Aerodynamics: Airfoil Basics
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Aerodynamics: Airfoil Basics

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Questions and Answers

What are the 2 tea breaks and 1 lunch break for at the training?

rest and refreshment

When should attendance be marked during training?

  • Morning (correct)
  • After breaks
  • End of day (correct)

    • In the event of a fire alarm, it is advisable to panic and immediately run for the exit.

    False

    ___ means an aircraft that may be flown without any individual on board to operate it.

    <p>Unmanned Aircraft (UA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the UA Categories with their descriptions.

    <p>Aeroplane = Heavier-than-air aircraft with aerodynamic lift primarily from fixed surfaces Rotocraft = Heavier-than-air aircraft with lift primarily from rotating airfoil Powered-Lift = Aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight Airship = Lighter-than-air aircraft capable of vertical take-off, vertical landing, and low-speed flight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main source of power in a UAS?

    <p>Batteries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the safest charging rate for most LiPo batteries?

    <p>1C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Electronic Speed Controller (ESC) in a drone?

    <p>ESC interprets inputs from the flight controller and converts them into pulses to govern the motor’s speed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sensors are typically included in a Flight Controller for a drone? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Gyroscope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Flight Controller of a drone is responsible for piloting the unmanned aircraft.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _______ is the force acting in the upward direction and is created by the wings or propellers in a drone.

    <p>Lift</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following forces with their descriptions:

    <p>Lift = Force acting upward created by wings or propellers Thrust = Force pulling the aircraft forward created by propeller or engine Weight = Downward force acting on the aircraft due to gravity Drag = Force acting opposite to thrust, created by air resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an airfoil?

    <p>A body shaped to produce an aerodynamic reaction (lift) perpendicular to its direction of motion, for a small resistance (drag) force in that plane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define Bernoulli Principle in the context of aerodynamics.

    <p>Higher air speed/velocity leads to reduced air pressure, while lower air speed/velocity results in increased air pressure causing a lifting effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Angle of Attack?

    <p>Angle between the Chord of the aerofoil and the relative wind direction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Critical Angle of Attack associated with?

    <p>Maximum lift force</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ground effect reduces drag during landing for fixed-wing aircraft.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A drone experiencing __________ can fall out of the sky and crash due to controllability issues, rapid descent, or instability.

    <p>Vortex Ring State (VRS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following phases of a spin recovery:

    <p>Phase 1 = Entry Phase 2 = Incipient spin Phase 3 = Fully developed Phase 4 = Recovery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Center of Gravity (CG) in an aircraft?

    <p>The specific point where the average mass or weight of an aircraft is at the center.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the five No-Fly Zones mentioned in the content?

    <p>Areas within 5km of aerodromes, Danger Areas, Protected Areas, Prohibited Areas, Restricted Areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required for the registration of Unmanned Aircraft (UA) that exceed 250 grams in weight?

    <p>Both purchase of a registration label and online completion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The UA registration label must be affixed on detachable parts of the UA.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who must de-register their UA with CAAS if it is lost, damaged beyond repair, or transferred to another person?

    <p>registrant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following UA permit/license types with their respective descriptions:

    <p>Operator Permit = Granted to individuals or organizations to show ability to operate UA safely Activity Permit = Granted for single or repeated activities taking into account location, type, time, altitude, and mitigation measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How often must a Class B UAPL holder complete a proficiency check?

    <p>At least once every 4 years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is required in addition to the proficiency check for Class B UAPL holders?

    <p>A refresher training</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A failure to complete a proficiency check will not affect the validity of the UAPL.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a geographic coordinate system used to specify any location on the planet?

    <p>Latitude and longitude</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What may happen if there is too much weight in the rear of a multi-rotor UA?

    <p>Drifting rearward or unable to stop much motion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics are associated with decreased longitudinal stability? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Poor stall/spin recovery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The center of pressure affects the stability of the aircraft.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deflecting the elevators downward to produce more lift on that aerodynamic surface, rotating the tail upward and the nose downward is responsible for changes in __________.

    <p>pitch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following controls with their corresponding axes in flight:

    <p>Elevator/ Stabilator = Lateral Axis Aileron = Longitudinal Axis Rudder = Vertical Axis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of trimming an airplane?

    <p>To adjust aerodynamic forces on control surfaces for maintaining desired attitude without pilot input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some examples of physical stress as mentioned in the content?

    <p>physical trauma, shock, pain, exhaustion, illness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are some examples of psychological stress discussed in the content? Select all that apply.

    <p>Cognitive stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Loss of situational awareness can occur due to fixation on one detail.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The decision maker in the DECIDE Model takes necessary action after identifying suitable __________.

    <p>actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the PAVE Model, which of the following are considered as External Pressures? Select all that apply.

    <p>Showing off to impress others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes air denser, leading to better aircraft performance?

    <p>Low altitude</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor decreases air density?

    <p>High altitude</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Warmer air is denser than normal air.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does METAR stand for?

    <p>METeorological Aerodrome Report</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Headwinds act against an airplane because they travel in the __________ direction of its flight path.

    <p>opposite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the cloud type with its description:

    <p>Cumulus Clouds = Puffy clouds resembling floating cotton balls Cumulonimbus Clouds = Clouds with towers and bulging upper regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon causes a fixed point of light to appear to move in a featureless environment?

    <p>Autokinesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the 3P Model in aviation?

    <p>Perceive, Process, Perform</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term is used to describe the decision to proceed to the intended destination despite warnings from others?

    <p>Get-Home-Itis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Crew Resource Management (CRM) aims to increase error, stress, and inefficiency in flight operations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the Pre-Flight phase of UAS operations, it is important to evaluate the setting in which you'll be ____________.

    <p>operating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following emergency procedures with their appropriate scenarios:

    <p>Loss of UA control / UA flyaway = Adjust transmitter antenna, attempt to regain control, attempt to land safely, keep landing area clear Loss of UA power/ UA low battery = RTH triggered at 10%, automatic landing on loss of GPS, ensure safe landing area Loss of control link with UA = Adjust transmitter antenna, automatic return if link not regained, auto landing on loss of GPS, ensure safe landing area Loss of GPS capabilities = Fly manually, attempt to land safely, switch to manual mode if needed, ensure safe landing area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is keeping a maintenance log important in aviation?

    <p>Reduces downtime, assists in developing maintenance programs, improves safety, helps with warranty claims, determines responsibility, increases resale value</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Administrative Matters

    • Mobile phones must be silenced and taken outside the classroom for calls.
    • The training session includes 2 tea breaks and 1 lunch break.
    • Attendance will be marked three times: morning, after lunch, and at the end of the day.
    • A SkillsFuture Singapore survey will be conducted at the end of the training.
    • In the event of a fire alarm, remain calm and wait for instructions.

    Path to UAPL

    • The training consists of 6 modules: CAAS Theory, Practical Training, and AFE Assessment.
    • A license application will be submitted via CAPELS after completing the training.

    UAPL Training Modules

    • Module 1: General UAS Knowledge
      • Introduction to UAS
      • UA categories (Aeroplane, Rotorcraft, Powered-Lift, Airship)
      • UAS applications (Military, Civil, Law Enforcement, Agriculture, Aerial Photography, Surveying and Mapping, Search and Rescue)
    • Module 2: UAS Components and Systems
      • Power and Electrical System
        • Batteries (LiPo, Li-ion)
        • Power Distribution Board (PDB)
      • Propulsion System
        • Motor (Brushless, DC)
        • Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs)
        • Propellers
      • Flight Control System & Navigation System
        • Flight Controller
        • Various sensors (Inertial Measurement Unit, GPS, Barometer)
      • Ground Control System (GCS)
        • Ground-based hardware and software
      • Command and Control (C2) System
        • Radio Control Transmitter (RC Tx)
        • Radio Receiver (Rx)

    UAS Components and Systems

    • Power and Electrical System
      • Batteries: LiPo (Lighter, 2-3 years, High energy density, Highest voltage under load)
      • Power Distribution Board (PDB): connects all electrical components, distributes power from the battery
    • Propulsion System
      • Motor: Brushless, DC, adjacent motor spins at opposite directions
      • Electronic Speed Controllers (ESCs): interprets inputs from the flight controller, converts them into pulses to govern the motor's speed
      • Propellers: convert powerplant's spinning motion into controlled forward motion
    • Flight Control System & Navigation System
      • Flight Controller: interprets inputs from sensors, remote pilot's controller commands
      • Various sensors: Inertial Measurement Unit (Accelerometer, Gyroscope, Magnetic Compass), GPS, Barometer
    • Ground Control System (GCS)
      • Ground-based hardware and software for communication with and control of the UA
    • Command and Control (C2) System
      • Radio Control Transmitter (RC Tx): transmits radio signals to the receiver
      • Radio Receiver (Rx): receives radio signals, translates them into flight commands or flight mode activation

    UA Flight Control Modes

    • Manual/Rates: most difficult to operate, requires compensation to maintain attitude, altitude, and position
    • Attitude hold: keeps the UA level when the control sticks are centred
    • Altitude hold: keeps the UA at a constant altitude/height
    • GPS mode: position hold, autonomous flight modes, and return-to-home functions
    • Return-to-Home: automatically climbs to a predetermined altitude, then flies to the home point
    • Avoidance collision: avoids obstacles and separates if necessary
    • Headless mode: allows control without considering the UA's orientation

    Importance of Flying Within Radio Line of Sight

    • Flying out of visual line of sight (VLOS) or radio line of sight (RLOS) is not recommended
    • Risks: loss of telemetry readouts, loss of situational awareness, over-reliance on automatic retrieval systems
    • ANA 101: UA pilot must ensure the unmanned aircraft is within visual line of sight at all times unless the UA pilot license allows operation beyond visual line of sight### Radio Signals and Obstructions
    • Hills can obstruct radio signals, making reception impossible
    • Buildings and vegetation can also affect radio signals, with trees and foliage weakening signals especially when wet
    • Radio signals can be reflected or absorbed by buildings

    Preventing Interference

    • Ensure no other UA is operating in the vicinity
    • Select a channel far away from the interference source
    • Avoid interference between RC Tx and other wireless equipment
    • Turn off Wi-Fi on mobile devices
    • Fly in open areas
    • Link loss can result in UA triggering RTH failsafe
    • In some cases, RTH may not function properly, leading to a drone flyaway situation
    • Switch on RC Tx before powering on the aircraft to ensure a valid link
    • Set a home point before take-off and ensure at least 6-7 GPS satellites are locked
    • Check for compass interference
    • Keep the drone in line of sight and monitor its surroundings
    • Reset the home point when moving
    • Set an appropriate RTH altitude to avoid crashes

    Principles of Flight

    Forces of Flight

    • Newton's first law: an object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a net external force
    • Newton's second law: the rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the force applied and occurs in the same direction
    • Newton's third law: all forces between two objects exist in equal magnitude and opposite direction

    Four Forces Acting on an UA

    • Lift: upward force created by wings or propellers
    • Weight: downward force due to gravity
    • Thrust: forward force created by propellers or engines
    • Drag: force opposing thrust, created by air resistance and shape/size of the aircraft

    Aerodynamics

    • Airfoil: body shaped to produce an aerodynamic reaction (lift) perpendicular to its direction of motion
    • Bernoulli Principle: higher air speed = reduced air pressure, lower air speed = increased air pressure
    • Angle of Attack: angle between the chord of the aerofoil and the relative wind direction

    Air Law

    Air Navigation Act

    • An Act to provide for the control and regulation of aviation to maintain safety and security in civil aviation
    • Implementation of Singapore's obligations under the Chicago Convention and other international agreements

    Air Navigation Regulations

    • To be discussed...### Air Navigation Act (Chapter 6) and AN 101
    • Applicability of UAS provisions within the Act
    • Permit needed for certain overflight by unmanned aircraft
    • Absolute prohibition of carriage of dangerous materials on unmanned aircraft
    • Discharge from unmanned aircraft
    • Dangerous activity involving aircraft
    • Flying without satisfying safety requirements
    • Trespassing at aerodromes
    • Penalty for dangerous flying

    Offences and Penalties

    • Trespassing of aerodromes: Fine not exceeding $5,000
    • Operating a registrable UA that is not registered: Fine up to $10,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 6 months, or both
    • Failure to produce a valid UABT, UAPL, Activity or Operator Permit: Fine not exceeding $40,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 15 months, or both
    • Failure to report accidents: Fine not exceeding $50,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 2 years, or both
    • Unauthorised photography over Protected areas: Fine not exceeding $50,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 2 years, or both
    • Unauthorised flight over any Protected area: Fine not exceeding $50,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 2 years, or both
    • Prohibited use of psychoactive substances: Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both
    • Unauthorised discharge from unmanned aircraft: Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both
    • Carriage of dangerous materials on unmanned aircraft: Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both
    • Dangerous flying: Fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment not exceeding 10 years, or both

    Purposes of UAS Operations

    • Recreation Purpose: Any activity engaged in for enjoyment, relaxation, or leisure, but not taking part in organised group activities, recreational activities provided in the course of carrying on a business, or flying displays
    • Education Purpose: Any lecture, tutorial, seminar, demonstration, class, or similar activity on unmanned aircraft, offered or provided by an education institution mentioned in section 45 of the Private Education Act 2009 to students enrolled in that education institution
    • Non-Recreation or Non-Education Purpose: Deemed as for Commercial or Business purpose, subject to more stringent regulations under ANA 101

    UA Registration

    • All UA with a total weight exceeding 250 grams must be registered with CAAS before flying
    • Registration involves a two-step process: purchasing a registration label and completing online registration
    • The registrant must be at least 16 years old
    • Registration labels can be purchased online or at designated SingPost post offices
    • A fee of $25 will be collected for each registration label

    UA Registration Labels

    • Labels must be affixed on the outer surface of a non-detachable part of the UA
    • Labels must be clearly visible
    • Registration labels are non-transferrable
    • Labels must be removed and destroyed upon de-registration

    UA Deregistration

    • De-registration is required when the UA is lost or damaged beyond repair
    • De-registration is required when the registration label is damaged or becomes illegible
    • De-registration is required when the UA is sold or given to another person

    Operator Permit

    • An Operator Permit is granted by CAAS to an organisation or individual if the applicant has demonstrated that they can operate the UA safely
    • The permit is valid for up to one year
    • The assessment includes the applicant's organisational set-up, procedures to manage safety, airworthiness of each UA, and competency of personnel

    Activity Permit (AP)

    • An Activity Permit is granted by CAAS for a single activity or a block of repeated activities
    • There are two types of Activity Permits: Class 1 and Class 2 AP
    • Class 1 AP is required for UA activities conducted for purposes that are not recreational or educational in nature, or if the UA is over 25 kilograms in total mass
    • Class 2 AP is required for UA activities conducted outdoors if the UA is 25 kilograms or below in total mass, and when the planned activity meets specific conditions

    Unmanned Aircraft Pilot Licence (UAPL)

    • There are two classes of UAPL: Class A and Class B
    • Class A UAPL allows operation of UA with a total mass that does not exceed 25 kg
    • Class B UAPL allows operation of UA with a total mass that exceeds 25 kg
    • There are 4 categories of UA within each class of UAPL: Aeroplane, Rotorcraft, Powered-lift, and Airship

    UAPL – Proficiency Check

    • All UAPL holders must pass a proficiency check conducted by an AFE from an approved UATO
    • The check must be completed at least once every 4 years from the date on which the category was specified on the UAPL
    • Class B UAPL holders require refresher training at least once a year

    Responsibilities of UAPL

    • UA pilot must be aware of the performance specifications and operating limitations of the unmanned aircraft
    • UA pilot must comply with the performance specifications and operating limitations of the unmanned aircraft
    • UA pilot must ensure that the unmanned aircraft is within visual line of sight at all times

    Navigation & Meteorology

    • Geographic Coordinate System: Latitude and longitude, UTM map projection
    • Global Navigation Satellite System: A system that provides location information
    • Other Navigation System: Altimetry terms, types of cloud and wind, interpreting weather information

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