experience (real self), or what is even possible. This is called incongruence. One has to find solution to such discrepancies to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative emotions. In some instances, however, all 3 may be in line with one another. Self-actualization refers to the need for personal growth and development throughout one's life. It is the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which was developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Once you are self-actualized, you've met your full potential as an individual. Self-Esteem and Self-Worth refers to the extent to which we like, accept, or approve of ourselves; or how much we value ourselves. Self-esteem always involves a degree of evaluation, and we may have either a positive or a negative view of ourselves Social Comparison Theory One of the ways in which our social relationship affects our self-esteem is through social comparison. According to the Social Comparison Theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people. There are types of social comparison: 1. Downward Social Comparison - is the more common type of comparing ourselves with others. We create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those who are worse off than us. By having the advantage, we can raise our self-esteem. 2. Upward Social Comparison - comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us. While it can be a form of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this actually felt lower self-esteem as they highlight more of their weakness or inequities. SOCIAL COMPARISON also entails what is called Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory. In this theory, we can feel threatened when someone out-performs us, especially when that person is close to us (i.e, a family or a friend). In this case, we usually react in 3 ways: We distance ourselves from that person or redefine our relationship with them. Some will resort to the silent treatment, change of friends, while some may also redefine by being closer to that person, hoping that some association may give him some kind of acknowledgment also. Reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which you were outperformed. If you got beaten in a drawing competition, you might think drawing is not really for you and you will find a hobby where you could excel, thus, preserving self-esteem. Strengthen or resolve to improve that certain aspect of ourselves. Instead of quitting drawing, you might join seminars, practice more often, read books about it, and add some elements in your drawings that makes it unique, among others. Achieving your goal through hardwork may increase your self-esteem, too. CARVER AND SCHEIER (1981) Carver and Scheier have identified 2 types of self that we can be aware of: 1. The Private self – your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings  2. The Public self – public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others. One must find solution to such discrepancies to avoid agitation, dejection, or other negative emotions. In some instances, however, all 3 may be in line with one another. Self-consciousness Self-consciousness is when self – awareness can be too much that we are concerned about being observed and criticized by others. At other times, especially with large crowds, we may experience deindividuation or the “loss of individual self-awareness and individual accountability in groups” when we attuned ourselves with the emotions of our group and because the large crowd also provides some kind of anonymity, we may lessen our self-control and act in ways that we will not do when we are alone (e.g. mass demonstration erupting into a riot). Looking outside – e.g. seeing other people who are better and dreaming to become the same. Looking inside – reflecting on what the heart desires SIGMUND FREUD Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, the clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Psychoanalysis is a method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. Psychoanalysis and Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud, the influential German psychologist of the early 20th century, provided not only a revolutionary way of understanding human personality but also how society affects our psychology. Freud's theory of human personality revealed another facet of society. Based on Freud's formulation, the individual human mind—the source of our subjectivity—is created by social and cultural forces that operate beneath the level of the unconscious self. It is like saying that even in our minds, there are facets of ourselves. In Freudian perspective, “socialization”, the lifelong process of learning the ways and behaviors appropriate to particular society, is not only an external or structural process but also an internal, mental process. There, in the inner psyche the individual—the unconscious and conscious self—societal presence is constantly being engaged with by the person. This is what makes up the totality of the person; and society is very much part of it. Freud further concluded that mental disorder might be caused purely by psychological factor rather than organic factors. He also proposed that dreams are the disguised expressions of unconscious wishes and emphasized libidinal (sex) urges of a person. Freud’s view of human nature Freud’s view of human nature is that human beings are biological organisms motivated by the satisfaction of bodily needs and with motivating forces that drive behavior. His theory suggests that personality (mind) is composed of the id, the ego, and the superego. True Self Vs False Self The concept of true self and false self can be found in many psychological and spiritual circles, and it can mean different things in each. Inside each of us are 2 wolves: One is evil and one is good.  Which wolf wins? The one you feed most. The true self is the core of you who are, the original you, unshaped by upbringing or society. This is the state you were born in and it is a state that still exists inside you. Your false self can also be called your adapted self. This is the parts of you that have altered behavior, repressed feelings and pushed your needs aside to fit in with others. Write your thoughts about these: ACTIVITY IV 1. Write a schematic representation of your family tree identify each member with their pictures. 2. Reflect and write about your ideal self and real self. How near or far are you from ideal self 3. Write your need to do to realize your ideal self. Write a Self-Description Essay. ASSESSMENT IV 1. How do you see yourself? 2. How do you think others see you? 3. How would you like for others to see you? 4. Create your own unique title for your essay. SUMMARY ✓ Study of psychology is concerned with specific study of behavior and mental process. Psychology focus on the individual, cognitive functions and other possible factors that affect the individual ✓ William James was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and conceptualized the self as having 2 aspects – the “I” and the “me”. the “I” is the thinking, acting, feeling self. While the “me” is the physical characteristics as well psychological capabilities that makes who you are. Carl Rogers’s theory of personality also used the same terms “I” and “me”. The “I” as the one who acts and decides while the “me” is what you think or feel about yourself as an object. ✓ Carver and Scheier have identified 2 types of self that we can be aware of: The Private self – your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings and the Public self – public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others. ✓ In the concept of True Self vs. False Self, the true self is the core of you who are, the original you, unshaped by upbringing or society. This is the state you were born in and it is a state that still exists inside you. Your false self can also be called your adapted self. This is the parts of you that have altered behavior, repressed feelings, and pushed your needs aside to fit in with others.  THE SELF IN WESTERN AND ORIENTAL/EASTERN INTRO THOUGHT DUCTI ON Nowadays, the Western people are quite concerned with how INTRODUCTION to make the dharma authentically Western. But caution please, folks. Before we start inventing a new flavor of Buddhism to suit Western palettes, it is important to look closely at the implicit assumptions we are bringing to this project. To start, we might examine more closely our underlying picture about the nature of cultural difference. It looks something like this: Westerners tend to think of Asians as people basically like us who just have different customs—they hold different beliefs and have different ways of doing things. We tend to assume that Asians experience self-identity in the same way as the Westerners do—that they are the same equation, if you will, just with different values for the variables. But what if in fact Asians aren’t basically like the Westerners at all? What if the structure of the self— or call it the ego or the personality—is essentially different across cultures? Wouldn’t this give us pause? And if we are fundamentally different in this sense, how could we even know? These are just some of the ideas that would run in the mind when we talk about Eastern and Western culture. In this chapter, we will be discussing how the Self is seen based on some Western and Eastern beliefs. “One of the most effective ways to learn about oneself is by LESSON PROPER taking seriously the cultures of others. It forces you to pay attention to those details of life which differentiate them from you.” - Edward T. Hall CONCEPT OF SELF - There are a lot of sources in which we can analyze the perspective of each culture and country about the concept of the “self.” Literature - like how one depicts a hero or villain in their stories in different countries, like USA, China, Korea, etc. Socialization - like how they see their boss or their subordinate. Artworks, Dances, Even Clothing - This thing may show us clues about the Self. Cultural Diversity ▪ Put themselves first ▪ Dedicated to independent thinking and self-reliance ▪ Distant to the feelings of others ▪ Preserving, and success of the group is more important ▪ Paying attention to the needs and feelings of each member of the group ▪ Sensitive with the feelings of the members of the group to each other WESTERN THOUGHTS ▪ They give higher value with their personal rights. ▪ The western society is trying to find and prove the "truth." EASTERN THOUGHTS ▪ Giving more value to social responsibility and accepting the reality of life (fact) and interested in maintaining the balance of life  WESTERN EASTERN VALUES Westerners emphasize more on the value of Eastern with their collectivistic culture, put equality even if they see that the individual can more emphasis on hierarchy as the culture rise above everything else. Because everyone wants to keep things in harmony and order is on their own competition, one can say that (Qingxue, 2003). they also promote ideals that create “fair” competition and protect the individual. Ex: For Asians, we have respectful terms for our seniors and a lot of workers would not dare go Ex: Westerners would most likely to call their against the high-ranking officials. bosses, parents, or other seniors by their first name. The boss can also be approached head-on when conflicts or problems about him arises. SELF-DESCRIPTIONS Talk more about their personal attributes In general talk about their social roles or the when describing themselves; social situations that invoked certain traits that they deem positive for their selves. SELF-EVALUATIONS They would highlight their personal They would rather keep a low profile as achievements promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness that disrupts social relationships INDIVIDUALISTIC COLLECTIVIST Focus is on the person The group and social relations is given more importance than individual needs and wants Talk more about their personal attributes Talk about their social roles or the social when describing themselves. situations that invoked certain traits that they deem positive for their selves. Highlight their personal achievements Keep a low profile as promoting the self can be seen as boastfulness that disrupts social relationships Looks at the world in DUALITIES wherein Sees the other person as part of yourself as you are distinct from the other person, the well as the things you may create, a drama in creator is separate from the object he which everyone is interconnected with their created. specific roles WESTERN VS. EASTERN PHILOSOPHERS CONFUCIANISM Also known as RUISM, is described as tradition, a philosophy, a humanistic or rationalistic religion which was developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher CONFUCIUS (1551-479 BCE) who considered himself a re-codifier and re-transmitter of the theology and values inherited from the Shang and Zhou dynasty. It is focused on having a harmonious social life. Identity and self-concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or culture, sharing its pride as well as its failures.  Subdued Self’ – personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many, making Confucian society also hierarchical for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society. (Ho, 1995). 3 Essential Core Values of Confucianism: 5 Basic Virtues of Confucianism: Filial Piety – respect for elders Ren – benevolence, humaneness Humaneness- goodness Yi – righteous, justice Ritual - proper conduct Li – proper, rite Zhi – knowledge Xin - integrity TAOISM Also known as Daoism. A Chinese philosophy based on the writings of Lao-tzu (6th century BC) advocating humility and religious piety. Is living in the way of the TAO or the UNIVERSE. It is a simple lifestyle and its teachings. It aims to describe how to attain life. The self is part of the universe. It is living a balanced life with society and nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric ideas and thinking about equality as well as complementarity among humans as well as other beings. (Ho, 1995) The self is in harmony with everything. The 3 Treasures or 3 Jewels - (3 ESSENTIAL ENERGIES SUSTAINING HUMAN LIFE):  Jing – “essence”  Qi – “energy”  Shen – “spirit” Concept of Harmony - A central feature of Taoism is harmony between people and their environment, Nature, or Tao. The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of the value of harmony with the environment. It is also applied to the concept of health for energy (qi/chi), balance for disease prevention, healing, and the development of human potential. BUDDHISM It is the world’s 4th-largest religion, with over 520M followers or over 7% of the global population are Buddhists. It is an Indian religion. All Buddhist traditions share the GOAL OF OVERCOMING SUFFERING AND THE CYCLE OF DEATH & REBIRTH, either by the attainment of Nirvana or through the path of Buddhahood. 3 Marks of Existence: 1. Impermanence (anicca) - all things are in constant state of flux; nothing lasts, and everything decays 2. Suffering (dukkha) - all things are not experienced; everything is conditioned and conditioning 3. Non-Self (anatta) - denies that there is anything called a “SELF”  It is our quest to forget about the SELF, forget about the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with the world, and to renounce the self which is the cause of all suffering and in doing so, attain the state of NIRVANA. Gautama Buddha taught that all beings conditioned by causes (sankhara) are impermanent (anicca) and suffering (dukhha), and that not-self(anatta) characterizes all dhammas, meaning THERE IS NO “I”, “ME” or “MINE” in either the conditioned or the unconditioned (i.e. nibbana). Unsatisfactoriness and suffering exist and are universally experienced. Desire and attachment are the causes of unsatisfactoriness and suffering. Write your responses in the sentence completion activity below: ACTIVITY V 1. My unique personality traits, skills, abilities and hobbies that I can relate to Invidualistic are ____________________________________________________________________________ 2. My beliefs, values , and characteristics which are socially shared within a group __________ ____________________________________________________________________________ If you were in that person’s situation, how will you deal with it: ASSESSMENT V Within six weeks, you and three of your colleagues in your department will make an important project. After the project, you were given a Php 100,000 as prize. “How did you divide the money?” Here is some information: Write the amount of money that you think 1. A has made 25% of the total project. should be given to each: 2. B has made 40% of the total project. A: _________________________ 3. C has made 25% of the total project. B: __________________________ 4. D has made 10% of the total project. C: __________________________ D: __________________________ “How and why did you come up with your decision?” SUMMARY ✓ Western thought favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious explanation of things, including the self. ✓ The law of Karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism which implies that individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one’s life. ✓ According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, potential to be a Buddha. ✓ In Confucian thought, moral character is perfected by continuously taking every opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action. ✓ To Taoists, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self is described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao (nature).  UNPACKING THE SELF LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of this section, you are expected to: 1. Explore the different aspects of self and identity 2. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and identity 3. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various aspects of self and identity 4. Examine one's self against the different aspects of self-discussed in class. PHYSICAL SELF People now a days are too conscious how they look. How they INTRODUCTION see themselves in the mirror, how people will look at them and what will people say about them. Our concept of our self and the perception of people around us will always have big effect on how we deal in a situation, cultural or not. LESSON PROPER PHYSICAL SELF- refers to the body which we interface with our environment and fellow being. It is a tangible of the person that can be directly observed examined. Arthur Marwick (1988) defends the view that physical beauty is no more than what it is: only “skin deep”. It is a fact of life that some people are physically beautiful while others are not. Physical beauty is defined as a feature of a person’s body. This feature can be valued, it seems, independent of others that make a person valuable, such as intellect, character, or humor. However physical beauty was also considered suspect and dangerous, due to its link to sexuality and its “merely carnal”, power and seductive side. The modern view that acknowledges the autonomous status of physical beauty, although widespread nowadays, is still contested by both feminists (beauty as a suspect concept, as a male construct of feminine looks) as well a religious conservatives (only inner beauty counts). Physical Beauty in its own right The culture in which we are surrounded by has a significant impact on how we feel about ourselves and the manner in which we think about our body.  A person’s attractiveness depends on many features. We can value a person at different levels with respect to his or her: a. Physical looks (body, face, figure) b. Artistic looks (clothes, make-up, perfume, hair) c. Personal looks (Appearance, impressions, aura) d. Performance (voice, attitude, behavior) e. Personality (charisma, charm, appeal, allure) f. Relational capacities (contractual skills, communication competence) g. Friendship abilities (reliable, nice, offbeat, loveable, companionable) Judgements can be made at each level. A person may have good looks, but nevertheless be a faithless friend or a very poor dresser. A person may be fat and ugly but extremely charming, with a pleasant attitude and a great personality. This is how we evaluate a person’s appearance in everyday life. These distinctive evaluations clearly appreciate the levels as independent dimensions. By this we could already say that evaluating someone’s beauty is difficult because we need to see the person as a whole and not just criticizing him/her because the way of his/her dress or because of his/her skin color. Beauty is Beauty. If we then accept the conclusion that physical beauty can be valued, an important implication follows. Intervention in the body itself is often the only way out for those who want to be physically beautiful, and cosmetic or aesthetic surgery can be, at least for some people and to some extent, the option par excellence. Before considering the norms of physical beauty (‘What are we to conceive of as physically beautiful or not beautiful?’), it may be helpful to consider for a moment the levels of artistic beauty and personal looks, as mentioned above. These refer to a broader context than the narrow, bodily one, reflecting views on the importance of make-up, clothes, fashion and individual self- expression. Beauty is Culture Bound In different countries, not all feel the same way about the concept of beauty. In fact, cultures around the world have different ideas of what is beautiful Africa – they do not celebrate thinness the way other countries do. Famously the country of Mauritania has come to be known as one that idolizes overweight women. This is most often seen as a sign of wealth and fertility Brazil – women want to appear fit and toned, and things like waxing, sculpting massages and manicures are everyday treatment, not only reserved for the spa Asia & Africa – skin lightening has risen in popularity. In order to understand their inherent beauty norms, we should study today’s trends and tastes, and their functions and meanings in our lives. In this broader context ‘a beautiful appearance’ refers to a beauty that is man-made. It is artistic in two respects: (1) it is clearly achieved by ‘cultural’ means and reflects our present culture, and (2) it expresses someone’s personal choice and intentions. Its result is an intentional structuring from an artistic point of view: in short, artistic beauty. Physical beauty in which one has an interest In an article on Immanuel Kant’s aesthetics, Hannah Ginsborg (1997) shows that – according to Kant – beauty can be attached to living things (organisms) as well as to artificial things (works of art). The character of the judgement of beauty is the same in both cases. Moreover, central to Kant’s idea of beauty is that beauty gives the observer a feeling of disinterested pleasure or liking. By ‘disinterested’ he means that the object does not fulfill an aim or satisfy a need. There is, for instance, no ‘wish to possess’, regardless of whether it is a work of art or a natural object being observed. Finally, according to Kant’s view, beauty judgements are not objective, but are nevertheless universal. Physical beauty and Personal Identity By assuming an attitude towards our bodily looks we more or less integrate our appearance-related experiences in our lives, and thereby make these experiences part of our personal ‘identity’. This notion must be grasped in order to fully understand the concept of physical beauty. Physical beauty is understood as experienced beauty in primarily a relational perspective. Implied is that not just that ugly nose or plain face concerns us, but the story that a person tells about his nose or face or other bodily parts, as experienced by him and others. Stories about reactions from friends and the attitudes of parents; stories about an inherited ethnic nose, or the color of one’s skin; stories about one’s feelings, perhaps one’s suffering, and about expectations for one’s future (Freedman, 1986, pp. 49–54). The characterization of a person therefore includes experiences, values and beliefs, desires and psychological qualities, which together constitute someone as a person (Schechtman,1996). Changing a person’s physical looks, e.g. by aesthetic surgery, does not necessarily make someone a different person, no matter how drastic the change. A new sense of identity has to fit the reconstructed image and leave the old self behind: “Altering appearance also changes the way we see ourselves, and this is a crucial consequence of cosmetic surgery” (Freedman, pp. 54, 56). But although ‘deep’ connections do exist between the physical (biological) and the psychological (existential) realm of life, each undeniably represents a different perspective: “Bodies constrain, but do not determine” (Schechtman, pp. 67–70). Bodily changes may undoubtedly change a person, but these changes do not necessarily imply a denial or loss of his identity. As our physical self, dictates how we act in front of other it also defines how we will manage our self-esteem. Yet this self-esteem is vital on how we form positive and healthy relationships with people around us. We have different kinds of self-esteem. Self- esteem – is used to describes a person’s overall sense of self-worth or personal value. In other words, how much you appreciate and like yourself. It involves a variety of belief about yourself, such as the appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors. Inflated Self-Esteem – this people holds high regards of themselves. Better than the other to the point of underestimating them. High Self-Esteem – This is a positive esteem, which make the person be satisfied of themselves Low Self-Esteem – This person does not value themselves and do not trust their possibilities. Why Self-Esteem is Important Self-esteem can play a significant role in your motivation and success throughout your life. Low self-esteem may hold you from succeeding at school or work because you don’t believe to be capable of success. By Contrast, having a healthy self-esteem can help you achieve because you navigate life with a positive, assertive attitude and believe you can accomplish your goals. Sign of Healthy Self-Esteem Signs of Low Self-Esteem You probably have healthy self-esteem if you You tend to experience these common are more likely to: problems caused by low self-esteem: ✓ Avoid dwelling on past, negative ✓ You believe that others are better than experiences you ✓ Express your needs ✓ You find it difficult expressing your ✓ Feel confident needs ✓ Have a positive outlook on life ✓ You focus on your weaknesses ✓ Say “no” when you want to ✓ You frequently experience feelings ✓ See overall strengths and weaknesses such as shame, depressions, or and accept them anxiety ✓ You have intense fear of failure ✓ You have trouble accepting positive feedback ✓ You have trouble saying “no” ✓ You put other people’s needs before your own ✓ You struggle with confidence Write your thoughts about these statements: ACTIVITY VI 1. In your own perspective define what is beauty 2. Give at least 2 persons in your life whom you consider beautiful and explain what makes them beautiful 3. Which part of your body do you consider beautiful, explain why? 4. I am Beautiful or Handsome because… Listen to “Mrs. Potato Head” by Melanie Marquez. ASSESSMENT VI 1. Explain what message she is sending in her music. 2. Discuss what lines that struck you the most. https://youtu.be/wkri1NUq9ro SUMMARY Physical beauty is an important human value and can be evaluated on its own. The fact, however, that our beauty judgements concern human physical beauty makes all the difference. This human perspective presumes an idea of personhood and personal identity. Evaluations include an inner perspective that is fundamentally relational in character. For this reason, physical beauty is not just skin deep. Stories, in which context and contrast are expressed, provide the sense needed for a full understanding of the concept of bodily beauty.  S E INTRO XUAL SELF DUCTI ON Sex makes the world go around: It makes babies bond, INTRODUCTION children giggle, adolescents flirt, and adults have babies. It is addressed in the holy books of the world’s great religions, and it infiltrates every part of society. It influences the way we dress, joke, and talk. In many ways, sex defines who we are. It is so important, the eminent neuropsychologist Karl Pribram described sex as one of four basic human drive states. Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to Pribram, feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these drives are so closely associated with our psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study, understand, and discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for three of the four drives (Malacane & Beckmeyer, 2016). Can you guess which drive is the least understood and openly discussed? This module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame or taboo, using science as a lens, we examine fundamental aspects of human sexuality—including gender, sexual orientation, sexually transmitted diseases, and behaviors. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEXUAL ORGANS IN THE LESSON PROPER EMBRYO AND FETUS Females are considered the “fundamental” sex—that is, without much chemical prompting, all fertilized eggs would develop into females. To become a male, an individual must be exposed to the cascade of factors initiated by a single gene on the male Y chromosome. This is called the SRY (Sex-determining Region of the Y chromosome). Because females do not have a Y chromosome, they do not have the SRY gene. Without a functional SRY gene, an individual will be female. In both male and female embryos, the same group of cells has the potential to develop into either the male or female gonads; this tissue is considered bipotential. The SRY gene actively recruits other genes that begin to develop the testes and suppresses genes that are important in female development. As part of this SRY-prompted cascade, germ cells in the bipotential gonads differentiate into spermatogonia. Without SRY, different genes are expressed, oogonia form, and primordial follicles develop in the primitive ovary. Soon after the formation of the testis, the Leydig cells begin to secrete testosterone. Testosterone can influence tissues that are bipotential to become male reproductive structures. For example, with exposure to testosterone, cells that could become either the glans penis or the glans clitoris form the glans penis. Without testosterone, these same cells differentiate into the clitoris. A baby’s gender is determined at conception, and the different genitalia of male and female fetuses develop from the same tissues in the embryo. View the video linked to below to see a comparison of the development of structures of the female and male reproductive systems in a growing fetus. Where are the testes located for most of gestational time? Further Sexual Development occurs at Puberty Puberty is the stage of development at which individuals become sexually mature. Though the outcomes of puberty for boys and girls are very different, the hormonal control of the process is very similar. In addition, though the timing of these events varies between individuals, the sequence of changes that occur is predictable for male and female adolescents. As shown in Figure 1, a concerted release of hormones from the hypothalamus (GnRH), the anterior pituitary (LH and FSH), and the gonads (either testosterone or estrogen) is responsible for the maturation of the reproductive systems and the development of secondary sex characteristics, which are physical changes that serve auxiliary roles in reproduction. The first changes begin around the age of eight or nine when the production of LH becomes detectable. The release of LH occurs primarily at night during sleep and precedes the physical changes of puberty by several years. In pre-pubertal children, the sensitivity of the negative feedback system in the hypothalamus and pituitary is very high. This means that very low concentrations of androgens or estrogens will negatively feed back onto the hypothalamus and pituitary, keeping the production of GnRH, LH, and FSH low. As an individual approaches’ puberty, two changes in sensitivity occur. The first is a decrease of sensitivity in the hypothalamus and pituitary to negative feedback, meaning that it takes increasingly larger concentrations of sex steroid hormones to stop the production of LH and FSH. The second change in sensitivity is an increase in sensitivity of the gonads to the FSH and LH signals, meaning the gonads of adults are more responsive to gonadotropins than are the gonads of children. As a result of these two changes, the levels of LH and FSH slowly increase and lead to the enlargement and maturation of the gonads, which in turn leads to secretion of higher levels of sex hormones and the initiation of spermatogenesis and folliculogenesis. Signs of Puberty Different sex steroid hormone concentrations between the sexes also contribute to the development and function of secondary sexual characteristics. Examples of secondary sexual characteristics are listed in Table 1. Development of the Secondary Sexual Characteristics Male Female Increased larynx size and deepening of the Deposition of fat, predominantly in breasts and voice hips Increased muscular development Breast development Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, and Broadening of the pelvis and growth of axillary increased growth of body hair and pubic hair As a girl reaches puberty, typically the first change that is visible is the development of the breast tissue. This is followed by the growth of axillary and pubic hair. A growth spurt normally starts at approximately age 9 to 11 and may last two years or more. During this time, a girl’s height can increase 3 inches a year. The next step in puberty is menarche, the start of menstruation. In boys, the growth of the testes is typically the first physical sign of the beginning of puberty, which is followed by growth and pigmentation of the scrotum and growth of the penis. The next step is the growth of hair, including armpit, pubic, chest, and facial hair. Testosterone stimulates the growth of the larynx and thickening and lengthening of the vocal folds, which causes the voice to drop in pitch. The first fertile ejaculations typically appear at approximately 15 years of age, but this age can vary widely across individual boys. Unlike the early growth spurt observed in females, the male growth spurt occurs toward the end of puberty, at approximately age 11 to 13, and a boy’s height can increase as much as 4 inches a year. In some males, pubertal development can continue through the early 20s. I. SEXUAL MOTIVATIONS - are vital for the continuation of any species. One of the primary tasks for most living organisms is reproduction. Since humans are one of the most complex living organisms, our sexual motivations are correspondingly complex. Like hunger, sex is motivated by both biological and psychological factors. Erogenous Zones Breast and Nipples - Female breasts can obviously play an important role in breastfeeding, but breast and nipple play on anyone can also set off the fireworks of sexual excitement. Using MRI technology, a landmark 2011 study found that nipple stimulation in women activated the genital sensory cortex, the same part of the brain revved by the clitoris, vagina, and cervix. People with a penis have a genital sensory cortex, too, and the penis sends its signals there. Mouth and Lips Science says we kiss because it floods the body with natural feel- good chemicals like dopamine, oxytocin, and serotonin. These chemicals can fuel desire for our partner by juicing our excitement. Neck - We sometimes refer to the hairs on the back of our neck standing up, and there’s a reason for that. It’s a highly sensitive region. A 2018 study found it to be a pleasure provoking part across genders, although a bit more arousing in women. Ears - The ear bone is connected to the neck bone… In a 2016 study, females ranked non-genital erogenous zones. The ears came in fourth — behind breasts, lips, and neck. Sexual Response Cycle The famous lab studies done by William Masters and Virginia Johnson documented the sexual response cycle in men and women. Our sexual response progresses through four stages: Stage I Initial Genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes excitement erect, clitoris swells, respiration, and heart rate increase. Stage II Plateau Respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, phase genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus. Stage III Orgasm Rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration, and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria. Stage IV Resolution Respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, phase men experience a refractory period—a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation Unlike many animals, our sexual desire is not motivated strictly by hormones. Many studies demonstrate that sexual motivation is controlled to a great extent by  psychological rather than biological sources. Sexual desire can be present even when the capability to have sex is lost. Accident victims who lose the ability to have sex still have sexual desires. Erotic material can inspire sexual feelings and physiological responses in men and women, including elevated levels of hormones. The interaction between our physiology and psychology creates the myriad of sexual desires we see in society and ourselves. II. SEXUAL ORIENTATION - As attention and controversy about sexual-orientation issues increase, so does research about homosexuality. Researchers (like Alfred Kinsey, who documented the variety of human sexual behaviors in the famous Kinsey Reports) have been able to dispel some common myths about what it means to be homosexual. Studies show that homosexuality is not related to traumatic childhood experiences, parenting styles, the quality of relationships with parents, masculinity or femininity, or whether we are raised by heterosexual or homosexual parents. Although some researchers believe environmental influences probably affect sexual orientation, these factors have not yet been identified. Researchers have identified possible biological influences, however. Some studies indicate that specific brain structures might differ in size in brains of homosexuals when compared with the same structures in heterosexuals. Twin studies indicate a genetic influence on sexual orientation since a twin is much more likely to be gay if his or her identical twin is gay. Some researchers theorize that hormones in the womb might change brain structure and influence sexual orientation. Since 3 to 10 percent (estimates vary) of the population worldwide is homosexual, research in this area will certainly continue, and the causes of sexual orientations will become clearer. What do the terms sexual orientation, gender identity, gender expression, sexual health, sexual behaviour, and sexuality mean? Sexual orientation refers to a person’s physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction towards other people. Sexual orientation is distinct from gender identity. Sexual orientation is comprised of three elements: sexual attraction, sexual behaviour, and sexual identity. Sexual orientation is most often defined in terms of heterosexuality to identify those who are attracted to individuals of a different sex from themselves, and homosexuality to identify those who are attracted to individuals of the same sex from themselves. Gender identity is understood to refer to each person’s deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth, including the personal sense of the body (which may involve, if freely chosen, modification of bodily appearance or function by medical, surgical or other means) and other expressions of gender, including dress, speech, and mannerisms. Gender identity exists on a spectrum. This means that an individual’s gender identity is not necessarily confined to an identity that is completely male or completely female. When an individual’s gender identity differs from their assigned sex, they are commonly considered to be transgender, gender fluid, and/or gender queer. Whereas when an individual’s gender identity aligns with their assigned sex, they are commonly considered cisgender. Gender expression refers to the way in which an individual outwardly presents their gender. These expressions of gender are typically through the way one chooses to dress, speak, or generally conduct themselves socially. Our perceptions of gender typically align with the socially constructed binary of masculine and feminine forms of expression. The way an individual expresses their gender is not always indicative of their gender identity. Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social wellbeing in relation to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity.  Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination, and violence. For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled. Sexual behavior is used to describe the way in which an individual sexually engages with others. Sexual behavior is not always determined by an individual’s sexual orientation. For instance, an individual can be identified as MSM (men who have sex with men) regardless of whether or not they have sex with women or have a personal or social gay or bisexual identity. This concept is useful because it also includes men who self-identify as heterosexual but have sex with other men and would not otherwise be reached through public health interventions. The term MSM is also useful in identifying male sex workers whose clients include other men. Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life [that] encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is influenced by the intersection of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, legal, historical, religious, and spiritual factors. What do the terms lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, cisgender, queer, and intersex mean? Lesbian women and gay men are denigrate sexual and gender minorities, but attracted to individuals of the same sex more recently it has been reclaimed by these and/or gender identity as themselves. groups and is increasingly used as an Lesbian women and gay men were once expression of pride and to reject narrow commonly grouped as homosexual, but reductive labels. this term is no longer used as it has a Intersex people are born with physical or history in the wrongful pathologization of