Learning & Memory Introduction to Psychology PDF

LEARNING & MEMORY Introduction to Psychology LEARNING MEMORY WHAT IS LEARNING IN YOUR OWN UNDERSTANDING? LEARNING o According to behaviorists, a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience or practice. o According to cognitive theorists, the process by which organisms...

LEARNING & MEMORY Introduction to Psychology LEARNING MEMORY WHAT IS LEARNING IN YOUR OWN UNDERSTANDING? LEARNING o According to behaviorists, a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience or practice. o According to cognitive theorists, the process by which organisms make relatively permanent changes in the way they represent the environment because of experience. LEARNING It is a relatively lasting change in behavior resulting from experience. It is the acquisition of information, knowledge, and skills. Learning Is an Active Process Learning Leads to Lasting Change Learning Occurs As a Result of Experience Learning Can Affect Attitudes, Knowledge, or Behavior DIVISIONS OF LEARNING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ASSOCIATIVE OPERANT CONDITIONING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING While he agreed with Skinner that we learn via our own experience, he said that this is an inefficient way to learn and would not explain the fast cognitive and social development that happened to humanity.  We also learn from others Observational learning describes the process of learning through watching others, retaining the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed. Observational learning is sometimes also referred to as shaping, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement.  Although reinforcement facilitates learning, Bandura says it is not a necessary condition. People can learn, for example, by observing models being reinforced. A good man learns from his mistakes, and A wise OBSERVATIONAL man learns from others’ mistakes. LEARNING By observing other people, humans are spared countless responses that might be followed by punishment or by no reinforcement. Bobo Doll Experiment & Theorized by Albert Bandura BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT THE PROCESS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Bandura analyzed the nature of observational learning and found it to be governed by four related mechanisms: Attentional processes Retention Processes Production Processes Incentive and Motivational Processes  Observational learning or modeling will not occur unless the subject pays attention to the model. ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES Developing our cognitive processes and perceptual skills so that we can pay sufficient attention to a model, and perceive the model accurately enough, to imitate displayed behavior RETENTION PROCESSES Retaining or remembering the model’s behavior so that we can imitate or repeat it later; for this, we use our cognitive processes to form mental images and verbal descriptions of the model’s behavior. We can retain information about a model’s behavior in two ways:  Through an imaginal internal representational system or through the verbal system  Imaginal representation, we form vivid, easily retrievable images while we are observing the model.  Verbal representation operates similarly and involves a verbal coding of some behavior we have observed.  Translating the mental images or verbal symbolic representations of PRODUCTION the model’s behavior into our own overt behavior by physically PROCESSES producing the responses and receiving feedback on the accuracy of our continued practice.  Perceiving that the model’s behavior leads to a reward and thus expecting that our – learning and successful performance of the same behavior will lead to similar consequences. INCENTIVE AND Anticipation of Reinforcement : Our incentive to learn MOTIVATIONAL is influenced by our anticipation of the reinforcement or punishment by doing so. PROCESSES Reinforcement is not always necessary: Bandura also pointed out that although reinforcement can facilitate learning, reinforcement is not always necessary and not always required for learning to occur. ENACTIVE LEARNING Bandura believes that complex human behavior can be learned when people think about and evaluate the consequences of their behaviors.  The person did this and received reinforcement, so if I also do this, I will also receive reinforcement  Response consequences inform us of the effects of our actions  The consequences of our responses motivate our anticipatory behavior; that is, we can represent future outcomes and act accordingly. HOW DO WE LEARN? The learning process allows people to have some degree of control over the events that shape the course of their lives. Control, however, rests with a three-way reciprocal interaction of personal variables, behavior, and environment. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM It states that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING Associative learning is a method or process wherein the learner associates a certain response to an object or a stimulus resulting in a positive or negative outcome. Associative learning is a form of conditioning, a theory that states behavior can be modified or learned based on a stimulus and a response. For example, a student might know that if she misbehaves in class (stimulus), she will not be permitted to go out for recess (response). ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING CLASSICAL OPERANT CONDITIONING CONDITIONING  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING o Ivan Pavlov is known for his famous experiment with conditioning the salivation response in dogs, which brought about classical conditioning. o The best-known of Pavlov’s experiments involves the study of the salivation of dogs. Pavlov was originally studying the saliva of dogs as it related to digestion, but as he conducted his research, he noticed that the dogs would begin to salivate every time he entered the room—even if he had no food.  CLASSICAL CONDITIONING o Pavlov was dosing his dog with meat powder for his research because he knew that salivation in response to meat powder is a reflex. o Reflexes are unlearned and evoked by certain stimuli. o Pavlov discovered that reflexes can also be learned or conditioned by association. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Four factors of classical conditioning at work: UNCONDITIONED CONDITIONED STIMULUS STIMULUS (UCS) (CS) UNCONDITIONED CONDITIONED RESPONSE RESPONSE (UCR) (CR) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Four factors of classical conditioning at work: UNCONDITIONED - A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned STIMULUS (UCS) response. UNCONDITIONED - A natural, usually unvarying RESPONSE (UCR) response elicited by stimulus without learning or conditioning. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Four factors of classical conditioning at work: - A previously neutral stimulus that, after repeated association with an CONDITIONED STIMULUS unconditioned stimulus, elicits the (CS) response elicited by the UCS. CONDITIONED - A response that becomes associated with a RESPONSE previously unrelated stimulus as a result of pairing (CR) the stimulus with another stimulus that normally elicits the response. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Four factors of classical conditioning at work: UNCONDITIONED CONDITIONED STIMULUS STIMULUS (UCS) (CS) UNCONDITIONED CONDITIONED RESPONSE RESPONSE (UCR) (CR) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EXTINCTION: An experimental procedure in which stimuli lose their ability to evoke learned responses because the events that had followed the stimuli no longer occur SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY: The recurrence of an extinguished response as a function of the passage of time. GENERALIZATION: In conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be evoked by stimuli that are similar to the stimulus to which the response was conditioned. DISCRIMINATION: The tendency for an organism to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not forecast unconditioned stimulus. OPERANT CONDITIONING o Burrhus Frederic Skinner: commonly known as B. F. Skinner, was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. o To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner Box, and to measure rate he invented the cumulative recorder. OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner, 1938). OPERANT CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement -The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of an event that it follows Positive Reinforcers Negative Reinforcers OPERANT CONDITIONING Positive Reinforcers - Increase the probability that a behavior will occur when they are applied. Ex: Quiz exemption during the class recitation. OPERANT CONDITIONING Negative Reinforcers -Increase the probability that a behavior will occur when the reinforcers are removed. Ex.: A student submits their homework on time to avoid score deductions by their teacher. By submitting the homework (behavior), they remove the unpleasant outcome of a score deduction (negative stimulus), making it more likely that the student will submit homework on time in the future. OPERANT CONDITIONING Punishment -Both positive and negative weakens or decreases a behavior. Positive Punishment Negative Punishment OPERANT CONDITIONING Positive Punishment - It involves adding an unpleasant stimulus after an undesired behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. To decrease behavior by adding something undesirable. Ex.: A child touches a hot stove and feels pain. The pain (added unpleasant stimulus) discourages the child from touching the stove again. OPERANT CONDITIONING Negative Punishment - It involves removing a desirable stimulus after an undesired behavior, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. To decrease behavior by taking away something desirable. Ex.: A teenager comes home past curfew, and their parents take away their driving privileges for a week. The removal of driving privileges (desirable stimulus) is meant to decrease the likelihood of future curfew violations. FOUR TYPES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Primary Conditioning - a condition that satisfies the biological needs like hunger or thirst. Secondary Conditioning - a condition that becomes reinforced by its association with primary conditioning such as money which allows one to obtain food which is primary conditioning. Escape Conditioning - an organism's response which brings about an end to an aversive situation. Avoidance Conditioning - this occurs when a person's response to a signal of an impending unpleasant situation is a way that permits its evasion.  Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. This schedule is often used when teaching a new behavior because it helps establish the association between the behavior and SCHEDULES OF reinforcement. REINFORCEMENT Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement In partial reinforcement, the behavior is reinforced only some of the time. This makes the behavior more resistant to extinction (when the reinforcement stops) compared to continuous reinforcement.  Partial Schedule Timing of Reinforcement Response Rate Fixed-Ratio (FR) After a specified number of High, steady responses Variable-Ratio (VR) After an unpredictable High, steady number of responses Fixed-Interval (FI) After a specified amount of High near end of interval, but time slower directly after delivery of reinforcer Variable-Interval (VI) After an unpredictable Slow, steady amount of time SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT  Memories bring back, MEMORY memories bring back you. UWU MEMORY  Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information.  Memory is how we draw on our past experiences to use this information in the present (Sternberg, 1999) MEMORY PROCESSES OF MEMORY STORAGE ENCODING It is the maintenance RETRIEVAL Modifying of information over information so that it time; the second stage The location of stored can be placed in of information information and its memory. processing. return to -Visual Code -Maintenance consciousness; third -Acoustic Code Rehearsal stage. -Semantic Code -Elaborative Rehearsal STAGES OF MEMORY Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long-term Memory CLASSIFICATIONS OF MEMORY SENSORY MEMORY: The type or stage of memory first encountered by a stimulus. SHORT-TERM MEMORY: The type or stage of memory that can hold information for up to a minute or so after the trace of the stimulus decays. LONG-TERM MEMORY: The type or stage of memory capable of relatively permanent storage. MEMORY SYSTEMS PROSPECTIVE MEMORY RETROSPECTIVE MEMORY Memory to perform an act It is the recalling of in the future, as at a information that has been certain time or when a previously learned. certain event occurs. KINDS OF LONG-TERM MEMORY IMPLICIT MEMORY EXPLICIT MEMORY Memory that is suggested but not plainly expressed Memory that clearly and or verbally explained. distinctly expresses specific information. A memory of how to perform a procedure or Also referred to as skill; it is the act itself, or declarative memory. doing something Also referred to as Procedural Memory  EPISODIC MEMORY (I remember…) Memories or events experienced by a person or that take place in the person’s presence. “I remember the boy, but I don’t remember the feelings TWO KINDS OF anymore” EXPLICIT MEMORY SEMANTIC MEMORY (I know…) General knowledge as opposed to episodic memory. “I know how painful…” MEASURING MEMORY Recall: This is a mental reproduction of the materials that have been learned. Recognition: This is acknowledging past learning by giving the person several choices from which he picks one he recognizes. Re-learning: The amount of learning is measured after some review. Rote memory: This is done through constant repetition where no conscious effort is needed to reproduce the idea. Flashbulb memory: A memory of specific event that is so clear it seems like a snapshot of the event. FORGETTING - The apparent loss or modification of information encoded and stored in an individual’s long-term memory. FORGETTING *AMNESIA: It is the general term for the ability to recall certain memories.  INFANTILE AMNESIA: The inability to recall events before the age of two or three is also termed childhood amnesia.  ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA: Failure to remember events that occur after physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma.  RETROGRADE AMNESIA: Failure to remember events that occur before physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma. LEARNING, MEMORY, & THINKING Week 9 & 10