Methodology for Teaching English to Youngsters and Adults PDF

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNGSTERS AND ADULTS UNIDAD 1 Approaches and methods in language teaching Autor: Ninfa Sofía Guevara Peñaranda  ÍNDICE 1. Unit 1: Approaches and methods in language teaching.....

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNGSTERS AND ADULTS UNIDAD 1 Approaches and methods in language teaching Autor: Ninfa Sofía Guevara Peñaranda  ÍNDICE 1. Unit 1: Approaches and methods in language teaching.................................................. 3 Theme 1: Target students’ overview......................................................................................... 3 Objective:................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction:.............................................................................................................................. 3 2. Subthemes................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 Subtheme 1: General characteristics of youngsters...................................................... 3 2.2 Subtheme 2: Characteristic of adult learners................................................................ 9 3. Preguntas de Comprensión de la Unidad..................................................................... 14 4. Material Complementario.......................................................................................... 15 5. Bibliografía.................................................................................................................................. 16 2  Approaches and methods in language teaching 1. Unit 1: Approaches and methods in language teaching Theme 1: Target students’ overview Objective: Students will be able to recognise the differences between teenagers and adults. Introduction: As a teacher is invaluable to recognize the human developmental stages to develop a significant learning process in our students and to contribute efficiently and effectively. 2. Subthemes 2.1 Subtheme 1: General characteristics of youngsters In the transitions to the other stages of development, the way to adolescence is a very particular time on the path of life. According to the World Health Organization (2020) “Adolescence (10-19 years) is a unique and formative time” (p. 1), and it is a crucial period to form their character, personality and maintain social and emotional habits. There are two phases: early adolescence (between 12 to 14 y.o.) and lately adolescence (between 15 to 19 y.o.). © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI Physical development Talking about learner’s characteristics, it is important to consider the words from Santrock (2016) “ we grow very rapidly in infancy, more slowly in childhood, and once again more rapidly during puberty, and then experience another slowdown”. In adolescence there is a brain-neuroendocrine occurring in the early adolescence called puberty, that provides physical changes, these changes are characterized by the appearance of straight public hair, minor voice changes and other changes in their sexual 3  Approaches and methods in language teaching organs. In the next paragraphs we will examine key points such the changes in the brain, and health behaviour. The brain Researchers mention that the plasticity of the brain occurs “as a result of learning, experience and memory formation or as a result of damage of the brain” (Grafman, 2000). The experiences and the genetic expression in the development of the brain interact with each other, which is clear evidence of the importance of the view of neuroconstructivism. “The brain changes as we grow and age” (Santrock, 2016). Adolescent’s brain has experimented significant structural changes, these changes occur in the corpus callosum, where there are some fibres that connect the both hemispheres (left and right), which improves the ability of process information (Santrock, 2016). Seating of emotions and where the rewards are experimented, the limbic system fulfils its function and states that a huge part of the process is in the amygdala. Figure 1: Brain changes in adolescents © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI Source: The changing adolescent brain: prefrontal cortex, limbic system, and corpus callosum. From A topical approach to life span development, 8th ed. by Santrock (2016). 4  Approaches and methods in language teaching Sleep It is well known that sleep bring back energy and reconstructs our brains and bodies, there a number of theories ranging from an evolutionary outlook where all animals sleep and this process help them to survive, to the perspective that sleep is critical for brain plasticity (Santrock, 2016). In the US, more than 65 percent of teens get less than 8 hours of sleep on school nights causing them to feel tired or sleepy, grumpy and irritable. Other studies demonstrate that Asian adolescents had later bedtimes than U.S. adolescents (Gradisar, Gardner, & Dohnt, 2011, as cited in Santrock, 2016). Nutrition and eating behaviour A healthy life definitely reflects in our body and in our life. One of the most common problems in adolescents are the nutrition and being overweight. Santrock (2016) in his book mentions “an international study of adolescents in 56 countries found fast food consumption is high in childhood and continues to increase in adolescence… In this study, adolescents who ate fast food frequently or very frequently had higher body mass indices than adolescents in the lower frequency categories” (p. 132). Another point is the extremely worry about weight; for that reason, girls are on diet all the time. In the U.S. less than 1% develop anorexia nervosa. What is that? It is “an eating disorder characterized by weight loss or lack of appropriate weight gain in growing children; difficulties maintaining an appropriate body weight for height, age, and stature; and, © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI in many individuals, distorted body image” (National Eating Note: From A topical approach to life span development, 8th ed. by Santrock, 2016. Disorders Association, 2021). Considering eating problems, also we need to mention Bulimia nervosa. It is an eating disorder in which a person has regular episodes of binge eating (large amount of food) and then uses various ways, such as vomiting or taking laxatives, to prevent weight gain. “The bulimic goes on an eating binge and then purges by self-induced vomiting or use of a laxative” (Santrock, 2016). 5  Approaches and methods in language teaching Exercising in all ages is really important, however children and adolescents do not exercise regularly on their own, they prefer to do any activity in group or team. Researchers mention that higher levels of exercise in teens is associated with a healthy life, also reduce triglyceride levels, lower blood pressure and lower incidence of diabetes (Papalia & Olds, 1997). Cognitive and emotional Piaget stated four cognitive development stages in his theory; Sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years old, Preoperational stage from 2 to 7 years old, Concrete operational stage from 7 to 11 years old and Formal operational stage from 11 years old through adulthood. In this last stage, teenagers think (reason) in more abstract, idealistic and logical way. We explore more about the last Piaget’s cognitive development stage. It appears between 11 and 15 y.o. and adolescents move from concrete experiences to logical way. They start developing images of ideal situations, even they might think about how is an ideal parent. In solving problems, they use logical reasoning, “they begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically testing solutions” (Santrock, 2016). Piaget claims that adolescents become capable of engaging in hypothetical-deductive reasoning. It is important to consider that this stage, adolescents do not think in hypothetical-deductive ways but rather are consolidating their concrete operational thinking. Also, adolescents develop a special kind of self-centredness that involves an © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI unreal audience and a personal story about being unique and invulnerable (Santrock, 2016). Information processing and attention. As human being we process the information depending the situation, for example, “processing speed can be assessed using a reaction-time task in which individuals are asked to push a button as soon as they see a stimulus such as a light. In adolescence the speed of process information continues to improve. Through the adolescence, learners 6  Approaches and methods in language teaching identify different kind of information, it is perceived looking at the surroundings via listening and watching, to this we call “attention”. Children develop some skills such as paying attention during the preschool years, studies indicate greater vigilance in adolescence (Santrock, 2016). In the adolescence, the process of irrelevant information decreases but they are good to involving into divided attention between two or more activities, for examples, they can use technology while are doing their homework and listening to music. But scientists state juggling tasks suddenly “can make our brain lose connections to important information” (Hamilton, 2008). Thinking is a cognitive activity that manipulate and transform information in memory in solve problems, order to reason, reflects, evaluates ideas, and make decisions. Kuhn (2009 cited in Santrock, 2016) “further argues that the most important cognitive change in adolescence is improvement in executive function... A very important aspect of executive function in adolescence is cognitive control. Indeed, for most purposes, executive function and cognitive control can be thought of as synonyms”. Also, adolescence is a time of increased decisions making, for example the peer group, what career or professional wants to be, which person to date, have or not sex, etc. Adolescents have a greater ability to monitor and manage cognitive resources to effectively meet the demands of a learning task. Better cognitive functioning and learning are the results of increased metacognitive ability. One aspect to be considered about cognitive functioning and learning is establishing how much attention will be © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI assigned to an available resource. During adolescence, language development can also be shown because adolescents use a wide range of words in all contexts, they can use words in complex writing increasing abstract thinking, they are also able to understand and use satire. Everyday speech varies during adolescence “and part of being a successful teenager is being able to talk like one” (Berko-Gleason, 2005, p. 9 as cited in Santrock, 2016). 7  Approaches and methods in language teaching Adolescents often speak with their peers a dialect characterized by jargon and slang… Cave stated “a dialect is a variety of language that is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation. For example, when meeting a friend, instead of saying hello, a young adolescent might say, Sup? - What’s up; nicknames that are satirical and derisive Stilt, Refrigerator, Spaz, also characterize the dialect of young adolescents. Such labels might be used to show that one belongs to the group and to reduce the seriousness of a situation” (2002 as cited in Santrock, 2016, p. 285). Early adolescence is totally difficult, they experience so many changes and different types of feelings, bad mood is a normal aspect of early adolescence. Pubertal change is associated with increased negative emotions, hormonal influences are often small, and environmental experiences can contribute more to adolescents' emotions than hormonal changes (Santrock, 2016). Securely attached adolescents show more competent behaviour than their insecurely attached counterparts (Moretti & Peled, 2014), and the most consistent results include positive peer relationships and emotion regulation. Dating, or thinking about dating, becomes an important aspect of many teens' lives. Early dating is associated with developmental problems. Culture can have a powerful influence on dating (Santrock, 2016). Another point about adolescents is that they seek to be independent, parents have an important role, they are a positive influence on development when they have experienced a secure attachment in childhood. Peer relationship: Brown and Larson (2009) stated that peer relationships is one of the © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI most important features in the teenage, and also “peers have been alternately blamed for some of the more problematic aspects of adolescent functioning and praised for contributing to adolescent health and well-being” (Santrock, 2016; Papalia & Olds, 1997). Cliques and crowds assume more important roles in the lives of adolescents than in the lives of children (Brown & Dietz, 2009; Papalia & Olds, 1997; Santrock, 2016). “Cliques can form because adolescents engage in similar activities, such as being in a club or on a sports team. Some cliques also form because of friendship. Crowds are larger than cliques and less personal. Adolescents are usually members of a crowd based 8  Approaches and methods in language teaching on reputation, and they may or may not spend much time together” (Santrock, 2016). Adolescents increase their social interest and their attempt to find intimacy intensifies during early adolescence, motivating adolescents to seek close friends. It is important to note that if adolescents fail to create such close friendships, they often experience loneliness and a reduced sense of self-worth (Buhrmester, 1998; Santrock, 2016). 2.2 Subtheme 2: Characteristic of adult learners What is adulthood education? It refers to all forms of education and learning that adults participate in, including literacy, community development, college credit programs, on- the-job training, and continuing professional education. (Santrock, 2016; Comings, 2007). Adulthood begins around the age of 20 and has three distinct stages: early, middle, and late. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges. Figure 3. Periods of development from adolescence to late adulthood Note: taken from A topical approach to Lifespan development (Santrock, 2016). Physical development © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI Early adulthood can seem uneventful in the body's history after the dramatic physical changes of puberty (Santrock, 2016). Most adults reach our peak levels of physical performance before the age of 30, often between the ages of 19 and 26. This occurs not only for the average young adult, but also for outstanding athletes. However, different types of athletes reach their peak performance at different ages (Papalia and Olds, 1997; Santrock, 2016). With the changes of early adulthood, the physical changes of midlife usually appear gradually. Although everyone experiences some physical change due to aging in middle adulthood, rates of aging vary considerably from person to person, and 9  Approaches and methods in language teaching late adulthood carries an increased risk of physical disability. Changes in physical appearance that take place in middle adulthood become more pronounced in late adulthood. Most noticeable are facial wrinkles and age spots. The brain Most research on the human brain mentions that changes in the brain continue into adulthood. However, it is different from the childhood stage in which the brain grows. In this stage, the brain begins to slow and also to lose weight. “Both physical coordination and intellectual performance are affected… The brain has the capacity to virtually rewire itself to compensate for loss in late adulthood. Brain lateralization usually decreases in older adults. Changes in the brain can influence cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence the brain. (Santrock, 2016). Figure 4. Brian lateralization in older adults. Note: taken from A topical approach to Lifespan development (Santrock, 2016). © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI Sleep We mention previously that adolescents get inadequate sleep, so adults are not totally different (Papalia & Olds, 1997). Research such “The American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society emphasized that chronic sleep deprivation may contribute to cardiovascular disease and a shortened life span, and also result in cognitive and motor impairment that increase the risk of motor vehicle crashes and work-related accidents” (AASM-SRS, 2015). They recommend “adults should sleep seven or more hours per night on a regular basis to promote optimal health” (AASM- SRS, 2015). 10  Approaches and methods in language teaching Nutrition and eating behaviour Early adulthood is a period associated with poor diet and rapid weight gain. There are many problems that could be avoided if adults maintain good nutrition and eating behaviour. This era is also an era of transition, which includes environmental, social, and lifestyle changes that may be associated with changes in the daily diet. (Papalia & Olds, 1997). Another important factor in the change in diet is leaving home, leaving education, going to work and living with other people, not specifically a couple, they are longitudinal associations that lead to changes in the consumption of fruits, vegetables, confectionery and sugary drinks. Leaving home and leaving education are associated with negative changes in diet, identifying these factors in time helps in the application of an effective diet and an intervention against obesity” (Winpenny, et al., 2018). Exercise Exercise is linked with many aspects of being physical and mental health and its benefits continue in adulthood. Many experts recommend that adults need to spend about 45 minutes per day of moderate physical activity (Santrock, 2016). Cognitive and emotional Piaget stated adults and adolescents use the same type of reasoning. “Adolescents and adults think in qualitatively the same way” (Santrock, 2016). Schaie proposed the life cycle model of cognitive development and examined it into a social context. In which human cognitive processes are posited to develop within up to seven periods during the lifespan (Schaie, 2010). © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI - Acquisitive stage (childhood and adolescence) - Achieve stage (from 19 to 30 years old) - Responsible stage (from 39 to 61 years old) - Executive stage (from 30 to 40 years old) - Reorganization stage (from middle age to late adulthood) - Reintegrative stage (late adulthood) - Creation of legacy stage (advanced old age) 11  Approaches and methods in language teaching When talking about cognitive changes in adulthood, it is necessary to consider how emotional maturity might affect cognitive development. The researchers emphasize that in middle age, people become more internally reflective and less context- dependent in their thinking than when they were young adults (Santrock, 2016). Information processing Attention The information-processing approach analyses how individuals encode information, manipulate, monitor, and create strategies for handling it (Siegler, 2006, as cited in Santrock, 2016). Figure 5. Information processing model Note: From A topical approach to Lifespan development (Santrock, 2016). A limitation in the processing of information is the speed at which it is carried out. Researchers have found several ways to assess processing speed. For example, processing speed can be assessed using a reaction time task in which people are asked to press a button as soon as they see a stimulus such as light. Or you can ask people to match numbers to symbols on a computer screen. Attention skills are often excellent in early adulthood, and of course the discussion of divided attention and multitasking © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI applies to many adults and teens alike (Santrock, 2016). Thinking The daily effectiveness of problem solving and decision making remains stable in early and middle adulthood, and then some aspects decline in late adulthood, while others may increase. One aspect of cognition that can improve with aging is experience. Between the 20th and 21st centuries, successive generations of older adults have received better education, have had work experiences that included a greater emphasis 12  Approaches and methods in language teaching on cognitively oriented work and have been healthier, interest in cognitive neuroscience of aging has increased which focuses on the links between aging, the brain, and cognitive functioning (Santrock, 2016). Language development For many people within adulthood, they consider that the knowledge and meaning of words remain in this stage of human development without showing essential changes, they mention they can even improve until adulthood. However, some decline in language skills may occur when retrieving words for use in conversation, speech understanding, phonological skills in late adulthood. These changes in language skills in older adults are likely to occur as a result of decreased memory or information processing speed, or as a result of illness (Santrock, 2016). Peer relationship Friends play an important role in adult development, especially by providing emotional support throughout the years. However, regardless of age, friendship is an important aspect of relationships. It has been seen that in old age, there are often more changes in male friendships than in female ones. Friendships have different characteristics according to gender (Papalia & Olds, 1997; Santrock, 2016). Play and leisure Santrock (2016) states “as adults, not only must we learn how to work well, but we also need to learn how to relax and enjoy leisure”. Middle adulthood can be the specific time to enjoy leisure because it experiences more expansion of free time, money has © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI increased positively and it is a door to the need for psychological preparation for an active retirement. Social interaction is an important aspect to help people cope with the stress at this stage, which involves work, family and professional development. Older adults generally have less integrated social networks and participate in less social activity. 13  Approaches and methods in language teaching 3. Preguntas de Comprensió n de la Unidad 1. What is Piaget’s stage that refers to teenage and adulthood? Formal operational stage 2. Teens are good at using attention and process information, for example, they do two or more activities at the same time, what is that process called? It calls divided attention. 3. What is the purpose of the “cliques”? Cliques can form because adolescents engage in similar activities, such as being in a club or on a sports team. 4. How many stages are there in adulthood? There are three stages: Early, middle and late adulthood 5. What ages does the responsibility stage according to Schaie? From 39 to 61 years old. © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI 14  Approaches and methods in language teaching 4. Material Complementario Los siguientes recursos complementarios son sugerencias para que se pueda ampliar la información sobre el tema trabajado, como parte de su proceso de aprendizaje autónomo: Videos de apoyo: The Adolescent Brain: A second window of opportunity: https://youtu.be/-1FRco3Bjyk The Workings of the Adolescent Brain: https://youtu.be/Y8sO4tqfUEs Neuroplasticity: https://youtu.be/ELpfYCZa87g Inside the adult ADHD brain: https://youtu.be/rp1IleFD4D0 Bibliografía de apoyo: UNICEF (2017). The Adolescent Brain: A second window of opportunity A Compendium. United Nations Children’s Fund: https://www.unicef- irc.org/publications/pdf/adolescent_brain_a_second_window_of_opportunity_a_compendiu m.pdf Links de apoyo: How to Teach ESL: Differences for Children and Adults: https://www.gooverseas.com/blog/teaching-english-abroad-children-vs-adults The adolescent Brain: https://www.unicef-irc.org/adolescent-brain © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI 15  Approaches and methods in language teaching 5. Bibliografı́a » AASM-SRS. (2015). Recommended Amount of Sleep for a Healthy Adult: A Joint Consensus Statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society. Journal of clinical Sleep of medicine, Vol 11 (6). » Brown, B. B., & Larson, J. (2009). Peer relationships in adolescence. In I. R. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Contextual influences on adolescent development (pags. 74–103). Wiley & Sons, Inc. » Grafman, J. (2000). Conceptualizing functional neuroplasticity. Journal of Communication Disorders, 33(4). Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0021- 9924(00)00030-7 » National Eating Disorders Association. (2021). Anorexia nervosa. Obtenido de National Eating Disorders Association: https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/learn/by-eating-disorder/anorexia » Papalia, D., & Olds, S. W. (1997). Desarrollo humano: con aportaciones para Iberoamérica. McGraw-Hill. » Santrock, J. W. (2016). A topical approach to life-span development. McGraw- Hill Education. » Schaie, K. W. (2010). Adult Cognitive Development from a Lifespan Developmental Perspective. Informe anual de psicología de Star University, 28 - 明星大学心理学年報. » Winpenny, E. M., Sluijs, E. M., White, M., Klepp, K.-I., Wold, B., & Lien, N. (2018). Changes in diet through adolescence and early adulthood: longitudinal trajectories and association with key life transitions. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. Retrieved from https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12966-018-0719-8.pdf » World Health Organization. (28 de September de 2020). Adolescent mental health. Retrieved from: World Health Organization: https://www.who.int/news- © Universidad Estatal de Milagro – UNEMI room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health 16