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Questions and Answers
Which reinforcement schedule involves giving a reward after a specific number of responses?
Which reinforcement schedule involves giving a reward after a specific number of responses?
- Fixed Ratio (correct)
- Variable Ratio
- Fixed Interval
- Variable Interval
What characterizes observational learning as opposed to direct learning?
What characterizes observational learning as opposed to direct learning?
- Learning occurs only through physical experience.
- Learning requires direct rewards for the observer.
- Learning depends primarily on punishment received by the observer.
- Learning can happen without any reinforcement for the observer. (correct)
What stage of vicarious learning involves remembering the aspects of modeled behavior?
What stage of vicarious learning involves remembering the aspects of modeled behavior?
- Production
- Retention (correct)
- Reinforcement
- Attention
Which type of reinforcement schedule is least effective in creating resistance to extinction?
Which type of reinforcement schedule is least effective in creating resistance to extinction?
What is an example of negative reinforcement?
What is an example of negative reinforcement?
Which schedule of reinforcement is most associated with gambling due to its unpredictable nature?
Which schedule of reinforcement is most associated with gambling due to its unpredictable nature?
In the context of observational learning, which of the following stages involves practicing the modeled behavior?
In the context of observational learning, which of the following stages involves practicing the modeled behavior?
Which reinforcement schedule would likely result in the highest response rates due to its structure?
Which reinforcement schedule would likely result in the highest response rates due to its structure?
What is primarily involved in Acoustic Encoding?
What is primarily involved in Acoustic Encoding?
Which of the following best describes the process of Memory Retrieval?
Which of the following best describes the process of Memory Retrieval?
What type of interference occurs when prior learning hinders the recall of new information?
What type of interference occurs when prior learning hinders the recall of new information?
Which memory process involves recalling information learned earlier?
Which memory process involves recalling information learned earlier?
What is the primary function of repression in memory processes?
What is the primary function of repression in memory processes?
What does state-dependent memory refer to?
What does state-dependent memory refer to?
Which stage of memory processing is characterized by holding a few items briefly?
Which stage of memory processing is characterized by holding a few items briefly?
Which of these best describes retroactive interference?
Which of these best describes retroactive interference?
What phenomenon is exemplified by the 'already seen' cues triggering memory retrieval?
What phenomenon is exemplified by the 'already seen' cues triggering memory retrieval?
What kind of memory can be affected by motivated forgetting?
What kind of memory can be affected by motivated forgetting?
Which statement is true regarding proactive interference?
Which statement is true regarding proactive interference?
Which of the following describes a measure of memory that indicates time saved when relearning?
Which of the following describes a measure of memory that indicates time saved when relearning?
What is the primary focus of working memory?
What is the primary focus of working memory?
In what scenario would motivated forgetting most likely occur?
In what scenario would motivated forgetting most likely occur?
What is specifically an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
What is specifically an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
Which process involves a neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus?
Which process involves a neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus?
What is an example of procedural memory?
What is an example of procedural memory?
Which subtype of implicit memory is primarily involved in associating a specific sound with an event?
Which subtype of implicit memory is primarily involved in associating a specific sound with an event?
What process is responsible for unconscious encoding of incidental information?
What process is responsible for unconscious encoding of incidental information?
What term describes the curve depicting the initial rapid forgetting followed by leveling off?
What term describes the curve depicting the initial rapid forgetting followed by leveling off?
Which of the following is considered a cause of retrieval failure?
Which of the following is considered a cause of retrieval failure?
What type of memory facilitates the ability to recognize a word based on previous exposure to a similar item?
What type of memory facilitates the ability to recognize a word based on previous exposure to a similar item?
What is the primary reason we forget information according to the concept of encoding failure?
What is the primary reason we forget information according to the concept of encoding failure?
Which of the following demonstrates a familiarity with time in implicit memory?
Which of the following demonstrates a familiarity with time in implicit memory?
What is the primary focus of the Law of Effect?
What is the primary focus of the Law of Effect?
Which type of reinforcement is focused on decreasing the likelihood of a behavior through a negative experience?
Which type of reinforcement is focused on decreasing the likelihood of a behavior through a negative experience?
During which stage of observational learning do individuals engage in the practical application of the behavior they have observed?
During which stage of observational learning do individuals engage in the practical application of the behavior they have observed?
In the context of the Modal Model of the Mind, what is the role of sensory memory?
In the context of the Modal Model of the Mind, what is the role of sensory memory?
What is the term for interference that happens when previously learned information affects the recall of newly learnt information?
What is the term for interference that happens when previously learned information affects the recall of newly learnt information?
Which type of memory encompasses facts and knowledge that can be consciously accessed?
Which type of memory encompasses facts and knowledge that can be consciously accessed?
Which stage comes before the actual performance of a behavior in observational learning?
Which stage comes before the actual performance of a behavior in observational learning?
Which process refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response in classical conditioning?
Which process refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response in classical conditioning?
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Study Notes
Reinforcement and Schedules
- Negative Reinforcement: Involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a desired behavior (e.g., fastening a seatbelt to stop beeping).
- Continuous Reinforcement: Every occurrence of the desired response is reinforced.
- Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs only some of the time, leading to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
- Fixed Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement given after a specific number of responses (e.g., reward for every 10th coffee purchase).
- Variable Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement provided after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling); most effective and resistant to extinction.
- Fixed Interval Schedule: Reinforcement given after a fixed period (e.g., paycheck).
- Variable Interval Schedule: Reinforcement occurs at varied time intervals (e.g., likes on social media).
Observational Learning
- Definition: Learning through observing another individual's behavior rather than through direct experience.
- Vicarious Learning: Involves understanding consequences (rewards and punishments) of a model's behavior.
Stages of Vicarious Learning
- Attention: The observer's focus on significant aspects of the modeled behavior.
- Retention: The observer's ability to remember the modeled behavior.
- Production: Practicing the behavior either physically or mentally.
Memory Processing
- Encoding: Information is processed for storage, often by associating meanings and sounds with prior knowledge.
- Acoustic Encoding: Focus on sound, particularly of words.
- Visual Encoding: Focus on images and appearance of words.
Memory Storage and Retrieval
- Storage: Retaining information in the brain.
- Recall: Retrieving previously learned information (e.g., fill-in-the-blank tests).
- Recognition: Identifying learned items (e.g., multiple-choice tests).
- Relearning: Measuring time saved when learning material again.
Retrieval Cues
- Déjà Vu: A sensation of having already experienced a current situation.
- State-Dependent Memory: Easier recall of learned information when in the same state of mind as when it was learned.
- Mood-Congruent Memory: Recalling experiences that match one's current mood.
Stages of Memory Processing
- Sensory Memory: Initial recording of sensory information.
- Short-Term Memory: Brief storage (e.g., remembering a phone number temporarily).
- Working Memory: Focus on actively processing stored information.
Implicit Memory
- Procedural Memory: Skills and procedures that become automatic through repetition.
- Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information (e.g., space, time, frequency).
- Types of Implicit Memory:
- Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., bell ringing signals lunchtime).
- Procedural Memory: Skills like riding a bike.
- Priming: Previous memories affect current memory retrieval.
Forgetting
- Encoding Failure: Forgetting information not properly encoded.
- Storage Decay: Rapid forgetting initially that slows over time.
- Retrieval Failure: Inability to access stored information.
- Interference: New or old information interfering with retrieval.
- Proactive Interference: Old information affecting new recall (e.g., old passwords).
- Retroactive Interference: New information affecting old recall (e.g., new lyrics).
- Motivated Forgetting: Repressing unpleasant memories for self-protection.
- Interference: New or old information interfering with retrieval.
Self-Study Recommendations
- Reading relevant chapters enhances understanding and retention of course material.
- Attempt to answer questions without referring back to notes to assess retention.
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