Materials Development in Language Teaching (Cambridge University Press, PDF)

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Materials Development in Language Teaching © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Ca...

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Materials Development in Language Teaching © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE TEACHING LIBR ARY A series covering central issues in language teaching and learning, by authors who have expert knowledge in their field. For a complete list of titles please visit: www.cambridge.org/elt/cltl A selection of recent titles in this series Materials Development in Language Teaching Testing for Language Teachers (Second Edition) (Second Edition) Edited by Brian Tomlinson Arthur Hughes Values, Philosophies, and Beliefs in TESOL Motivational Strategies in the Language Making a Statement Classroom Graham Crookes Zoltán Dörnyei Listening in the Language Classroom The Dynamics of the Language Classroom John Field Ian Tudor Lessons from Good Language Learners Using Surveys in Language Programs Edited by Carol Griffiths James Dean Brown Teacher Language Awareness Approaches and Methods in Language Stephen Andrews Teaching (Second Edition) Language Teacher Supervision Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers A Case-Based Approach Teaching Languages to Young Learners Kathleen M. Bailey Lynne Cameron Conversation Classroom Decision Making From Description to Pedagogy Negotiation and Process Syllabuses in Practice Scott Thornbury and Diana Slade Michael P. Breen and Andrew Littlejohn The Experience of Language Teaching Establishing Self-Access Rose Senior From Theory to Practice Learners’ Stories David Gardner and Lindsay Miller Difference and Diversity in Language Learning Collaborative Action Research for English Edited by Phil Benson and David Nunan Language Teachers Task-Based Language Teaching Anne Burns David Nunan Affect in Language Learning Rules, Patterns and Words Edited by Jane Arnold Grammar and Lexis in English Language Developments in English for Specific Teaching Purposes Dave Willis A Multi-Disciplinary Approach Language Learning in Distance Education Tony Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St John Cynthia White Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective Group Dynamics in the Language Classroom Approaches through Drama and Ethnography Zoltán Dörnyei and Tim Murphey Edited by Michael Byram and Michael Fleming © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Materials Development in Language Teaching Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521157049 © Cambridge University Press 1998, 2011 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 1998 Second edition 2011 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Materials development in language teaching / edited by Brian Tomlinson. – 2nd ed. p. cm. – (Cambridge language teaching library) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-521-15704-9 1. Language and languages – Study and teaching. 2. Teaching – Aids and devices. I. Tomlinson, Brian. II. Title. III. Series. P53.15.M38 2010 418.0071–dc22 2010035789 ISBN 978-0-521-15704-9 Paperback ISBN 978-0-521-76285-4 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Contents Preface vii BRIAN TOMLINSON Glossary of basic terms for materials development in language teaching ix BRIAN TOMLINSON Acknowledgements xix 1 Introduction: principles and procedures of materials development 1 BRIAN TOMLINSON Part A Data collection and materials development 2 Using corpora in the language classroom 35 RANDI REPPEN 3 Concordances in the classroom without a computer: assembling and exploiting concordances of common words 51 JANE WILLIS 4 Telling tails: grammar, the spoken language and materials development 78 RONALD CARTER, REBECCA HUGHES AND MICHAEL MCCARTHY Comments on Part A 101 BRIAN TOMLINSON Part B The process of materials writing 5 A framework for materials writing 107 DAVID JOLLY AND ROD BOLITHO 6 Writing course materials for the world: a great compromise 135 JAN BELL AND ROGER GOWER 7 How writers write: testimony from authors 151 PHILIP PROWSE Comments on Part B 174 BRIAN TOMLINSON v © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Contents Part C The process of materials evaluation 8 The analysis of language teaching materials: inside the Trojan Horse 179 ANDREW LITTLEJOHN 9 Macro- and micro-evaluations of task-based teaching 212 ROD ELLIS 10 What do teachers really want from coursebooks? 236 HITOMI MASUHARA 11 The process of evaluation: a publisher’s view 267 FRANCES AMRANI Comments on Part C 296 BRIAN TOMLINSON Part D The electronic delivery of materials 12 Developing language-learning materials with technology 303 GARY MOTTERAM 13 New technologies to support language learning 328 LISA KERVIN AND BEVERLY DEREWIANKA Comments on Part D 352 BRIAN TOMLINSON Part E Ideas for materials development 14 Seeing what they mean: helping L2 readers to visualise 357 BRIAN TOMLINSON 15 Squaring the circle – reconciling materials as constraint with materials as empowerment 379 ALAN MALEY 16 Lozanov and the teaching text 403 GRETHE HOOPER HANSEN 17 Access-self materials 414 BRIAN TOMLINSON Comments on Part E 433 BRIAN TOMLINSON Conclusions 437 BRIAN TOMLINSON Recommended reading 443 Index 445 vi © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Preface Brian Tomlinson This is a book of original chapters on current issues in materials devel- opment written by well-known contributors to the fields of applied lin- guistics and TEFL, most of whom have made presentations at MATSDA conferences. MATSDA (The Materials Development Association) is an interna- tional materials development association founded in 1993 by Brian Tomlinson to contribute to the development of quality materials for learners of second and foreign languages. It aims to bring together teach- ers, researchers, materials writers and publishers in a joint endeavour to stimulate and support principled research, innovation and develop- ment. It does this by holding conferences, running workshops, provid- ing consultants, publishing a journal (Folio) and stimulating books like this one. For further information about MATSDA and for application forms for membership contact Brian Tomlinson, President of MATSDA, [email protected], or go to the MATSDA website at www.matsda.org.uk. The main aim of this book is to further the work of MATSDA in providing information, ideas and stimulus which will facilitate the application of current thinking and research to the practi- cal realities of developing and exploiting classroom materials. It also aims to stimulate further experimentation and innovation and thus to contribute to the continuing development of quality materials. More and more applied linguistics and teacher development courses are including components on materials development (there are even MA courses focusing on L2 materials development at the International Graduate School of English in Seoul and at Leeds Metropolitan University), and more and more presentations at ELT conferences are focusing on issues related to the writing and exploitation of materials. And yet until 1998 few books had been published which investigated these issues. Materials Development for Language Teaching filled this gap by providing an opportunity for researchers, teachers, writers and publishers to communicate their informed views and suggestions to an audience seeking to gain new insights into the principles and proced- ures which were informing the current writing and exploitation of L2 materials. This revised edition of Materials Development for Language Teaching aims to retain the insights of the 1998 edition whilst adding vii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Preface new ideas and information related to developments since its initial pub- lication. It includes five new chapters, two extra chapters on making use of new technologies in materials development and three replace- ment chapters on the pre-use evaluation of materials by publishers, on making use of corpora in published materials and on the post-use eval- uation of tasks. The other chapters are revised and updated versions of chapters published in the 1998 edition. viii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms for materials development in language teaching Brian Tomlinson The following terms are used frequently in this book. Unless they are differently defined by the author(s) of the chapter, they are used with the meanings given below. Authentic task (or real world task) A task which involves learners in using language in a way that repli- cates its use in the ‘real world’ outside the language classroom. Filling in blanks, changing verbs from the simple past to the simple present and completing substitution tables are, therefore, not authentic tasks. Examples of authentic tasks would be answering a letter addressed to the learner, arguing a particular point of view and comparing various holiday brochures in order to decide where to go for a holiday. See pedagogic task. Authentic text A text which is not written or spoken for language-teaching purposes. A newspaper article, a rock song, a novel, a radio interview, instruc- tions on how to play a game and a traditional fairy story are examples of authentic texts. A story written to exemplify the use of reported speech, a dialogue scripted to exemplify ways of inviting and a linguis- tically simplified version of a novel would not be authentic texts. See simplified texts; text. CLIL Content and Language Integrated Learning – an approach in which stu- dents acquire a second or foreign language whilst focusing on learning new content knowledge and skills (e.g. about science, about composing music, about playing football). See experiential learning. ix © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms Communicative approaches Approaches to language teaching which aim to help learners to develop communicative competence (i.e. the ability to use the language effec- tively for communication). A weak communicative approach includes overt teaching of language forms and functions in order to help learn- ers to develop the ability to use them for communication. A strong communicative approach relies on providing learners with experience of using language as the main means of learning to use the language. In such an approach learners, for example, talk to learn rather than learn to talk. Communicative competence The ability to use the language effectively for communication. Gaining such competence involves acquiring both sociolinguistic and linguistic knowledge and skills (or, in other words, developing the ability to use the language fluently, accurately, appropriately and effectively). Concordances (or concordance lines) A list of authentic samples of language use each containing the same key word or phrase, for example: The bus driver still didn’t have any change so he made me wait. I really don’t mind which one. Any newspaper will do. I just know what they are saying. Any teacher will tell you that it’s Concordances are usually generated electronically from a corpus. See authentic text; corpus. Corpus A bank of authentic texts collected in order to find out how language is actually used. Often a corpus is restricted to a particular type of language use, for example, a corpus of newspaper English, a corpus of legal documents or a corpus of informal spoken English, and it is usu- ally stored and retrieved from electronically. See text. x © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms Coursebook A textbook which provides the core materials for a language-learn- ing course. It aims to provide as much as possible in one book and is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use during a course. Such a book usually includes work on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and the skills of read- ing, writing, listening and speaking. See supplementary materials. Discovery activity An activity which involves learners in investing energy and attention in order to discover something about the language for themselves. Getting learners to work out the rules of direct speech from examples, asking learners to investigate when and why a character uses the modal ‘must’ in a story and getting learners to notice and explain the use of ellipsis in a recorded conversation would be examples of discovery activities. ELF English as a lingua franca – the English used by non-native speakers or the use of English by non-native speakers to achieve communication with each other. Some applied linguists consider ELF to be a variety of English whereas others consider it to be a way of using English. See World English. Experiential learning Referring to ways of learning language through experiencing it in use rather than through focusing conscious attention on language items. Reading a novel, listening to a song and taking part in a project are experiential ways of learning language. Foreign language A language which is not normally used for communication in a particu- lar society. Thus English is a foreign language in France and Spanish is a foreign language in Germany. xi © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms Global coursebook A coursebook which is not written for learners from a particular cul- ture or country but which is intended for use by any class of learners in the specified level and age group anywhere in the world. Language awareness approaches Approaches to teaching language which emphasise the value of helping learners to focus attention on features of language in use. Most propo- nents of language awareness approaches emphasise the importance of learners gradually developing their own awareness of how the language is used through discoveries which they make for themselves. See discovery activity. Language data Instances of language use which are used to provide information about how the language is used. Thus a corpus can be said to be made up of language data. See corpus. Language practice Activities which involve repetition of the same language point or skill in an environment which is controlled by the framework of the activity. The purpose for language production and the language to be produced are usually predetermined by the task or the teacher. The intention is not to use the language for communication but to strengthen, through successful repetition, the ability to manipulate a particular language form or func- tion. Thus, getting all the students in a class, who already know each other, repeatedly to ask each other their names would be a practice activity. See language use. Language use Activities which involve the production of language in order to com- municate. The purpose of the activity might be predetermined but the language which is used is determined by the learners. Thus, getting a xii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms new class of learners to walk around and introduce themselves to each other would be a language use activity; and so would getting them to complete a story for which they have been given the beginning. See language practice. Learning styles The way(s) that particular learners prefer to learn. Some language learners have a preference for hearing the language (auditory learners), some for seeing it written down (visual learners), some for learning it in discrete bits (analytic learners), some for experiencing it in large chunks (global or holistic or experiential learners), and many prefer to do something physical whilst experiencing the language (kinaesthetic learners). Learning styles are variable and people often have different preferences in different learning contexts. Lexical approaches These are approaches which focus on the use of vocabulary and especially on the choices available to users of English when wanting to communi- cate particular meanings in particular contexts for particular purposes. Lexical chunks These are phrases in which a group of words are used with only one meaning (e.g. ‘have no option but’). They can be fi xed terms in which the words never change (e.g. ‘at the end of the day’) or they can be rou- tines in which one of the elements can change (e.g. ‘All the best for the future/next week/exam/interview’, etc.). L2 A term used to refer to both foreign and second languages. See foreign language; second language. Materials Anything which is used to help language learners to learn. Materials can be in the form, for example, of a textbook, a workbook, a cassette, xiii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms a CD-ROM, a video, a photocopied handout, a newspaper, a paragraph written on a whiteboard: anything which presents or informs about the language being learned. Materials adaptation Making changes to materials in order to improve them or to make them more suitable for a particular type of learner. Adaptation can include reducing, adding, omitting, modifying and supplementing. Most teach- ers adapt materials every time they use a textbook in order to maximise the value of the book for their particular learners. Materials evaluation The systematic appraisal of the value of materials in relation to their objectives and to the objectives of the learners using them. Evaluation can be pre-use and therefore focused on predictions of potential value. It can be whilst-use and therefore focused on awareness and description of what the learners are actually doing whilst the materials are being used. And it can also be post-use and therefore focused on evaluation of what happened as a result of using the materials. Multimedia materials Materials which make use of a number of different media. Often they are available on a CD-ROM which makes use of print, graphics, video and sound. Usually such materials are interactive and enable the learner to receive feedback on the written or spoken language that they produce. New technologies A term used to refer to recently developed electronic means of deliver- ing language-learning materials or of facilitating electronic communi- cation between learners. It includes the Internet, as a resource as well as emails, YouTube, chat rooms, blogs, Facebook, video conferencing and mobile phone technology. xiv © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms Pedagogic task A task which does not replicate a real world task but which is designed to facilitate the learning of language or of skills which would be useful in a real world task. Completing one half of a dialogue, filling in the blanks in a story and working out the meaning of ten nonsense words from clues in a text would be examples of pedagogic tasks. Pedagogic tasks can, however, require the use of real world skills. A task requiring a group to reproduce a diagram which only one member of the group has seen, for example, involves the use of visualisation, giving precise instructions and asking for clarification. It is arguable that such tasks, despite not being real world tasks, are in fact authentic. PPP An approach to teaching language items which follows a sequence of presentation of the item, practice of the item and then production of the item. This is the approach still currently followed by most commer- cially produced coursebooks. Some applied linguists prefer, however, an experiential PPP approach in which production comes before pres- entation and practice. See language practice; SLA ; language use. Second language The term is used to refer to a language which is not a mother tongue but which is used for certain communicative functions in a society. Thus, English is a second language in Nigeria, Sri Lanka and Singapore, and French is a second language in Senegal, Cameroon and Tahiti. See foreign language. Self-access materials Materials designed for learners to use independently (i.e. on their own without access to a teacher or a classroom). They are normally used by the learner at home, in a library or in a self-study centre and can be paper-based or electronic. xv © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms Simplified texts These are texts which have been made simpler so as to make it easier for learners to read them. The usual principles of simplification involve reduction in length of the text, shortening of sentences, omission or replacement of difficult words or structures, omission of qualifying clauses and omission of non-essential detail. Some applied linguists prefer to simplify texts by adding examples, by using repetition and paraphrase and by increasing redundant information. In other words, by lengthening rather than shortening the text, by elaboration rather than reduction. SLA This is an abbreviation for Second Language Acquisition and is nor- mally used to refer to research and theory related to the learning of second and foreign languages. Supplementary materials Materials designed to be used in addition to the core materials of a course. They are usually related to the development of the skills of reading, writing, listening or speaking rather than to the learning of language items, but also include dictionaries, grammar books and workbooks. See coursebook. Tasks These are activities in which the learners are asked to use the target language in order to achieve a particular outcome within a particular context (e.g. solving a problem; planning a meeting; selecting candi- dates for an interview). Task-based approaches This refers to materials or courses which are designed around a series of authentic tasks which give the learners experience of using the language in ways in which it is used in the ‘real world’ outside the classroom. xvi © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms They usually have no pre-determined language syllabus and the aim is for learners to learn from the tasks the language that they need for suc- cessful participation in them. Examples of such tasks would be working out the itinerary of a journey from a timetable, completing a passport application form, ordering a product from a catalogue and giving direc- tions to the post office. See authentic task. Text Any extended sample of a language presented to learners of that lan- guage. A text can be written or spoken and could be, for example, a poem, a newspaper article, a passage about pollution, a song, a film, a live conversation, an extract from a novel or play, a passage written to exemplify the use of the past perfect, a recorded telephone conversa- tion, a scripted dialogue or a speech by a politician. Text-based approaches Approaches in which the starting point is a text rather than a teaching point. The learners fi rst of all experience and respond to the text before focusing attention on salient language or discourse features of it. See experiential learning. Workbook A book which contains extra practice activities for learners to work on in their own time. Usually the book is designed so that learners can write in it and often there is an answer key provided in the back of the book to give feedback to the learners. World English A variety of English which is used for international communication. See ELF. For defi nitions of other terms frequently used in EFL and applied lin- guistics see: Crystal, D. 1985. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2nd edn. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. xvii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Glossary of basic terms Davies, A. 2005. A Glossary of Applied Linguistics. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press. Ellis, R. 1994. ‘Glossary’. In The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 692–729. Johnson, K. and H. Johnson, H. 1999. The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching. Oxford: Wiley- Blackwell. Richards, J. and R. Schmidt, H. Platt and M. Schmidt. 2010. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, 4th edn. Harlow: Longman. Tomlinson, B. 1984. ‘A glossary of basic EFL terms’. In A. Cunningsworth, Evaluating and Selecting EFL Teaching Materials. London: Heinemann, pp. 80–102. xviii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-76285-4 - Materials Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition Edited by Brian Tomlinson Frontmatter More information Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Jane Walsh of Cambridge University Press for her insights, suggestions and support, and to Freda Mishan, Jaya Mukundan and Ivor Timmis for their very helpful reviews of the draft version of the book. The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has not always been possible to identify the sources of all the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting. p. 39, fig. 2, Davies, Mark. (2008-) The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA): 410+ million words, 1990-present. Available online at http://www.americancorpus.org; pp. 42–43, figs. 2.3, 2.4, Michigan Corpus of Upper-level Student Papers. (2009). Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents of the University of Michigan; p. 53, fig 3.1, Collins Cobuild data sheets Concordance for ‘any’, 1986. Collins Cobuild; p. 79. Nunan, D. and Lockwood, J. 1991. The Australian English Course. Cambridge University Press; pp. 79–80, Burns, A. Joyce, H. and Gollin, S. 1996. ‘I see what you mean.’ Using Spoken Discourse in The Classroom: A Handbook for Teachers. NCELTR, Macquarie University (Sydney); pp. 192–195, Littlejohn, A. and Hicks, D. 2008. Primary Colours Pupil’s Book 5. Cambridge University Press; pp. 284–289, Goodey and Goodey. 2005. Messages. Cambridge University Press; p. 307, fig. 12.2 © Oxford University Press 2008; p. 333, fig. 13.2, screenshot repro- duced with permission; p. 333, fig. 13.3, Screenshot reproduced cour- tesy of Languagelab.com; p. 399–400, McGinley, P. “The Adversary” from Times Three. Martin Secker & Warburg; p. 400, Thomas, R. S. 1963 “Sorry” from The Bread of Truth HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.; p. 401, Leon Leszek Szkutnik, “He Never Sent me Flowers”. (Warsaw); pp. 423–424, Gordimer, N. 1991. My Son’s Story. Reproduced with permission of A P Watt Ltd on behalf of Felix Licensing BV. The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate. xix © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org