UAPL Theory Slides - 19Jan24_to.pdf

Administrative matters Silent your phone and take phone calls outside the classroom Breaks – 2 tea breaks and 1 lunch break Mark Attendance – 3 times Morning After lunch End of day SkillsFuture Singapore survey on at the end of training In the event of the fire alarm, stay...

Administrative matters Silent your phone and take phone calls outside the classroom Breaks – 2 tea breaks and 1 lunch break Mark Attendance – 3 times Morning After lunch End of day SkillsFuture Singapore survey on at the end of training In the event of the fire alarm, stay calm and wait for instructions 2 0 Path to UAPL UAPL Training CAAS Theory AFE Assessment License Application Theory: 6 Modules CAAS Theory Assessment CAAS Practical Apply the UAPL via Practical Training Assessment by an CAPELS Authorized Flight Issuance of Digital License Examiner 0 Training Modules 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge 0 Training Modules Navigation & Safety & Principles of Flight Meteorology Operations 2 4 6 1 3 5 General UAS Air Law Human Factors Knowledge  General UAS 1 Knowledge 1 General UAS Knowledge Introduction to UAS 1 UA, UAS Categories Applications UAS Components and 2 Systems Components of UAS Integration of Systems in UAS UAS C2 Link 1 General UAS Knowledge Introduction to UAS 1 UA, UAS Categories Applications What is UA / UAS? Unmanned Aircraft (UA), commonly known as drones, is an aircraft that may be flown or used without any individual on board the aircraft to operate it. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) means an unmanned aircraft and its associated elements. 1 UA Categories 4  1 UA Categories Aeroplane "Aeroplane" means a power- driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight primarily from aerodynamic reactions on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight; Refer to page 10 1 UA Categories Rotorcraft Multi-rotor / Multi-copter Helicopter "Rotorcraft" means a power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight primarily from rotating airfoil. Refer to page 11 1 UA Categories Powered-Lift "Powered-lift" means a heavier-than- air aircraft capable of vertical take- off, vertical landing (VTOL), and low- speed flight, which depends principally on engine-driven lift devices or engine thrust for the lift during these flight regimes and on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight. Refer to page 14 1 UA Categories  1 UA Categories Airship "Air-Ship" means a lighter-than-air aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight, which depends principally on engine- driven lift devices or engine thrust for the lift during these flight regimes and on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight. Refer to page 16  1 UA Categories Airship "Air-Ship" means a lighter-than-air aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight, which depends principally on engine- driven lift devices or engine thrust for the lift during these flight regimes and on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight. Refer to page 15  1 UA Categories Aeroplane Rotorcraft "Aeroplane" means a power-driven Multi-rotor / Multi-copter heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its 01 02 Helicopter lift in flight primarily from "Rotorcraft" means a power-driven aerodynamic reactions on surfaces heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its which remain fixed under given lift in flight primarily from rotating conditions of flight; airfoil. Airship Powered-Lift "Air-Ship" means a lighter-than-air "Powered-lift" means a heavier-than- aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight, 04 03 air aircraft capable of vertical take- off, vertical landing (VTOL), and low- which depends principally on engine- speed flight, which depends principally driven lift devices or engine thrust for on engine-driven lift devices or engine the lift during these flight regimes and thrust for the lift during these flight on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift regimes and on non-rotating during horizontal flight. aerofoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight.  1 UA Categories Aeroplane Rotorcraft "Aeroplane" means a power-driven Multi-rotor / Multi-copter heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its 01 02 Helicopter lift in flight primarily from "Rotorcraft" means a power-driven aerodynamic reactions on surfaces heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its which remain fixed under given lift in flight primarily from rotating conditions of flight; airfoil. Airship Powered-Lift "Air-Ship" means a lighter-than-air "Powered-lift" means a heavier-than- aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight, 04 03 air aircraft capable of vertical take- off, vertical landing (VTOL), and low- which depends principally on engine- speed flight, which depends principally driven lift devices or engine thrust for on engine-driven lift devices or engine the lift during these flight regimes and thrust for the lift during these flight on non-rotating aerofoil(s) for lift regimes and on non-rotating during horizontal flight. aerofoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight. Applications of UAS Military Application Civil Application - Industrial sector and Inspection work - Agriculture - Aerial Photography - Surveying and Mapping Law Enforcement Application Applications of UAS – Search & Rescue Applications of UAS – Search & Rescue Applications of UAS – Spray Pesticides https://vt.tiktok.com/ZS8HX18bg/ Applications of UAS – Surveying & Mapping Applications of UAS – Surveying & Mapping PIX4Dinspect 23 July 2023 - WF - PIX4Dcloud Applications of UAS – Confined Space Inspection Applications of UAS – Surveillance with Infrared Applications of UAS – Façade Inspections 1 General UAS Knowledge UAS Components and 2 Systems Components of UAS Integration of Systems in UAS UAS C2 Link  UAS Components and Systems 1. Power and Electrical System 2. Propulsion System 3. Flight Control and Navigation System 4. Ground Control System 5. Command and Control (C2) System Power and Electrical System Batteries – Main source of power Lithium-Polymer (LiPo) - Lighter (vs Li-ion) - 2-3 years - High energy density in relation to size & weight - Highest voltage under load (acceleration, top speed) The safest charge rate for most LiPo batteries is 1C, or 1x capacity of battery in Amps. Battery The main criteria in choosing the right LiPo batteries are Cell Count (Voltage), the Capacity and the C- Rating. The component that enables for all UA activities including flying, and reactions (Refer to page 20) Capacity required depends on the systems onboard and operational requirements Example: A 6S battery at 100% charge Cell count x Fully charged Voltage = 6 Cells x 4.2V/Cell = 25.2V Charging of Batteries Charge the batteries with the approved charging equipment provided by the manufacturers Always be present when charging the batteries Do not charge the batteries overnight The safest way to charge a LiPo battery and the one that puts the least amount of strain on your battery is to charge at a rate of "1C" or 1 times capacity of battery in Amps E.g. handphone fast- charging VS. slow-charging Look out for physically damaged or bloated batteries Power Distribution Board (PDB) PDB connects all electrical component on a UA Distribute power from the battery to all Electronic Speed Controllers Either a standalone component or integrated as part of the airframe Propulsion System 1. Battery 2. Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs) 3. Motor Propellers 4. Propellers Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) ESC is a device that interprets inputs from the flight controller and converts them into pulses to govern the motor’s speed. ESC must be paired with a motor ESC comes with a variation of current rating to match the motor size Direct Current (DC) Motor Motors are the primary user of the battery power on a UA Adjacent motor spins at opposite directions to provide counter torque effect Brushless motors are often used for UA as they do not wear out and break easily as compared to brushed motors Propellers Propellers are the wings of the UA Propeller converts a powerplant's spinning motion into the UAS's controlled forward motion Refer to page 27 Flight Control System & Navigation System The Flight Controller is responsible for piloting the UA FC interprets the inputs from sensors and the remote pilot’s controller commands It is an onboard computer, usually include GPS, sensors like Gyroscopes, Accelerometer, Barometers and Magnetometers Various autonomous flight modes can be controlled through the flight controller Various Sensors under FCS Inertial Measurement Unit Accelerometer (measures acceleration) Gyroscope (measures orientation) Magnetic Compass (measures where you are) Barometer (measures atmospheric pressure) Global Position System (GPS) Navigation system that collects signals from orbiting satellites using a radio receiver to determine position, speed, and time For localization purpose in outdoor environment Antenna to be mounted on topside of UA Use to stabilize position, record home point and autonomous flight modes GPS Flight Controller Ground Control System (GCS) GCS are sets of ground-based hardware and software that allow UA operators to communicate with and control a drone and its payloads, either by setting parameters for autonomous operation or by allowing direct control of the UA A UAS requires a collection of ground based-system components to receive telemetry information and video feed from the UA These components are essential in order to operate safely and effectively These components are commonly referred to together as a Ground Control Station Refer to page 29 Command and Control (C2) System The C2 component of the GCS is usually a Remote-Control Transmitter Serves as a primary means of controlling the aircraft when it is not in an autonomous flight mode. Current system operate at a frequency of approximately 2.4Ghz and commonly advertised range of amount 700m to 1km Refer to page 37 Radio Receiver (Rx) RX is a small electronic device inside the UA that receives the radio signal from the radio transmitter It translate the radio signals to the flight controller for flight commands or flight mode activation Both radio transmitter and receiver must be operating on the same frequency. Remote Control Transmitter (RC Tx) An electronic device that transmits radio signals wirelessly over the radio frequency to the receiver which is connected to the UA Basic flight commands such as throttle, elevator, aileron and rudder commands and other secondary commands such as gimbal control and flight mode activation can be sent via the transmitter Binding Transmitter to Receiver A 2.4Ghz Radio Control (RC) system allows an operator to bind a pair a Radio Receiver (Rx) with a specific Transmitter (Tx) Process usually involves pushing a button on the Tx and the Rx. Inserting a special plug into the Rx while powering on both systems within close proximity. After Binding is performed properly, the receiver will only respond to command signals from the Tx that it is paired. Channels in the Transmitter The most basic transmitter require at least four channels to be able to operate the UA Throttle Pitch Roll Yaw However most common UA transmitter for multi-rotor applications require at least 6 channels to allow additional functions such as Flight mode Gimbal control Transmitter Modes Mode 2 Transmitter Mode 1 Transmitter Drone flight physics in under 2 minutes - Yaw, Pitch & Roll - YouTube UA Flight Control Modes Manual/Rates Most difficult to operate, as there is no control augmentation UA need to make compensation to maintain attitude, altitude and position of the UA when subject to disturbances, such as wind Attitude hold Flight controller keeps the UA level when the control sticks are centred Altitude hold Flight controller keeps the UA at a constant altitude / height UA Flight Control Modes GPS mode Position hold, autonomous flight modes and return-to-home functions Return-to-Home When triggered, the UA will automatically climb to a predetermined altitude in order to avoid any obstacles. The UA will then proceed to fly to its home point Avoidance collision The UA avoid obstacles and separate if necessary Headless mode Allows user to control the aircraft without having to consider the UA’s orientation Importance of Flying Within Radio Line of Sight Flying out of visual line of sight (VLOS) or radio line of sight (RLOS) is not recommended in general because the UA will be at risk Telemetry readouts on crucial information such as remaining battery strength, GPS location, and navigational aids are lost. Loss of situational awareness Over-reliance on automatic retrieval systems such as the return home feature; excessively relying on automatic navigation systems and sensors instead of pilot input Refer to page 39 Under ANA 101 UA pilot must ensure that the unmanned aircraft is within visual line of sight at all times unless the UA pilot license allows the UA pilot to operate the unmanned aircraft beyond visual line of sight Radio Interference UA systems operate on 2.4Ghz and 5.8Ghz frequencies Other sources of radio transmission in the environment can interfere with the UA signal If the interfering signals occur in the same frequency band as the UA system, this will act as noise which will reduce the signal to noise ratio resulting in noisy video image and limited range Cause for interference e.g. Another UA in close proximity, Wi-Fi routers, cellular network towers, microwave antennas, high voltage lines, broadcasting towers Signal Degradation Causes Free-space loss The signal travels through the atmosphere. The farther your signal travels, the more it loses strength. That is why it is important to keep your drone within recommended operational range Absorption loss If signal passes through an object that is not transparent to radio signals, you will experience absorption loss and possibly lose control of your drone as long as this object is in the way Diffraction Signal loss happens from diffraction when an object appears between the transmitter and receiver. Rounded objects tend to cause more diffraction loss than those with sharp edges Signal Degradation Causes Multipath interference Reflected radio signals can split and reach the receiver from several different paths. Sometimes these paths interfere with each other and interfere with the main signal Terrain Topography has a significant effect on signal transmission. Hills can obstruct the path and considerably weaken the signal, often making reception impossible Buildings and vegetation Radio signals can significantly be affected by buildings because they can reflect or absorb radio waves. Trees and foliage, especially when wet, can also weaken radio signals Preventing Interference Ensure no other UA operating in the vicinity Select a channel as far away in frequency from the interference as possible Avoid interference between the RC Tx and other wireless equipment. Off the Wi-Fi on your mobile device Fly in open areas Link Loss In most cases a link loss will result in UA triggering the RTH failsafe In some instances, the RTH may not function properly and result in drone flyaway situation Preventing Link Loss Switch on RC Tx before power on the aircraft. This will ensure that the aircraft receives a valid link and will always be under control Ensure a home point is set before take-off. As a good practice, ensure there is at least 6-7 GPS satellites locked Check for compass interference. The compass will determine the UA orientation so that the UA will know which way to turn to Preventing Link Loss Keep Drone within line of sight. Monitoring the drone solely on live feed is never a good idea, as you will not be able to see what is behind or either side of your drone Reset home point if you are moving. Especially when you are driving in a car or moving in a boat Set an appropriate RTH altitude/height so that UA will not crash into trees or building when returning to home  Principles of 2 Flight 2 Principle of Flight Aerodynamics 1 Forces of Flight Aerofoil Stall / Spin Stability Control of Motion 2 Axes of Motion Functions of Control Surfaces Purpose of Trims 2 Principle of Flight Aerodynamics 1 Forces of Flight Aerofoil Stall / Spin Stability Force – Newton’s Law of Motion Newton’s first law states that an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a net external force Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body over time is directly proportional to the force applied and occurs in the same direction as the applied force. A force is the push or pull on an object with mass, that causes it to change velocity (acceleration) Newton’s third law states that all forces between 2 objects exist in equal magnitude and opposite direction. An object will only accelerate when there is a resultant force acting on it Weight Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object Weight is a measure of the gravitational force acting on the object SI unit of Weight: Weight = Mass x g g = gravitational field strength (N/kg) Four-Forces Acting on an UA Lift is the force acting in the upward direction and is created by the wings or propellers Weight is the downward force acting on the aircraft due to gravity Thrust is the force pulling the aircraft forward, created by the propeller or engine Drag is the force acting opposite to thrust. This is created by air resistance and the shape and size of the aircraft Page 52 Forces Acting on an UA Lift more than Weight UA will ascend “Lift up the Weight” Forces Acting on an UA Lift = Weight UA will maintain same height/altitude Forces Acting on an UA Lift less than Weight UA will descend Forces Acting on an UA Thrust more than Drag UA will increase speed forward / accelerate Forces Acting on an UA Thrust equal Drag UA will maintain at a constant speed Forces Acting on an UA Thrust less than Drag UA will reduce speed / decelerate Airfoil A body shaped to produce an aerodynamic reaction (lift) perpendicular to its direction of motion, for a small resistance (drag) force in that plane. Airfoil is the cross-sectional shape of a wing, blade of a propeller An airfoil-shape body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force Airfoil A body shaped to produce an aerodynamic reaction (lift) perpendicular to its direction of motion, for a small resistance (drag) force in that plane. Airfoil is the cross-sectional shape of a wing, blade of a propeller An airfoil-shape body moving through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force Airfoil  Airfoil and Airflow Bernoulli Principle: Higher air speed / velocity = Reduced air pressure Lower air speed / velocity = Increased air pressure The difference in pressure cause a lifting effect How Does A Wing Actually Work? - YouTube Angle of Attack Angle between the Chord of the aerofoil and the relative wind direction Increasing the angle of attack results in an increase in lift and induced drag Critical Angle of Attack Critical Angle of Attack = Maximum lift force Beyond which, will result in loss of lift aka Stall How Do Airplanes Fly? - YouTube Drone AirFlow, Ground Effect, Hover and Translational Lift Explained - YouTube Ground Effect When the wing or multi-rotor gets close to the ground i.e. less than one-half the wingspan above the ground, drag is reduced by the interaction between the ground, the vortices and downwash When fixed-wing aircraft enter ground effect upon landing, they tend to be cushioned or to float Rotorcraft may also appear to be cushioned or buoyed as they approach the ground during landing Ground Effect – Rotorcraft Ground effect can allow aircraft of any kind to lift off the ground prior to the speed / power necessary to sustain flight outside of ground effect Once the aircraft experiences ground effect, it may encounter controllability issues or stall. Vortex Ring State (VRS) Also known as settling with power Unwanted aerodynamic effect that impacts helicopters and multi-rotors When in VRS, the airflow around the propellers is no longer uniformly downward, but instead it forms rights of flow that includes some reverse upward airflow This can lead to controllability issues, rapid descent, instability, or various combinations of these problems If VRS occurs at a low enough altitude, the UA can fall out of the sky and crash. Aerial Helicopter Vortex Stock Footage, Luftaufnahme von Helikopter mit Luftwirbel, 4K, 6K, Vortexes - YouTube Avoiding VRS You may inadvertently enter VRS as you conduct a near-vertical, slow descent down to land Use combination of forward speed and descent when approaching to land If you enter VRS, recovery options are initiating a faster forward speed or increasing the rate of descent Aerodynamic Stall Stall occurs when the UA cannot produce enough lift to support its weight Critical angle of attack of the wing is exceeded Flying the UA below the stall speed The lift is lower than the weight of the UA. Thus, the UA loses altitude What is a SPIN? | The Aggravated STALL - YouTube Phase 1: Entry Phase 2: Incipient spin Phase 3: Fully developed Phase 4: Recovery Signs and Symptoms of Stall A stalled wing may be accompanied by one or more of the following: Buffeting on the flight controls Poor pitch authority Poor roll control An inability to arrest descent Less effective flight controls Nose drop Stall Recovery 1. Disconnect any autopilot and auto throttle 2. Apply nose down pitch control until the stall alert is gone or, if necessary, until the stall warning is gone 3. Roll Wings Level 4. Thrust or Power as Required 5. Retract the speed brakes and spoilers to increase lift and stall margin 6. Return to intended flight path Spin A spin is a condition following a stall that is sometimes caused by one wing being stalled. This wing has increased drag and decreased lift, so the UA tend to drop to the side of the stalled wing UA will then rapidly lose height but at a low airspeed Spin Recovery Power Idle – Remove any aileron input Aileron Neutral – Remove any aileron input Rudder opposite – Apply rudder opposite to the yaw until the spin stops. Then centralise the rudder Elevator Thru Neutral – Apply forward elevator to reduce the angle of attack of the wing Stability Capacity of an aircraft to maintain/return to its original flight path is referred to as stability And if displace, to develop forces and moments tending to restore the original condition The UA attitude can be disturbed by Wind gust Small control inputs asymmetries Static Stability This process produced a force which returned the aircraft to its original flight condition, after it has been disturbed This initial reaction makes the aircraft Statically Stable Static and Dynamic Stability Static Stability means that when disturbed from its flight path, forces will be activated which will initially tend to return the aircraft to its original position Dynamic Stability sees the oscillations to continue to either side of the original but become smaller. In other words, it is the property which dampens the oscillations set up by a Statically Stable aircraft Static stability vs dynamic stability. - YouTube Static and Dynamic Stability Positive Static Stability Return to original state after disturbance Neutral Static Stability Remain at new state after disturbance Negative Static Stability Diverge further from original state after disturbance Positive Dynamic Stability: Tendency of an aircraft to dampen off the magnitude and move toward original state Neutral Dynamic Stability: Tendency of an aircraft remain the same oscillation magnitude without dampen back to its original state. Negative Dynamic Stability Tendency of an aircraft to diverge away from original state with an (Dynamic Instability) increase in magnitude while oscillating. An aircraft is said to be in stable flight, only if it is both statically and dynamically stable (Page 68) Center of Gravity (CG) The Center of Gravity is the specific point where the average mass or weight of an aircraft is at the center The CG does not move with AOA changes CG location relates directly to longitudinal (pitch) and laterial (bank) stability The CG must always be within limits. However, depending where the allowable range the CG falls affect performance Forward CG If the CG is too far forward, it will be difficult to control the UA In a multi-rotor, this may cause the UA to drift forward, requiring added control input Characteristics Increased longitudinal stability Decrease pitch manoeuvrability Lower cruise speed – UA flies at a higher Angle of Attack Higher stall speed – UA flies at a higher Angle of Attack Longer take off distance Aft CG If the CG is too far aft i.e. too much weight in the rear of the UA In a multi-rotor, this may cause the UA to drift rearward or be unable to stop much motion Characteristics Decreased longitudinal stability Increase pitch manoeuvrability Higher cruise speed – UA flies at a higher Angle of Attack Lower stall speed – UA flies at a higher Angle of Attack Poor stall/spin recovery Centre of Pressure The centre of pressure also known as Centre of Lift, is the point where the total sum of pressure field acts on a body All lift forces are concentrated at the center of pressure on the wings or propellers As the airfoil angle of attack changes, the pressure field changes The center of pressure changes with variation in the angle of attack If the angle of attack is increased, the Center of Pressure moves forward and vice versa As the CG is fixed, the Center of pressure affects the stability of the aircraft 2 Principle of Flight Control of Motion 2 Axes of Motion Functions of Control Surfaces Purpose of Trims Control of Motion Movement Pitch Roll Yaw Axis of Rotation Elevator/ Stabilator Aileron Rudder Primary Control Surface Lateral Axis Longitudinal Axis Vertical Axis PELA RALO YRVE Elevator Deflecting the elevators downward to produce more lift on that aerodynamic surface, rotating the tail upward and the nose downward Deflecting the elevators upward will result in negative lift or a downforce on the horizontal tail, pointing the nose upward Responsible for changes in pitch, rotating the aircraft about the lateral axis Ailerons Deflect opposite from one another to produce changes in roll (rotation of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis) If a right roll is commanded, the right aileron will deflect upward, decreasing lift or creating a downward force on that wing tip, forcing it to lower The left aileron will lower, producing more lift on that wing tip and raising it up to produce the desired right roll Rudder The rudder on the vertical stabilizer maybe deflected either left or right in order to generate a side force in the opposite directions, thus yawing the aircraft Force generated by the rudder rotates the aircraft about the vertical axis Primary used to coordinate the aircraft when banking or turning  Multi-Rotor Controls Axis Vertical Flight Mode Pitch Lateral Axis Varying the Motor Speed M3 & M4 Spool Up – Pitches Forward Roll Longitudinal Varying the Motor Speed Axis M2 & M4 Spool Up – Roll Left Yaw Vertical Axis Varying the Motor Speed ‘Earth’ Axis M1 & M4 Spool Up – Yaw Left (CCW) Note: CW motor spool up to induce the torque to yaw the body CCW Helicopter Controls Axis Vertical Flight Mode Pitch Lateral Axis Control Swashplate movement using precise Servos Swashplate tilt forward – Pitches Forward Roll Longitudinal Control Swashplate movement Axis using precise Servos Swashplate tilt left – Roll Left Yaw Vertical Axis Control AOA of tail motor via ‘Earth’ Axis precise Servo Positive AOA towards the side of desired Yaw direction A swash plate is used to control the movement of the helicopter Trim During the flight, there are often forces that tend to deviate an UA from its path Without trimming, the user would need to constantly apply a force on his transmitter to keep the UA in its path Trims are regarded as a "secondary" flight control mechanism To "trim" an airplane, the aerodynamic forces on the control surfaces are adjusted so that the aircraft maintains the desired attitude without any input from the pilot Trim Controls If your quadcopter wanders in any direction when your hands are off the controls (and there is no wind), you must do the following If your multirotor UA starts to drift forward, pitch trim backward button until the drifting stops Trimming the controls, such as pitch and roll, will let the UA hover and retain its place more efficiently  Air Law 3 3 Air Law Air Navigation Act 1 Air Navigations Regulations Airspace 2 Airspace restrictions in Singapore UA Registration 3 Process and Requirements of Registration Permits / Licenses 4 Permit and Licenses requirements 3 Air Law Air Navigation Act 1 Air Navigations Regulations Air Navigation Act 1966 “Air Navigation Act” or “ANA”: An Act to provide for the control and regulation of aviation so as to maintain, enhance and promote safety and security in civil aviation, and to provide for the implementation of Singapore’s obligations under the Chicago Convention and any other international convention, agreement, or understanding relating to safety of civil aviation to which the Government is a party. Highlights of ANA (Chapter 6) and AN 101 This section will highlight the provisions of the Air Navigation Act 1966 (ANA) and AN 101, included but not limited to Applicability of UAS provisions within the Act Permit needed for certain overflight by unmanned aircraft Absolute prohibition of carriage of dangerous materials on unmanned aircraft Discharge from unmanned aircraft Dangerous activity involving aircraft Flying without satisfying safety requirements Trespassing at aerodromes Penalty for dangerous flying Air Navigation Act (Chapter 6) Air Navigation (101 – Unmanned Aircraft Operations) Regulations 2019 Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence Trespassing of aerodromes Fine not exceeding $5,000 Operating a registrable UA that is not registered Fine up to $10,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 6 months, or both or tampering of Registration labels Operator who fail to produce a valid UABT Fine not exceeding $40,000 or Certificate, UAPL, Activity or Operator Permit or Fine not exceeding $20,000 imprisonment not exceeding 15 other identity details during verification checks months, or both by enforcement officers Failure to report accidents Fine not exceeding $50,000 Fine not exceeding $100,000 Failure to comply with UABTO, UATO, AFE, UA Operator responsibilities Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence Unauthorised photography over Protected areas Unauthorised flight over any Protected area declared under Section 32 Fine not exceeding $50,000 or Fine not exceeding $100,000 or Operation of unmanned aircraft in prohibited imprisonment not exceeding 2 imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, areas years, or both or both Prohibited use of psychoactive substances Unauthorised discharge from unmanned aircraft Offence 1st Offence 2nd Offence Operator who fail to comply with the UABT, UAPL, Operator or Activity permit requirements Fine not exceeding $50,000 or Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 2 imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, years, or both or both Operate an UA without activity or operator permits Carriage of dangerous materials on unmanned aircraft Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both Dangerous flying Endangering the life or property of another Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 10 years, or person both Purposes of UAS Operations 1. Recreation Purpose 2. Education Purpose 3. Non-Recreation or Non-Education Purpose i.e. Commercial / Business Purpose Recreation Purpose Any activity engaged in for enjoyment, relaxation or leisure, but not taking part in — a) A sporting activity that forms part of an organised group activity or organised competition, race or tournament; b) A recreational activity provided in the course of carrying on a business; or c) A flying display Note: the definition for recreation has been clarified to exclude drone races Education Purpose Any lecture, tutorial, seminar, demonstration, class or similar activity on unmanned aircraft, offered or provided by an education institution mentioned in section 45 of the Private Education Act 2009 to students enrolled in that education institution. Examples of activities that are considered as “education purpose” include: (a) A university or tertiary institute mentioned in section 45 of the Private Education Act 2009 conducting a course that involves flying of a UA for its enrolled students, as part of its full-time curriculum. (b) A public educational institute within 5km of a civil airport / military airbase flying UA outdoors to demonstrate its capabilities to the students. (c) Students of a public educational institute showcasing their UA as part of a school activity that is not open to the public. Non-Recreation or Non-Education Purpose This is deemed as for Commercial or Business purpose and subject to more stringent regulations under ANA 101 e.g. getting UAPL, Operator Permit, Activity Permit and so on. Examples include: An individual sharing his personal collection of outdoor aerial photographs taken using his UA with business for marketing purposes, regardless of whether there are any monetary exchanges A public educational institute using its UA to take photographs and videos of its activities and events A volunteer using a UA to take photographs and videos for a charity event A company’s public communications department using a UA to take event photographs for marketing or publicity efforts Exception - UAPL is Not Required A UAPL is not required within an indoor location that is not publicly accessible, except when the purpose is for: a sporting activity such as a competitive race or tournament; or an event that is attended by more than 50 individuals at any time during the event  AP (Class 2)* AP (Class 2)* AP (Class 2)* AP (Class 2)* *Only if you are operating in no-fly zones, or above 200 feet AMSL 3 Air Law Airspace 2 Airspace restrictions in Singapore Airspace – Where Can I Fly? The OneMap (www.OneMap.gov.sg) is a useful companion for all UA operators. The shaded areas of the map show the No-Fly Zones that users are not allowed to operate their UA if they do not hold the requisite permits. Airspace – Where Can I Fly? https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-and-nature/dos-and-donts/parks-with-no-flying-signs No-Fly Zones Areas within 5km of aerodromes Danger Areas Protected Areas under Section 32 Air Navigation Act Air Navigation (Protected Areas) Order 2015 - Singapore Statutes Online (agc.gov.sg) Prohibited Areas Restricted Areas Temporary Restricted Areas Areas within 5km of 5 Airbases - Tengah Airbase, Sembawang Airbase, Seletar Airport, Paya Lebar Airbase, Changi aerodromes Airport Areas within Danger WSDllA- Pulau Pergam / Tengeh Reservoir Areas WSDllB - Western water catchment area WSD4 - Southern Offshore islands WSD35 - Central water catchment area WSD34 - Palau Tekong Protected Area under a. Every MINDEF/ Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) Training camps Section 32 Air b. Every Singapore Police Force (SPF), Home Team Academy, training camps and HQ Navigation Act c. SCDF HQ d. Police Coast Guard HQ e. Changi Naval Base f. Government agency building, Ministries g. Government affiliated research, logistic and support agencies, DSO, DSTA i. Industrial Partners, Jurong Island, Tuas Power Station a. Prison Services and all prison complex(s) b. Tuas and Woodlands Checkpoints c. Offshore islands - Pulau Bukom, Pulau Sudong, Pulau Pawai, etc Areas within Prohibited a. WSP3 - Central Water catchment, Upper Pierce Reservoir Areas b. WSP24 - Cable Car Services from Mt. Faber to Sentosa Areas within Restricted i. WSR10 - West MINDEF Training site Areas ii. WSR6 - Central Water catchment, from Upper Pierce Reservoir to Upper Seletar Reservoir besides Bukit Timah Expressway (BKE) iii. WSR16 - Novena Area iv. WSR38 - Surrounding Padang v. WSR9 - Cantonment Area Areas within a CAAS may establish temporary temporary Restricted Restricted Areas over parts of Area (TRA) Singapore on selected period due to various activities such as NDP- Related Aerial Activities in July & August 2021 to ensure the safety of the public and the aircraft that will be flying at low levels as part of the aerial activities for the National Day Parade. UA Safety Guidelines UA Safety Guidelines 3 Air Law UA Registration 3 Process and Requirements of Registration UA Registration All UA with a total weight exceeding 250 grams must be registered with CAAS before flying. The registrant must be at least 16 years old at the point of registration. The UA registration involves a two-step process: 1. Purchase of a registration label bearing a unique UA registration number; and 2. Completion of the registration online Refer to page 89 The registration labels can be purchased through the following methods: Online (www.caas.gov.sg/UAregistration); or Over the counter at designated SingPost post offices. UA Registration Purchasing limits for the registration labels are as follows: A citizen or permanent resident of Singapore may purchase up to a maximum of 5 registration labels; A person who is neither a citizen nor permanent resident of Singapore may purchase 1 registration label only. Note: A person who wishes to purchase more than the purchasing limits may write to CAAS ([email protected]) to request for additional labels. These requests will be considered on a case-by-case basis. A fee of $25 will be collected for each registration label UA Registration (caas.gov.sg) UA Registration The UA registration label must be affixed on the outer surface of a non-detachable part of the UA (e.g. top surface of the main body) and be clearly visible. The registration label must not be pasted on places such as the removable batteries or propellers. Once the UA registration label is affixed on the UA, the registrant must complete the registration at the online UA portal (https://esoms.caas.gov.sg/uaportal/index.html). The registrant will need to login via via SingPass / CorpPass / UAPass Submit the following information: 1. Personal Particulars ; 2. Information about the UA (Brand, Model, Weight, Frequency, Serial No); 3. Photograph of the UA affixed with the registration label; and 4. Unique identification number listed on the registration label. UA Deregistration The registrant must de-register his UA with CAAS at the online UA portal (https://esoms.caas.gov.sg/uaportal/index.html) if the UA is lost or damaged beyond repair (for instances where the UA is lost, please also make a police report); the registration label is damaged or when the information on the label becomes illegible; or the UA is sold, or given, to another person. The UA registration label is non-transferrable. Upon de-registration, the registrant should remove the de-registered label from the UA and destroy the label. 3 Air Law Permits / Licenses 4 Permit and Licenses requirements Operator Permit An Operator Permit is granted by CAAS to an organisation or individual if the applicant has demonstrated that he/she is able to operate the Unmanned Aircraft (UA) safely. Refer to page 106 The assessment will include, but limited to, the applicant’s organisational set-up, procedures to manage safety including the conduct of safety risk assessments, airworthiness of each of UA, and competency of the personnel involved in the flying of the UA. The permit is valid for up to one year. Activity Permit (AP) An Activity Permit is granted by CAAS to an organisation or individual for a single activity or a block of repeated activities to be carried out by a UA taking into account: Refer to page 108 the location(s) of operation, type(s) of operation to be conducted, date(s) / time(s) during which the operation(s) to be conducted, operating altitude and mitigation measures to address location-specific circumstances. There are 2 types of Activity Permit; Class 1 and Class 2 AP Activity Permit (AP) – Class 1 AP 1. A Class 1 Activity Permit is required for UA activities conducted for purposes that are not recreational or educational in nature; 2. or if the UA to be used for recreational purposes is over 25 kilograms in total mass; 3. or if the UA to be used for educational purposes is over 7 kilograms in total mass. Refer to page 94 A Class 1 Activity Permit is not valid without a UA Operator Permit Activity Permit (AP) – Class 2 AP 1. A Class 2 Activity Permit is required for UA activities conducted outdoors if the UA to be used for recreational purposes is 25 kilograms or below in total mass; 2. or if UA to be used for educational purposes is 7 kilograms or below in total mass; 3. and when the planned activity meets any of the following conditions: Operating altitude higher than 200 feet (approx. 60 metres) above mean sea level (AMSL); Flying within No-Fly Zone Refer to page 94 Activity Permit (AP) – Processing Time  Activity Permit (AP) – Processing Fee Type of Application Fees 1st UA type $700 Operator Permit 2nd UA and onwards (of different type from the 1st UA) $500 (valid for up to one year) Renewal $300 Each activity or block of different dates/times of the same activity (i.e. $120 Class 1 same location, same type of operations, same UA type) Activity Permit Repeat activity $45 Each activity or block of different dates/times of the same activity (i.e. $110 Class 2 same location, same type of operations, same UA type) Activity Permit Repeat activity (i.e. same as previously approved Activity Permit with $36 new dates/times only) Annual Subscription Fee $200 Centralised Flight Management FlyItSafe Mobile App Free System UA Tracker (subject to GST) $265  Unmanned Aircraft Pilot Licence (UAPL) Process to obtaining a Class A UAPL is as follows 1 Register for a CAPELS account https://capels.caas.gov.sg. 2 Pass UAPL theory test. https://caas.studyworks.com.sg/ytm14/login.xhtml The fee for the test is $125. 3 Attend training. It is recommended to attend the course conducted by any CAAS-approved UA training and assessment organisations (UATO) 4 Pass practical assessment The assessment must be conducted by an Authorised Flight Examiner (AFE) under a CAAS-approved UATO, or by the Authority 5 Submit UAPL application. The applicant is required to upload his theory test results and make payment of $500. 6 View digital licence (mobile app) The applicant must be at least 16 years old. CAPELS: Civil Aviation Personnel Licensing System UAPL – Class & Categories There are two classes of UAPL and 4 categories of UA within each class Class A UAPL - operate any UA with total mass that does not exceed 25 kg Class B UAPL - operate with total mass that exceeds 25 kg There are 4 categories of UA within each class of UAPL. The categories are as follows: 1. Aeroplane 2. Rotorcraft 3. Powered-lift 4. Airship UAPL – Proficiency Check All UAPL holders must pass a proficiency check conducted by an AFE from an approved UATO. The check must be completed at least once every 4 years from the date on which the category was specified on the UAPL For Class B UAPL holders, in addition to the proficiency check, a refresher training, is required to be completed at least once a year A failure to complete a proficiency check will lead to the expiry of the UAPL Responsibilities of UAPL UA pilot must not fly an unmanned aircraft unless the UA pilot is aware of the performance specifications and operating limitations of the unmanned aircraft; and is satisfied that the unmanned aircraft is airworthy UA pilot must when operating an unmanned aircraft, comply with the performance specifications and operating limitations of the unmanned aircraft as specified by the manufacturer; and when operating an unmanned aircraft, ensure that the unmanned aircraft is within visual line of sight at all times unless the UA pilot licence allows the UA pilot to operate the unmanned aircraft beyond visual line of sight UA Basic Training Certificate (UABT) UABT is required for operating drone that is between 1.5kg and 7kg for recreational or educational purpose. The applicant must be at least 16 years old. Attend an e-Learning course and complete an online quiz The quiz is completed when all 20 questions are correctly answered.  Navigation & 4 Meteorology 4 Navigation & Meteorology Navigation 1 Geographic Coordinate System Global Navigation Satellite System Other Navigation System Meteorology 2 Atmospheric properties Altimetry Terms Types of Cloud and Wind Interpret Weather information 4 Navigation & Meteorology Navigation 1 Geographic Coordinate System Global Navigation Satellite System Other Navigation System Navigation A geographic coordinate system is a set of numbers, characters, or symbols that can be used to specify any location on the planet - Latitude and longitude - UTM map projection Longitude and Latitude Lines The angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through a place on Earth's surface is called "longitude“ Longitude 0 = Prime meridian, also known as Greenwich meridian The proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres are determined by the prime meridian The earth rotates 360° in a day (24 hours), and at a rate of 15°/hour. As a result, every 15° of longitude corresponds to a distinct time zone. Longitude and Latitude Lines The angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that goes through that location and through (or close to) the center of the Earth is the "latitude" of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude 0 = Equator The Equator separates the Northern and Southern Hemispheres of the earth How Do GPS Coordinates Work? - YouTube How to read Latitude and Longitude Coordinates - YouTube Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) UTM is a coordinate system used to give coordinates to locations on the Earth's surface It divides the world into 60 zones and projects each of them to the plane as the foundation for its coordinates It ignores altitude and treats the world as a perfect ellipsoid Introduction to UTM, Universal Transverse Mercator - YouTube Global Navigation Satellite System Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) refers to a constellation of satellites providing signals from space that transmit positioning and timing data to GNSS receivers. The receivers then use this data to determine location There are 4 constellations under GNSS Global Positioning System (GPS) - USA Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) - Russia BeiDou - China Galileo - Europe Number of Satellites Constellation Number of Satellites GPS 31 GLONASS 24 GALILEO 30 BEIDOU 56 Singapore has 19 satellites, since 2011. Number of Satellites Performance of GNSS The performance of GNSS is assessed using four criteria: 1. Accuracy: the difference between a receiver’s measured and real position, speed or time 2. Integrity: a system’s capacity to provide a threshold of confidence and, in the event of an anomaly in the positioning data, an alarm 3. Continuity: a system’s ability to function without interruption 4. Availability: the percentage of time a signal fulfils the above accuracy, integrity and continuity criteria GNSS A GNSS or GPS receiver needs a minimum of 4 satellites to be able to calculate its position. 3 satellites determine latitude, longitude and height 1 satellite synchronise the receiver’s internal clock Each satellite will transmit information about its position and the current time at regular intervals to the GPS receiver GPS Receiver is able to track multiple satellites at any one time Improves performance and reduce the possibility of errors When system fails, the receiver will pick up signals from other system GPS Errors Distortion Across Distance With Time Each satellite sends out a coded signal including time-stamped data about its position and time Satellite signals are distorted and delayed by the Earth's atmosphere. The GPS receiver must likewise compensate for this effect by comparing time data from 2 satellites Satellite Orbits GNSS satellites travel in very precise, well known orbits. However, the orbits do vary a small amount. A small variation in the orbit results in a significant error in the position calculated. The GPS Receiver is able to process the ephemerides to compensate for orbital errors  Factors Affecting Accuracy of GNSS Blockage of satellite signals caused by structures such as buildings, bridges, and trees. Use indoor or underground Signals reflected off walls or buildings (multipath). Bad weather Interference or jamming of radio signals Large-scale solar storms Satellite maintenance / manoeuvres Devices that aren't constructed properly and don't meet GPS interface specifications UA and GPS Losing GPS/GPS Error Consequences On Take-Off UA may lose control during take-off. In Flight UA will enter Attitude (ATTI) Mode and drift in the direction of the wind. RTH (Return-To-Home) will not function. Before landing, UA will hover at its current position. The presence of a GPS module on a UA is critical, as it aids the pilot in maintaining a safe flight. Ability to Return to Home location autonomously and safely Assists the pilot in keeping the UA steady with GPS Locate your UA on a map with GPS Locate a crashed UA with GPS Enables autonomous waypoint flight using intelligent flying modes Other Forms of Navigation Systems Wide Area Differential GNSS (WADGNSS) Augmentation system based on the enhancement of primary GNSS constellations Use of a network of ground-based reference stations that allow the broadcasting of differential information to the user to improve the accuracy of his position Classical DGNSS, Real Time Kinematics (RTK), and Wide Area RTK (WARTK) are some of the DGNSS approaches available Classical DGNSS The conventional DGNSS technique is an addition to the core GNSS system that involves determining the GNSS position for a precisely surveyed position known as the reference station The system computes and broadcasts either GNSS location or pseudo-range measurements corrections to DGNSS users starting from the reference station To apply these corrections, the receiver must be set to DGNSS and remain close to the reference station to ensure that the two receivers (station and rover) are looking at the same GNSS satellite  Real Time Kinematic (RTK) RTK is a differential GNSS technology that delivers high-performance locating in the area of the base station. RTK is made up of a base station and a communication channel through which the base broadcasts real-time data to the users. RTK is made up of a base station and a communication channel through which the base broadcasts real-time data to the users. However the base station must be close to the user. What is Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) and how does it work? - YouTube GDU S400 - taking off from K01 docking station GDU K01 - closing after drone take-off Wide Area Real Time Kinematic Wide Area Real Time Kinematics (WARTK) technique permits the extension of local services based on real-time carrier phase ambiguity resolution to a wide-area scale. WARTK provides accurate ionospheric and geodetic models in a network of permanent reference stations for dual and three-frequency systems Other Forms Of Guidance Systems Infrared Sensor To detect and avoid obstacles The IR ray will be reflected back to the IR receiver if it comes into contact with an obstruction Pros: Can examine items without utilizing light Detectors can pick up things that the human eye can’t see Can ‘see’ through many substances, if scanner is powerful enough Cons: IR scanners cannot provide colour images Cannot distinguish between items are close to or obscure one another when their temperatures are similar Light cannot be used outside for long distances. Accuracy inferior to LiDAR Other Forms Of Guidance Systems Vision-based system Used in forward avoidance collision applications comprising 2 forward facing cameras Pros: Low cost and light weight Cons: Optical flow is affected by instantaneously changing light Useless without light Feature for it to match to establish the correspondence 3D reconstruction algorithms require camera movement to estimate depth Object must be unique as it cannot be a repeated pattern that causes false matches Other Forms Of Guidance Systems Ultrasound system Send out a high-frequency sound pulse and time how long it takes for the echo to return. The ultrasonic sensors on the bottom of most UAs are used to detect ground and in terrain follow mode Pros: Unaffected by object color or transparency Can be used in low-light situations Not impacted by dust, filth, or high moisture situations Low-cost option Cons: Cannot work in a vacuum Not meant for underwater use Sensing accuracy is degraded by soft materials Sensing accuracy is degraded by temperature changes of 5-10 degrees or more Detection range is limited Other Forms Of Guidance Systems Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) system remote sensing technique that involves scanning the surroundings with a pulsed laser beam Measure the time it takes for the signal from the item to return to the detector. Pros: Sense long distance Highly accurate Ability to detect featureless object Cons: Cannot detect glass walls or water surfaces. Other Forms Of Guidance Systems What are the Top 5 uses of Lidar? Why is Lidar so important? - YouTube 4 Navigation & Meteorology Meteorology 2 Atmospheric properties Altimetry Terms Types of Cloud and Wind Interpret Weather information Air Density Air density is defined as the mass of air per unit volume It is determined by the temperature, pressure, and amount of water vapor in the air More air flows over the wing in high-density locations, allowing you to generate more lift. Aircraft performance is better when the air is denser Air is denser under the following circumstances: Higher air pressure Low temperature Low humidity Low altitude Air Pressure Air pressure is proportional to the weight of a column of air, and as the weight increases, more air molecules are compressed into a given volume The air pressure decreases over height Temperature The energy of the air molecules increases as the temperature rises. They spread out further when they have more vitality When the air is warmer than normal, it becomes less dense, and performance suffers as a result Humidity Humidity has a significant impact on how planes fly When the air is humid, the weight of the air causes this If you use damp air (which is less dense), the aircraft will not be able to generate the same amount of lift as when the location is dry Pressure Altitude vs Density Altitude | Private Pilot Knowledge Test | FlightInsight - YouTube  Altimetry Terms Above height above ground Ground Level (AGL) Above Height above the ground in relation to the Mean Sea average sea level datum is known as Mean Level Sea Level (AMSL) At Take off Elevation at take-off, measured above mean (ATO) sea level Google Earth  Different Cloud Types 40,000 ft 12,000m 23,000 ft 7,000m 6,500 ft 2,000m Cumulus Clouds Cumulus clouds are puffy clouds that resemble floating cotton balls at times Cumulonimbus Clouds Cumulonimbus clouds are one of the rare clouds that may be found in all three layers of the atmosphere. They resemble cumulus clouds, except that they form into towers with bulging upper regions that resemble cauliflower Different Types Of Wind Headwind Headwinds act against an airplane because they travel in the opposite direction of its flight path These headwinds, on the other hand, help with takeoffs and landings by creating lift. Tailwind As they travel in the direction of the flight path, tailwinds are beneficial to airplanes during cruising. Different Types Of Wind Crosswind Wind that is perpendicular to the line or direction of motion Causing the aircraft to move laterally Weather Information Meteorological Services Singapore Visit www.weather.gov.sg Both iOS and Android smartphones are supported by the app Most up-to-date national weather forecasts and warnings, as well as island-wide rainfall, temperature, humidity, and wind information.  METAR METAR, which stands for METeorological Terminal Aviation Routine or METeorological Aerodrome Report, is a weather-reporting format. METAR is typically good for 1 hour or until the next report is released. https://www.aviationweather.gov/metar/data/ WSSS 090830Z 05010KT 010V070 FEW20TCU BKN280 32/25 Q1006 NOSIG WSSS the ICAO airport code for Changi Airport. 090830Z 09 stands for the date the report is generated, 0830Z is the 24 hours format but in Zulu time. To convert it to Singapore time, add 8 hours to Zulu time. 05010KT 050 stands for 50 degrees from magnetic north, 10KT stands for 10 knots. This information gives you the wind direction and wind speed. 010V070 means winds are variable at a heading of 010 degrees to 070 degrees. 9999 stands for the visibility in meters. FEW020TCU means few clouds at 2000ft AGL, towering cumulus clouds (TCU). BKN280 means broken clouds at 28,000ft AGL. 32/23 means 32 degrees Celsius and Dewpoint 23 Degrees Celsius. Q1009 means QNH 1009, it is indicating the atmospheric pressure adjusted to mean sea level. NOSIG stands for no significant change in weather is expected for the next 2 hours. Metar Decoder | Online Aviation Calculators (e6bx.com) METAR Term (Aviation) Sky conditions CLR Clear; No clouds at all FEW Few; Less than a quarter of the sky covered, between 1/8 okta to 2/8 okta SCT Scattered; Less than half of the sky is covered, between 3/8 okta and 4/8 okta. OVC Overcast; The sky is entirely covered with clouds, 8/8 okta CB Cumulonimbus; A classification of a cloud mentioned above TCU Towered Cumulus clouds; considerable vertical growth in the form of rising mounds, domes or towers. They are great vertical extent; their bulging upper part frequently resembles a cauliflower. HZ Haze Measuring Clouds Okta is the unit of measurement for cloud cover. Cloud cover is measured on an eight-point scale, with 0 Oktas representing clear skies and 8 Oktas representing completely cloudy skies.  Human Factors 5 5 Human Factors Human Factors in Aviation 1 Understand SHELL Model Physiology Limitation 2 Vision Fatigue Stress Medication/Psychoactive Substances 5 Human Factors Human Factors in Aviation 1 Understand SHELL Model SHELL Model A conceptual framework used to analyze the interaction of different system components Human error is caused by a mismatch between the human factors and the other four components Software The rules, methods, written documentation, and other items that make up standard operating procedures are called software. Hardware Air Traffic Control suites, their setup, controls and surfaces, displays, and functional systems are all examples of hardware. Environment The circumstances in which the L-H-S system must operate, as well as the social and economic climate and the natural environment. Central focus is the human Liveware Within the system, liveware consists of human beings such as the participant, pilot controller with other controllers, flight crews, engineers and maintenance employees, management and administration personnel. 5 Human Factors Physiology Limitation 2 Vision Fatigue Stress Medication/Psychoactive Substances Physiology – Vision Illusion Autokinesis The autokinetic effect (also known as autokinesis) is a visual perception phenomenon in which a fixed, small point of light appears to move in a dark or featureless environment Avoidance To avoid this illusion, keep your eyes on a variety of items at different distances and avoid focusing on a single target. Make careful to scan in a regular pattern. Physiology – Vision Illusion Disorientation Avoidance As UA flies further away from the pilot's view, it Cross-check with GCS height indications as a reference. appears to drop. In foggy weather, the UA looks to be further away Use the camera's visual or app distance cues as a than it actually is. reference. When flying UA with extended landing gear, the UA Always be aware of the orientation of the aircraft's appears to be looking a different direction. nose in relation to yourself. When flying a UA close to a building, the UA may Overcome by using GCS and double-checking with appear closer than it actually is. ground references The UA's colour may merge together with the Utilize the app to see the direction your UA is looking, background, causing you to lose sight of it. or throttle up to a clear sky Pilots have mistaken street and railway lights for Check the navigation system to see whether there is runway lights. any adjacent non-aviation activity. Physiology – Vision Illusion Disorientation Avoidance When the UA is a long distance away from the pilot, it You can use the map to trace your UA back to home can become disoriented. by looking at the GCS and getting your bearings. UA is disoriented. I'm lost at a distance and can't find Using trees, buildings, highways, or canals as a point my way back home. of reference to return to the starting site. Return-To-Home (RTH) mode or using GCS's map to get back to your home point UA's night operations will easily lead the pilot to lose To gain a reference of UA position, familiarize yourself orientation and bearing because the only reference with UA positioning lights or use GCS map data. for direction is LED lights. When flying at night, visual reference is limited (with infrared payloads) or unavailable. Sun-blindness And How To Overcome It Photokeratitis often known as sun-blindness (sunburned eyes) is a painful eye condition that develops when your eye is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation Prevention of Photokeratitis Wearing UV-blocking eye protection can help avoid photokeratitis. This includes the following: Proper Eye-Protection Wear a wide-brimmed hat or visor when you go outdoors Correct Visual Scanning Techniques Correct Visual Scanning Techniques Physiology – Medication When on medicine, a pilot may encounter side effects that limit his ability to safely and competently fly UA. A UA pilot must ensure that he / she is must be physically and mentally fit Medicines that cause: Drowsiness Lethargy Nausea Hand Tremors Dizziness Delayed response Physiology – Psychoactive Substances Psychoactive drug, often known as a psychotropic substance, is a chemical that predominantly affects the central nervous system, causing transient changes in perception, mood, consciousness, and behaviour. Examples of psychoactive substances include alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, marijuana, and certain pain medicines UA pilots are not permitted to fly after consuming any alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of any drug or prescription for at least 8 hours Penalty Under ANA 101 A person must not operate an unmanned aircraft, or be involved in the conduct of a flight involving an unmanned aircraft, if the person is under the influence of any psychoactive substance to such extent as to be unable to operate the unmanned aircraft in a safe and proper manner. 1st offence, to a fine not exceeding $50,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years or to both; and 2nd or subsequent offence, to a fine not exceeding $100,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years or to both Psychology – Fatigue Fatigue is used to describe an overall feeling of tiredness or lack of energy Problems with mental health – sadness, eating disorders Reasons relating to the endocrine and metabolic systems – pregnancy, diabetes, etc Medications and drugs Heart and lung problems Problems with sleep – lack of sleep Substances and chemicals – vitamin deficiencies, excessive caffeine Diseases, conditions, states, and treatments of various diseases, conditions, states, and therapies Pain that lasts a long time Weight loss and health – over/underweight Excessive or insufficient activity Effects of Fatigue on UAS Operations If the UA pilot is exhausted, he should not fly UA. Accidents can happen in a variety of situations, for example: Crashing of UAS Losing controls of UAS Losing line of sight easily of the UAS Delayed response when operating UAS Fatigue Management Exercise, eat and sleep well Stop-Gap procedures If you are operating a UAS for an extended period of time, take a 15 to 30-minute break If you don't feel comfortable or rested enough for the job, simply replace yourself with another pilot Psychology – Stress Physical stress It refers to physical trauma, shock, or pain, as well as exhaustion, illness, or any other external force that affects the human body Psychological stress Emotional, cognitive, anxiety, and mental stress are all examples of psychological stress Physiological stress Any external or internal circumstance that disrupts a cell's or organism's homeostasis; it includes any stressors that can impact the body's condition Effects of Stress on UAS Operations Accidents involving pilots can occur in a variety of situations, including Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) failure Loss of UAS control The UAS's line of sight is readily lost Failure to concentrate on the task of flying and managing procedures Defects in fundamental flying skills Inability to concentrate during flight/compliance with usual tasks Stress Management Identify source of stress seek out social support Managing your time Maintain balanced lifestyle Exercise, eat and sleep well Stress Management During UA Operation Unfavourable weather It causes tension, making it difficult to finish the project on time Completion Bias This occurs after you have started a flight and accomplished some or all of a task and just want to get it done now "Get-home-itis“ Symptoms include an overestimation of one's talents and an underestimation of the issues and dangers that may arise. The drive to "complete the job" blinds pilots in this attitude  Safety & 6 Operations 6 Safety & Operations Operational Risks and Hazards 1 Risks and Hazards Risk Assessment and Mitigation SA, DM and Comms 2 Situational Awareness Decision Making Communications UAS Operations 3 Flight Checks and Considerations Contingency / Emergency Procedures Maintenance 6 Safety & Operations Operational Risks and Hazards 1 Risks and Hazards Risk Assessment and Mitigation Hazards and Risks A pilot confronts a hazard when he or she encounters an actual or perceived condition, incident, or circumstance. When confronted with a hazard, the pilot evaluates it based on a variety of variables. Risk is an evaluation of a single or cumulative hazard that a pilot faces. PAVE Model P A V E Pilot-in-Charge (PIC) Aircraft Environment External Pressures PAVE Model – Pilot-in-Charge Am I ready for this flight? P Competent? In decent physical and mental state? Adequate experience? Fatigue and stress free? IMSAFE? Pilot-in-Charge (PIC) PAVE Model – (PIC) IMSAFE Illness Any medical condition that could jeopardize your ability to fly and respond to an emergency. Medication Prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs have been involved in far too many accidents. The caution, "Do not operate heavy machinery," is regularly disregarded. Another is "may produce sleepiness." Keep in mind that you'll be flying your sUAS in the same airspace as planes. Don't endanger other people's life by taking unnecessary risks. Stress Concerns about your job? Do you have marital issues? Do your bills make you sad? Flying deserves your undivided attention. If you're unsure, keep the sUAS on the ground. Alcohol Is this something that needs to be explained? Fatigue Professional pilots are restricted in the number of hours they can fly per day and the amount of time they can rest between flights. The reason is self-evident. Call it a day if you're tired. Do people on the ground, in the vicinity, or in planes sharing the same airspace as your sUAS deserve anything less? Emotion This is closely related to stress. Flying is no exception to the rule of "don't go to bed mad." Nothing is more important than the task at hand, which is to complete the flight safely. PAVE Model - Aircraft Is this the right aircraft for the flight? Am I familiar with this aircraft and am I A up to date on it? Is this aircraft capable of carrying the anticipated payload? Is the aircraft free of defects? Aircraft Is there adequate battery for the journey?  PAVE – Environment Weather Any thunderstorms on the horizon or in the forecast V Terrain, Flight Environment Is the flight area crowded with people? Will the high buildings nearby affect GPS? Airspace Environment Fly-zone? Proper permit obtained? PAVE Model – External Pressures Urgency to complete the job Showing off to impress others Emotional stress connected with admitting that a E pilot's competence and experience levels may be lower than he or she would is expected of External Pressures Steps for CAAS Risk Assessment 1. Identify the Hazards Mid-air collision with other UAS / public structure(s) Loss of UAS control in-flight due to strong wind or turbulence UAS catches fire during flight Uncontrolled crash landing Others (e.g. collision with other property, environmental considerations, etc) Steps for CAAS Risk Assessment 2. Phase of Flight This corresponds to the various phase(s) of flight in which the identified hazard can occur Steps for CAAS Risk Assessment 3. Evaluate the Consequences This should detail the potential consequences that would result if the identified hazard should occur E.g. Collision with manned aircraft 4.Identify the Causal Factors The various factors that would potentially contribute to the identified hazard 5. Control/Recovery Measures Detail the mitigation actions to be taken for the identified hazard 6. Re-Assess the Risk Level after Measures The risk severity and probability have to be assessed in association with the identified hazard after the mitigation measures are in-placed, using the risk severity category table below 7. Personnel-in-charge Include the pilot and personnel-in-charge/safety personnel and his/her/their role in the UAS operation Risk Severity Category Risk Probability Risk Severity Probable Catastrophic Hazardous Major Minor No effect Probable High High Medium Low Low Remote High High Medium Low Low Extremely Medium Medium Medium Low Low Remote Extremely Low Low Low Low Low Improbable Risk Probability Probable Anticipate to occur >=1x during the entire system/operational life of an item; or Once in 1000 to 10,000 (hrs) Remote Unlikely to occur to each item during its total life. May occur several times in the life of an entire system or fleet; or Once in 10,000 to 100,000 (hrs) Extremely Remote Not anticipated to occur to each item during its total life. May occur a few times in the lift of an entire system or fleet; or Once in 100,000 to 1,000,000 (hrs) Extremely Improbable It is not anticipated to occur during the entire operational life of an entire system or fleet; or Below once in 1,000,000 (hrs) Risk Severity Catastrophic: Failure would prevent continued safe flight and landing Hazardous: Failure would reduce the capability of the aircraft or the ability of the crew to cope with adverse operating conditions Major: Failure would reduce the capability of the aircraft or the ability of the crew to cope with adverse operating conditions Minor: Failure would not significantly reduce the aircraft safety and involve crew actions that are well within their capabilities. No effect: Failure would have no effect on safety, i.e., operational capability of the aircraft or increase workload of the crew Risk Acceptability The acceptability of a risk is derived by weighing the probability of the risk against the severity of the outcome. Low – no further action needed Medium – affected persons are prepared to live with the risk High – operation must cease until the risk is reduced to Medium or Low Identify Risk And Hazards Each flight requires decisions about events involving interactions between the four risk elements: Pilot in command Aircraft Environment External pressures 6 Safety & Operations SA, DM and Comms 2 Situational Awareness Decision Making Communications Situational Awareness Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements Situational awareness must be a constant state of understanding what's happening, combined with the alertness to notice changes. Loss Of Situational Awareness Indicators of loss of situational awareness Ambiguity - The information used to make decisions is not complete enough and is open to multiple interpretations Distraction - Attention is drawn away from the original task Fixation - Focusing on one item or detail to the exclusion of the big picture Overload - Too busy or overwhelmed to keep track of what's happening Complacency - A sense of comfort that can blind a crew member to approaching danger Improper Procedure - Operating outside of standard procedure without justification Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) Methodical approach to the mental process that pilots use to consistently choose the optimal course of action in the face of a set of conditions Some guidelines for making smart decisions: 1. Recognizing personal attitudes that jeopardize safe flight 2. Learning how to change one's conduct 3. Mastering the ability to recognize and deal with stress 4. Improving risk assessment abilities 5. Making full use of all available resources 6. Assessing the efficacy of one's ADM abilities  5 Decision-Making Subject Areas 5 Risk Elements (PAEOS) Subject Areas Risk Elements Pilot State of mental and physical health Physical, Physiological, Psychological unwell Aircraft Airworthiness of equipment In good condition Environment Weather, flight Thunderstorms in the horizon Operation Go/No Go decision Pressure to get the job done Situation Awareness of what is going on Get-home-itis PAEO – how these affect ‘S’ 5 Hazardous Attitudes DECIDE MODEL DECIDE Model is a continuous loop process that provides the pilot with a logical way of making decisions 1. Detect. The decision maker detects the fact that change has occurred. 2. Estimate. The decision maker estimates the need to counter or react to the change. 3. Choose. The decision maker chooses a desirable outcome (in terms of success) for the flight. 4. Identify. The decision maker identifies actions which could successfully control the change. 5. Do. The decision maker takes the necessary action. 6. Evaluate. The decision maker evaluates the effect(s) of his/her action countering the change. Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) Model 3P model offers a simple, practical, and systematic approach that can be used during all phases of flight. To use it, the pilot will: Perceive the given set of circumstances for a flight Process by evaluating their impact on flight safety Perform by implementing the best course of action The key is your ability to recognize the need for change instead of continue flying. Get-Home-itis and Completion Bias Mindsets Get-Home-Itis is simply the decision to proceed to the intended destination (Go Home) or toward the planned objective “Press-On-Itis," "hurry syndrome," "plan continuation," and "goal fixation" are all terms used to describe Get-Home-It is Despite warnings from other crews, the pilot may proceed. Extreme wind condition Racing the storm Violation of personal minima Continue flight even though condition deteriorated Failure to abort mission/operation Failure to go-around Crew Resource Management (CRM) Crew Resource Management (CRM) is the effective use of all available resources for flight crew personnel to assure a safe and efficient operation, reducing error, avoiding stress and increasing efficiency E.g. Spotter, 2nd Pilot. 3-Men Team 6 Safety & Operations UAS Operations 3 Flight Checks and Considerations Contingency / Emergency Procedures Maintenance UAS Operations Different phases of UAS Operations Flight planning and management considerations Contingency/Emergency planning considerations Pre-flight phase In-flight phase Post-flight phase Flight Plan The operator should minimally outline the following considerations prior to flight Operational Goal / Objective Unmanned Aircraft (UA) to be used Type of Operating Environment Conduct a site reconnaissance during the preparation phase so as to gain a greater understanding and awareness of the operation's conduct, as well as the danger and hazard that may be there. Pre-Flight 1. Evaluate the setting in which you'll be operating 2. All the control links between the CS and the UA are operational 3. Ascertain that there is enough power to complete the planned flight operation 4. Make sure any object attached to or carried by the UA is secured and does not interfere with the aircraft's flying characteristics or controllability 5. Batteries are fully charged 6. Perform structural checks 7. Calibrate the UA (Refer to page 175) In-Flight Basic flight control checks at low altitude right above the ground to be performed before climbing to the set altitude to continue mission During this phase, Pilot would be concentrating on the actual operations of the flight Should any conditions such as weather were to deteriorate, pilot should consider to abort the operation Do not be fixated on completing the mission Post-Flight Disarm the UA and switch off or remove the battery of the UA upon landing. Pilot should do a visual inspection on the aircraft Take note of any issues the documentation of the flight logs Routine scheduled full maintenance should be conducted Contingency / Emergency Procedures An emergency plan lays out methods for dealing with abrupt or unexpected events. The goal is to be ready to do the following: Objectives Reduce the number of fatalities and injuries Minimize the amount of damage to buildings, inventory, and equipment Take care of the environment and the people around you Resumption of normal activities should be expedited Develop Emergencies Handling Procedures Operator should establish protocols for normal operations as well as methods for dealing with failure and emergency situation Predetermine all landing places, especially emergency landing areas, to allow for the recovery of the UA in a timely way while taking necessary safety and security precautions Emergency landing zones should be situated within the UAS's trajectory limits and at a safe distance from human traffic areas Emergency Procedures Loss of UA control / UA flyaway UA not responding to commands. RTH was not activated 1. The UA pilot shall move closer to the UA and attempt to regain control by either adjusting the transmitter antenna 2. The UA pilot shall continue all means to regain control 3. The UA pilot shall attempt to land the UA whilst ensuring that there are nobody within the vicinity of the landing area 4. Alert nearby persons to stay away Emergency Procedures Loss of UA power/ UA low battery – Low battery alert on UA and/or transmitter 1. RTH will be triggered when battery health reaches 10% 2. If there is a loss of GPS signal during this flight phase, UA will automatically land on the spot 3. For this scenario, the UA pilot shall ensure that there are nobody within the vicinity of the landing area Emergency Procedures Loss of control link with UA – UA not responding to commands. No video feed and warning indicating RC lost 1. The UA pilot shall move closer to the UA and attempt to regain control by either adjusting the transmitter antenna 2. If link is not regained after 8 seconds, the UA will automatically return to take-off point 3. If there is also a loss of GPS signal, the UA will automatically land on the spot, instead of returning to take-off point 4. The UA pilot shall ensure that there are nobody within the vicinity of the landing area Emergency Procedures Loss of GPS capabilities - UA drifts and does not maintain hold position, GPS signal strength indicate red 1. Fly the UA manually to avoid obstacles and collision 2. UA pilot shall, as soon as practicable, attempt to land the UA in a safe location 3. If both the GPS signal is loss and the Vision Positioning System is faulty, UA pilot shall switch to "manual" mode and attempt to land the UA in a safe location Emergency Procedures Loss of Orientation – Unable to identify which way the UA is flying and how it is oriented 1. Ensure that the UA remains in GPS navigation mode. If not, attempt to resume flight in GPS mode 2. Maintain hovering position while keeping safe distance from surrounding obstacles 3. Pitch the UA forward and backwards and observe UA movement to confirm position its orientation 4. Resume flight UAS Maintenance Aircraft safety: the aircraft's airworthiness is guaranteed Maintain aircraft in operation: Availability is critical for an operator, since the aircraft must be able to meet its schedule. Increase the asset's worth (airframe, engines, and components): this is crucial for the owner or end user Important to maintain the aircraft on a regular basis Maintenance Methods Maintenance will consist of a mixture of preventive and corrective work, including precautionary work to ensure that there have been no undetected chance failures. There will be inspection to monitor the progress of wear out processes, in addition to: Scheduled or preventive work to anticipate and prevent failures. Unscheduled work – Repair maintenance and On-condition maintenance Importance of Keeping Maintenance Log Maintaining equipment in good operating order reduces the likelihood of unplanned downtime It is critical to keep a detailed record - whether scheduled or unscheduled - to assist you understand how crucial it is to keep your equipment in good working order Advantages of keeping a maintenance log 1. Avoid having to pay for costly repairs 2. Assists you in developing specialized maintenance programs - 3. Avoid issues with warranty claims by documenting all repairs and maintenance work performed on your equipment 4. Improves operator safety 5. Assists in determining who is responsible for a piece of equipment 6. Increases the equipment's resale value Telegram Group Our website www.adam-highflyer.com Highflyer | Commercial Drone Services and Unmanned Aircraft Pilot Courses (adam-highflyer.com) Location Kallang Riverside Condo 51 Kampong Bugis #01-07, Singapore 338986 Kallang Riverside Condominium - Google Maps Carpark Kallang Riverside Condo Public carpark @ Kampong Bugis MRT Lavender MRT – 5-10mins walk Bus 2, 7, 12, 32, 51, 63, 80, 197 Food Beach Road Market Recommended Highly recommended to bring along hat, sunglasses and wear covered shoes for your practical training Physical State Pls ensure that you are well rested. Pls do not consume alcohol in the last 8hrs and ensure that you are not on medication with side effects e.g. drowsiness Water Pls stay hydrated. Bring a LARGE bottle of water