Topic 5 Learning and Memory Lecture Notes PDF

PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 1 Topic V: Learning and Memory What is learning? Learning is the Relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience. Learning is an active mental process of...

PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 1 Topic V: Learning and Memory What is learning? Learning is the Relatively permanent change in an organism’s behaviour due to experience. Learning is an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge. Therefore, learning is demonstrated by a change in knowledge, which makes a behaviour change possible. As such, learning itself is not directly observable as it occurs within the individual. Behaviours Independent of Learning Reflexes -Behavioural movements controlled automatically by the nervous system. Humans have reflexes, such as blinking their eyes when an object is about to strike them. Maturation -the natural unfolding of biological potential Instincts- inborn tendencies within a species to produce specific behaviour patterns. They are not dependent upon training or observing others. The action is pre-programmed within the nervous system Non-Associative Learning The simplest type of learning. It is a process whereby repeated presentations temporarily lessen an organism's response to the same stimulus. A form of non-associative learning, meaning that only one stimulus is being presented. Habituation is a basic process of biological systems. It is a form of non-associative learning. For example, people who live near a railroad, after some time, do not respond to the sound of passing trains, or when you purchase a new wall clock, after a while, you habituate to the noise it makes. Associative Learning Associative learning is learning that certain events occur together. The two events could be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning). Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936: Russian physician/ neurophysiologist, Nobel Prize in 1904, Studied digestive secretions Classical conditioning is learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. It is a learning process through associations between an environmental and naturally occurring stimulus. ✓ Neutral stimulus – a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning ✓ Unconditioned response – an unlearned, naturally occurring response (e.g., such as salivation to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) ✓ Unconditioned stimulus – a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response. ✓ Conditioned response – a learned response to a previously neutral (but now) conditioned stimulus ✓ Conditioned stimulus – an initially irrelevant stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned one. There are three stages in Classical Conditioning Stage 1: Before Conditioning: In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. This stage also involves another stimulus that has no effect on a person, called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not respond until paired with the unconditioned stimulus.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 2 Stage 2: During Conditioning: A stimulus that produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). For learning to occur, the UCS must be associated with the CS on several occasions or trials, at this point, it becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS). Stage 3: After Conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) has been successfully associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create the conditioned response (CR). This marks the completion of the classical conditioning process, where a new behaviour has been learned and a conditioned response has been formed. Concepts in Classical Conditioning ✓ ACQUISITION -the initial stage in classical conditioning o the phase (trials) associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response ✓ EXTINCTION -Diminishing of a Conditioned Response o when an Unconditioned Stimulus does not follow a Conditioned Stimulus ✓ SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY o reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished Conditioned Response ✓ GENERALIZATION o tendency for stimuli similar to the Conditioned Stimulus to elicit similar responses ✓ DISCRIMINATION o the learned ability to distinguish between a Conditioned Stimulus and any other stimuli that do not signal a Conditioned Response. Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response with its consequences. Thus, we repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishment. Operant Conditioning o type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment Law of Effect o Thorndike’s principle that behaviours followed by favourable consequences become more likely, and behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely. Reinforcer o any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows. o Opposite of punishment-weakens in behaviour. Shaping o operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour toward closer approximations of a desired goal. Reinforcement – any event that strengthens a preceding response. There are two types of reinforcement ✓ Positive reinforcement – adding a desirable stimulus after a wanted response. E.g., smile, thank you, token.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 3 ✓ Negative reinforcement – removing an aversive stimulus, e.g., fastening seatbelt to end loud beeping, taking painkillers, and responding to a nagging child. Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Partial (intermittent reinforcement schedules) – reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition but much more excellent resistance to extinction. Response rates are higher when reinforcement is linked to the number of responses rather than time. ✓ Fixed ratio - reinforced behaviour after a set number of responses. For example, a cafe rewards buyers for every 10th purchase of coffee. ✓ Variable ratio – reinforce behaviour after an unpredictable number of reinforcers. E.g. gambling and fishing. Most effective schedule, difficult to extinguish. ✓ Fixed Interval – reinforce the first response after a fixed time. E.g. salary ✓ Variable Interval – reinforce the response after varying time intervals. Likes/shares on TikTok or Instagram. Observational Learning An individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather than through direct experience (i.e., vicariously). o Learning occurs when a person observes the rewards and punishments of another's behaviour and then behaves in accordance with the same rewards and punishments. o Learning occurs without direct reinforcement to the individual Stages of Vicarious Learning Attention the attention the observer gives to the major aspects of the modelled behaviour. Retention what the observer remembers about the modelled behaviour. Production the practice (either physically or mentally) of the modelled behaviour and incorporating it into the observer's life situations. Motivation the factors that an observer uses to determine if the results of the modelled behaviour are positive or negative Cognitive Maps Cognitive maps are mental representations of the layout of one’s environment. Observed in studies observing rats navigating a maze o Demonstrates learning without reinforcement or punishment Latent learning occurs but is not apparent until an incentive exists to demonstrate it. Also called mere exposure learning is learning without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated when it occurs  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 4 Memory Memory refers to any indication that learning has persisted over time. We can store and retrieve information we have already learned. Flashbulb Memory is a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Memory Encoding Memory involves information processing like a computer: writing to a file, saving to a disk, and reading from a disk. Encoding is processing information into the memory system (extracting meaning). Remembering any event requires that we translate outside information into a neural impulse that can be stored in the brain. Therefore, in forming a memory, we must first get information into our brains, called encoding. How do we encode information? Effortful processing o Required attention and conscious effort. For example, remembering people's names or the capitals of different countries. Automatic processing o unconscious encoding of incidental information o well-learned information (word meanings). o We can learn automatic processing (reading backwards). o We cannot switch it on and off at will. What do we encode? Semantic Encoding—the encoding of meaning (including the meaning of words). When processing verbal information for storage, we usually encode its meaning (we associate its sound and image with what we already know or imagine). For example, the difference between hearing “eye-scream, ice-scream, I scream” depends on the context in which it is being used and our past experiences guiding our interpretation of the sound. Acoustic Encoding - encoding of sound (especially the sound of words) Visual Encoding - encoding of picture images (words in bold) Memory Storage We also need to retain or store it in our brains, which is called storage. Memory Retrieval Retrieving information from these storage devices is likened to getting information back out of memory (brain); this process is called retrieval. Recall - Measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. ▪ Example: a fill-in-the-blank test Recognition ▪ Measure of memory in which the person can only identify previously learned items. ▪ Example: a multiple-choice test Relearning ▪ Memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time Retrieval Cues Deja Vu (French)--already seen. Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience State-dependent Memory - What is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in the same state.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 5 Mood-congruent Memory - Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood Stages of Memory Processing 1. Sensory Memory - the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. 2. Short-term Memory—activated memory that holds a few items briefly, e.g., looking up a phone number, then quickly dialling before the information is forgotten. a. Working memory focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. It focuses on how we attend to, rehearse, and manipulate information in temporary storage (short-term memory). Information is not just displayed in our STM; we actively associate new and old information. Working memory has a verbal and visual component in recording information to memory. 3. Long-term memory -the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Modal Model of the Mind – The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration. Sensory Memory Function - holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics. Capacity – very limited Duration - very brief retention of images (3 seconds for visual info, 2 seconds for auditory info). Working Memory Function - conscious processing of information, where information is actively worked on Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds) Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info. Phonological loop - holds verbal information Central executive - coordinates all activities of working memory; brings new information into working memory from sensory and long-term memory Long-term Memory Function - organises and stores information, a more passive form of storage than working memory Capacity - unlimited capacity Duration - thought by some to be permanent Explicit Memory Declarative Memory (explicit memory): facts, data and experiences we can consciously know and declare. This is stored through effortful processing (encoding that requires attention and conscious effort) Two types of declarative/explicit memory 1. Episodic memory: memories tied to personal experiences. E.g. What happened in your lecture today? 2. Semantic memory: memories not tied to personal experiences but general facts and definitions about the world. For example, who is the Prime Minister/President of your country? Implicit Memory Procedural Memory (implicit memory): knowledge of rules, actions and procedures which become automatic with repetition. Accounts for automatic skills and classically conditioned associations among stimuli.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 6 This occurs through automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space (knowing what page information was on), time (sequence of events, time of day you met a friend) and frequency (number of times you taught for the day). Three subtypes of implicit memory 1. Classical conditioning – associating bell ringing at school with lunchtime 2. Procedural memory – riding a bike, tying shoes 3. Priming – one memory influencing the other. a. Conceptual priming: the semantic meaning influences encoding and retrieval (based on the meaning, things that go other), e.g. table and chair. b. Perceptual priming enhances the ability to identify a test stimulus based on physical features, e.g., if part of a picture is completely based on an image viewed earlier or word completion. Forgetting Encoding failure: We cannot forget what we haven’t encoded. We attend to a stimulus in the environment; if the information is not meaningful or important, we are less likely to encode it. External event >>>> Sensory Memory > attention> working memory>>> encoding>>>long term memory Storage decay: The course of forgetting is initially rapid and then levels off with time. The forgetting curve is often steep; what is initially learnt is quickly forgotten; however, what is remembered over time is still remembered. Retrieval failure: the stored information cannot be accessed, which leads to forgetting. This occurs due to interference or motivated forgetting. o Interference: new or old information affecting the retrieval of information ▪ Proactive interference: prior learning that affects the recall of new information. For example, old passwords interfere with retrieving new passwords. ▪ Retroactive interference: new learning affecting the recall of old information. E.g. new lyrics to an old song are less likely to remember the old lyrics. o Motivated forgetting: we repress painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept. E.g., repression is a defence mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety and arouses thoughts, feelings, and memories.  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 7 Self-Study Reading the corresponding book chapter is important for success in this course. Attempt these questions only after reading the notes and chapter in the text. This will help you assess if you have retained the information. It would be best to try the exercises without referring to your notes. Multiple Choice Questions 1. What is learning? a) A temporary change in behaviour due to external influences b) The natural unfolding of biological potential c) A relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience d) An automatic behavioural movement controlled by the nervous system 2. What is an example of non-associative learning? a) Classical conditioning b) Operant conditioning c) Habituation d) Observational learning 3. In classical conditioning, what is the term for a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response? a) Neutral stimulus b) Conditioned stimulus c) Unconditioned stimulus d) Conditioned response 4. Which stage of classical conditioning involves the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus? a) Before Conditioning b) During Conditioning c) After Conditioning d) Spontaneous Recovery 5. According to the Law of Effect, which behaviours are more likely to be repeated? a) Behaviours followed by punishment b) Behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences c) Behaviours followed by reinforcement d) Behaviours that are instinctual 6. Which type of reinforcement involves removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behaviour? a) Positive reinforcement b) Negative reinforcement c) Continuous reinforcement d) Variable interval reinforcement  PSYC 1001 Introduction to Psychology 8 7. In observational learning, which stage involves remembering the modelled behaviour? a) Attention b) Retention c) Production d) Motivation 8. What type of memory involves facts and data we can consciously know and declare? a) Implicit memory b) Procedural memory c) Episodic memory d) Declarative memory 9. What is the function of sensory memory in the Modal Model of the Mind? a) To hold information briefly for processing b) To store information permanently c) To coordinate all activities of working memory d) To process visual and spatial information 10. What type of interference occurs when new learning affects the recall of old information? a) Proactive interference b) Retroactive interference c) Storage decay d) Motivated forgetting True and False Questions 1. Learning is directly observable as it occurs within the individual. 2. Reflexes and instincts are behaviours dependent on learning. 3. Habituation is a form of associative learning. 4. In classical conditioning, extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response. 5. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. 6. Positive reinforcement involves adding an aversive stimulus to weaken a behaviour. 7. Variable ratio schedules of reinforcement are the most effective and difficult to extinguish. 8. In vicarious learning, the observer directly experiences rewards and punishments. 9. Flashbulb memory refers to a clear memory of an emotionally significant event. 10. Proactive interference occurs when old information affects the recall of new information. Fill in the Blanks 1. The process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge is referred to as __________. 2. __________ is the initial stage in classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus. 3. __________ involves reinforcing a response only part of the time, resulting in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction. 4. In the stages of vicarious learning, the practice of modelled behaviour is known as __________. 5. __________ memory involves knowledge of rules, actions, and procedures that become automatic with repetition.