01 CH1-Intro.pdf

What is UAS?  MODE RN UNMANNED TIMELINE ▪ 1960-80’s - Remote Piloted Vehicle (RPV) Pilot in the loop, had near-real time control of aircraft and flight surfaces ▪ 1990’s - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Pilot on the loop, beginning of automation, pilot can take over if...

What is UAS?  MODE RN UNMANNED TIMELINE ▪ 1960-80’s - Remote Piloted Vehicle (RPV) Pilot in the loop, had near-real time control of aircraft and flight surfaces ▪ 1990’s - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Pilot on the loop, beginning of automation, pilot can take over if necessary ▪ Beginning in 2005 - Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Most flight profiles pre-programmed, pilot can modify or take over in emergencies 2  BACKGROUND ◼ Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs : smaller, have a reduced radar signature, increased range, and increased endurance. ◼ Advantages of not having pilot : more maneuverable, avoid the equipment and systems usually needed to support a human pilot, and stays away from the politically unattractive risk of putting humans in dangerous situations. ◼ They have proven their worth in intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions, but have shown a large potential for offensive missions, where the pilot’s taskload is very high. ◼ The percentage of involvement of human factors issues varied across aircraft from 21% to 68%. Ex: 75% of recent Predator accidents were caused by the interaction between the human controller and the UAV. 3  BACKGROUND Advantages No Pilot So… Accidents / Errors Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs Advantages of not having pilot are - ◼ The percentage of ◼ Smaller ◼ Pull higher G-loads - more involvement of human ◼ Reduced radar signature, maneuverable, factors issues varied across ◼ Increased range, aircraft from 21% to 68%. ◼ Increased endurance. ◼ No need for equipment and systems to support a human ◼ Ex: 75% of recent Predator Proven their worth in : pilot – much lighter, more accidents were caused by ◼ Intelligence, performance the interaction between the ◼ Surveillance, and human controller and the Reconnaissance, ◼ Stay away from the politically UAV. unattractive risk of putting ◼ Also large potential for offensive humans in dangerous missions, where the pilot’s situations. taskload is very high. 4  ADVANTAGES OF HUMAN PILOTS ◼ Human operators are adaptable and flexible to goals and means to achieve them use problem solving and creativity to cope with unusual and unforeseen situations exercise judgment ◼ Humans are unsurpassed in recognizing patterns operating in ill-structured, ambiguous situations ◼ Human error is the inevitable side effect of this flexibility and adaptability 5  NO-PILOT ONBOARD “No Pilot on board” implies: ◼ Situation awareness only based on data acquired by sensors, downloaded and analyzed by the ground operator ◼ Latency exist due to the data transfer between the Air Vehicle and the ground station (up and down) ◼ New failure configurations: Loss of Data Link: a sufficient level of autonomy is necessary Sensor Failure may be critical ◼ The «Sense And Avoid» function replaces the «Detect And Avoid» or «See And Avoid» in all situations 6  TERMINOLOGY Common Terms ◼ Drone – Unmanned robotic probe or target ◼ UA – Unmanned Aircraft ◼ UAV – Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or A/C ◼ UAS – Unmanned Aircraft System ◼ SoS – System of Systems 7  TERMINOLOGY Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or DRONE DEFINITION: A reusable aircraft designed to operate without an onboard pilot. It does not carry passengers and can be either remotely piloted or preprogrammed to fly autonomously. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) DEFINITION: An Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) comprises individual system elements consisting of an “unmanned aircraft”, the “control station” and any other system elements necessary to enable flight, i.e. “command and control link” and “launch and recovery elements”. There may be multiple control stations, command & control links and launch and recovery elements within a UAS. 8  TERMINOLOGY Remotely Piloted Vehicle DEFINITION: An unmanned vehicle capable of being controlled from a distant location through a communication link. It is normally designed to be recoverable. Waypoint Navigation DEFINITION: Waypoints are sets of coordinates that identify a point in physical space. These coordinates can include longitude, latitude, and altitude. A waypoint is a predetermined geographical position that is defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates (altitude optional). 9  TERMINOLOGY UAS – Functional Structure 10  TERMINOLOGY Control System DEFINITION: Usually based on the ground (GCS), or aboard ship (SCS), though possibly airborne in a ‘parent’ aircraft (ACS), the control station is the control centre of the operation and the man–machine interface. It is also usually, but not always, the centre in which the UAV mission is pre-planned, in which case it may be known as the mission planning and control station (MPCS). Less usually, the mission may be planned from a central command centre and the mission data is sent to the CS for its execution. Payload DEFINITION: The type and performance of the payloads is driven by the needs of the operational task. These can range from: (a) relatively simple sub-systems consisting of an unstabilised video camera with a fixed lens having a mass as little as 200 g, through (b) a video system with a greater range capability, employing a longer focal length lens with zoom facility, gyro-stabilised and with pan and tilt function with a mass of probably 3–4 kg, to (c) a high-power radar having a mass, with its power supplies, of possibly up to 1000 kg. 11  TERMINOLOGY Navigation Systems These allow operators and the aircraft to know, on demand, where the aircraft is at any moment in time. For fully autonomous operation, i.e. without any communication between the CS and the air vehicle, sufficient navigation equipment must be carried in the aircraft. Usually, a combination of inertial navigation systems (INS) and GPS are used as onboard navigation systems. The UAV The type and performance of the air vehicle/aircraft is principally determined by the needs of the operational mission. The task of the aircraft is primarily to carry the mission payload to its point of application, but it also has to carry the subsystems necessary for it to operate. These sub-systems include the communications link, stabilization and control equipment, power plant and fuel, electrical power supplies; and basic airframe structure and mechanisms needed for the aircraft to be launched, to carry out its mission, and to be recovered. 12  TERMINOLOGY Communications For Communication between the UAV and the CS, the transmission medium is most usually radio frequency, but possible alternatives may be by light in the form of a laser beam or via optical fibers. The tasks of the data links are usually as follows: (a) Uplink (i.e. from the CS to the aircraft): i) Transmit flight path tasking which is then stored in the aircraft automatic flight control system (AFCS). ii) Transmit real-time flight control commands to the AFCS when man-in-the-loop flight is needed. iii) Transmit control commands to the aircraft-mounted payloads and ancillaries. iv) Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft INS/AFCS where relevant. (b) Downlink (i.e. from the aircraft to the CS): i) Transmit aircraft positional data to the CS where relevant. ii) Transmit payload imagery and/or data to the CS. iii) Transmit aircraft housekeeping data, e.g. fuel state, engine temperature, etc. to the CS. 13  TERMINOLOGY Launch, Recovery and Retrieval Equipment Launch equipment: This will be required for those air vehicles which do not have a vertical flight capability, nor have access to a runway of suitable surface and length. Recovery equipment: This also will usually be required for aircraft without a vertical flight capability, unless they can be brought down onto terrain which will allow a wheeled or skid-borne run-on landing. It usually takes the form of a parachute, installed within the aircraft, and which is deployed at a suitable altitude over the landing zone. Retrieval equipment: Unless the aircraft is lightweight enough to be man-portable, a means is required of transporting the aircraft back to its launcher Interfaces The UAV may require tasking from a source external to the system and report back to that or other external source. A typical example is military surveillance where the UAV system may be operating at brigade level, but receive a task directly, or indirectly from corps level to survey a specific area for specific information and to report back to corps and/or other users through a military information network.This network may include information coming from and/or being required by other elements of the military, such as ground-, sea-, or air-based units and space-satellites, or indeed, other UAV systems 14  TERMINOLOGY Real-world example of Interconnected UAV in a Centralized Network with multiple types of vehicles, stations and sensors 15  TERMINOLOGY Support Equipment Support equipment is one area which can often be underestimated when a UAV system is specified. It ranges from operating and maintenance manuals, through tools and spares to special test equipment and power supplies. Transportation A means of transport must be provided for all the sub-systems discussed above.This may vary from one vehicle required to contain and transport a UAV system using a small, lightweight vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft which needs no launch, recovery or retrieval equipment and is operated by say, two crew, to a system using a large and heavier ramp-launched aircraft which needs all the sub-systems listed, may have to be dismantled and reassembled between flights, and may require, say, ten crew and six large transport vehicles. Even UAV systems operating from fixed bases may have specific transport requirements 16  VARIATIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES, WHY? User ✓ Military ✓ Civil Requirements and Concepts Regulatory/legal importance 17 UAV FAMILY TREE 18  UAV OR UAS UAS Saudi Federal GACA Aviation Administration (FAA) Aircraft European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Airworthiness Systems ground control stations Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) communication links launch and retrieval 19 DEFINITIONS 20  DEFINITIONS Above Ground Level (AGL) is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. Mean sea level (MSL) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation may be measured. MSL is a type of vertical datum – a standardized geodetic datum – that is used, for example, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location. Flight Level (FL) is defined as a level of constant atmospheric pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury. Each flight level is stated using three digits that represent hundreds of feet. For example, FL 250 represents a barometric altimeter indication of 25,000 feet. 21  DEFINITIONS Airspace is the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere. It is not the same as aerospace, which is the general term for Earth's atmosphere and the outer space in its vicinity. Controlled airspace: exists where it is deemed necessary that Air Traffic Control (ATC) has some form of positive executive control over aircraft flying in that airspace (however, air traffic control does not necessarily control traffic operating under visual flight rules (VFR) within this airspace). Controlled airspace consists of: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E. Uncontrolled airspace: is airspace where an Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is not deemed necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons. According to the airspace classes set by ICAO, both class F and class G airspace are uncontrolled. It is the opposite of controlled airspace where ATC has no authority or responsibility to control air traffic. 22 DEFINITIONS 23 TYPES 24 TYPES 25 TYPES 26 TYPES 27  METRICS FOR CLASSIFICATION Classification Basis Metrics for Classification Comprehensive (General) Classification Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk Size Based on Operational Altitude and Midair Operating Conditions Collision Risk Capabilities Based on Autonomy Other Characteristics Based on Military Any Combination Based on mission Type 28  COMPREHENSIVE (GENERAL) CLASSIFICATION Comprehensive (General) Classification This classification: – One of the detailed and widely used classification. – Is based on the mass, range, altitude, and endurance. – Demonstrating both the wide variety of UAV systems and capabilities as well as the multiple dimensions of differentiation. 29 UAV AIRSPACE 30 UAV AIRSPACE 31  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MTOW AND G ROUND IMPACT RIS K Classification Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk (USED BY GACA) Regulation purposes → affect safety of operations. Classify based on the risk they present to people and property after a ground impact MTOW correlates the expected Kinetic Energy (KE) imparted at impact. Classification Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk Presented in Table 5.2. 5.2 – Maintain an expected number of fatalities, < 10−7 ℎ−1. 5.3 Classification Based directly on KE Presented in Table 5.3. 5.4 Classification Based on MTOW Presented in Table 5.4. 32 CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MTOW AND G ROUND IMPACT RIS K 33 CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MTOW AND G ROUND IMPACT RIS K 34 CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MTOW AND G ROUND IMPACT RIS K 35  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Target and decoy ▪ Reconnaissance ▪ Combat ▪ Logistics ▪ Research and development ▪ Civil and Commercial 36  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Target and decoy: provide ground and aerial gunnery at a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile. DRDO ABHYAS undergoing flight tests, 13 May 2019 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRDO_Abhyas) 37  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Reconnaissance: provide intelligence on the battlefield. An RQ-4 Global Hawk flying in 2007 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_RQ-4_Global_Hawk) 38  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Combat: provide attack capability for some high-risk missions. nEUROn at Paris Air Show 2013 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_nEUROn) 39  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Logistics: designed for cargo and logistics operation. Making up to 7 autonomous flights a day, the Parcelcopter 4.0 drone was able to cover the 60-km distance in an average of 40 minutes cruising at 130 km/h (https://newatlas.com/dhl-parcelcopter-africa/56663/) 40  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Research and development: used to further develop UAV technologies to be integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft. Sky-Y at Paris Air Show 2007 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alenia_Aermacchi_Sky-Y) 41  CLAS SIFICATION BAS ED O N MISS ION TYP E ▪ Civil and Commercial: designed for civil and commercial applications. Drones are capable of spraying crops with far more precision than a traditional tractor (https://www.businessinsider.com/agricultural-drones-precision-mapping-spraying) 42  S IX ARGUME NTS IN FAVO R OF THE CO MME RCIAL US E O F DRONE S 1) Drones can revolutionize so many industries, especially agriculture 2) Using drones saves money 3) Drones are more energy efficient 4) The drone industry will create jobs 5) States are passing laws to protect privacy rights 6) The private sector will also find solutions to privacy concerns 43