TMPC2-2024-2025_Part1.pdf

 COURSE INTRODUCTION Traveling has become a regular part of people’s leisure activities, which is why tourism has been one of the most inescapable human pursuits. Governments put top priority in developing the tourism industry primarily because of its economic benefits....

 COURSE INTRODUCTION Traveling has become a regular part of people’s leisure activities, which is why tourism has been one of the most inescapable human pursuits. Governments put top priority in developing the tourism industry primarily because of its economic benefits. However, tourism, when not managed properly, could lead to environmental destruction and social disruptions. These negative impacts are often shielded by tourism developers because of the profits and revenues that the industry provides. This course wanted to convey that if tourism is to be developed sustainably, stakeholders should be able to recognize the industry's potential impacts and anticipate, monitor, and mitigate such effects through various measures which will be discussed in the succeeding chapters. Future tourism professionals like you have a responsibility to make sure that both organizations and communities will be able to derive maximum benefits from tourism while minimizing its detrimental impacts. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism ii  Table of Contents Preface v The Concept of Sustainable Tourism and Sustainable Development 1 Introduction Learning Outcomes Definition of Sustainability Definition of Sustainability and Sustainable Development: What’s the Difference? Goals of Sustainable Tourism Sustainable Tourism and its Principles Elements Principles Requisites for Sustainable Tourism History of Sustainable Tourism Concept Tourism and Sustainability Paradigm in the Philippines Three Dimensions of Sustainable Development Framework for Understanding the Interaction of the Three Dimensions of Development Connelly’s Venn Diagram Limitations of Tourism as a Tool for Sustainable Development Definition, Dimensions, and Determinants of Tourism Impacts 9 Introduction Learning Outcomes Tourism Impact: Definition Dimensions of Tourism Impacts Chapter Activity 1 Determinants of Tourism Impacts Chapter Activity 2 References Tourism Impacts on the Environment 17 Introduction Learning Outcomes The Concept of the Environment Causes of Impacts of Tourism to the Environment Negative Impacts of Tourism on the Environment Positive Impacts of Tourism on the Environment Discussion Questions Tourism Impacts on the Economy 27 Introduction Learning Outcomes Direct, Indirect, Induced and Dynamic Impacts The Multiplier Effect Tourism Satellite Accounts Positive Impacts of Tourism on the Economy Negative Impacts of Tourism on the Economy Determinants of Economic Impacts Chapter Activity Tourism Impacts on Culture and Society 32 Introduction Learning Outcomes Culture and its Components What is Culture? Intangible Cultural Heritage The Cultural Cycle Drivers of Impacts of Tourism on Culture TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism iii  Positive Impacts of Tourism on Culture Negative Impacts of Tourism on Culture Determinants of Socio-cultural Impacts Additional Readings Discussion Questions References Tourism Impact Assessment and Mitigation 41 Introduction Learning Outcomes What is Tourism Impact Assessment? Importance of Tourism Impact Assessment Tourism Impact Assessment Tools Other Impact Assessment Frameworks Economic Viability Assessing Jobs in Tourism Chapter Activity Part 1 Tourism Impact Mitigation Minimizing Carbon Footprint Air Pollution Mitigation Solid Waste Reduction Mitigation Measures to Reduce Impacts on Light and Glare Mitigation Measures to Reduce Noise Chapter Activity Part 2 Additional Readings References Responsible Tourism 49 Introduction Learning Outcomes The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism Promoting Responsible Tourism at the National Level Environmental Evaluation, Compliance and Monitoring Responsible Tourism by Tourism Enterprises Fair Trade Practices Tips for a Responsible Traveler Chapter Activity Visitor Management and Community Participation for Sustainable Tourism 55 Introduction Learning Outcomes Managing Visitors Carrying Capacity Three Types of Carrying Capacity Management Tools for Implementing Tourism Carrying Capacity Site Management Techniques Management Options to Minimize Visitor Impacts Community Participation for Sustainable Tourism The Importance of Community Participation Stakeholder Theory Stakeholders Stakes in Tourism Discussion Questions References 60 TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism iv  Preface The pandemic has brought unexpected problems and difficulties in the learning process. This module attempts to provide the same level of interest and engagement that students will have to Sustainable Tourism as a subject before Covid 19 struck the world. Sustainable Tourism is a refreshing take for BSTM sophomores who have taken its prerequisite courses for it provides insights to what’s behind the appeal and fascination tourism provides to the travelers, businessmen, and establishments. This course aims to provide answers to key questions such as, “What are the impacts of tourism to the environment, the economy, and culture?”; “Can negative impacts of tourism activities be prevented or mitigated?”; “What strategies can be formulated to achieve sustainable development goals?” This module is made up of eight chapters, streamlined to fit the online learning modality and contains images for students to put into picture the possible scenarios discussed in the topics. Most of the contents of the module were derived from Prof. Reil G. Cruz, Ph.D.’s books, Sustainable Tourism and Tourism Impacts and Sustainability, both published by Rex Bookstore. Other contents came from various studies and researches as well as news articles from credible online sources. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism v  CHAPTER 1: THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Introduction Mass tourism occurs when large numbers of people visit the same place at any one time. Governments and local people often favor mass tourism as it generates a lot of income, but it tends to create unwanted pressures on the environment and society. If not managed properly, this kind of tourism will kill itself as tourists destroy the environment and culture, the very foundations of the industry. The economy, the environment, and society could be considered as the three legs of the tourism tripod. Just like what the critics say, tourists can love a destination to death. To be able to prevent this from happening, we need to have a kind of tourism that balances the three concerns of economic growth, environmental protection, and social equity. This development approach or paradigm has come to be known as sustainable tourism development. Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Differentiate sustainability from sustainable development; 2. Outline and recall the history of sustainable tourism concept, sustainable tourism goals, and sustainable tourism principles; 3. Discuss the limitations of tourism as a tool for sustainable development and describe the paradigm of tourism sustainability in the Philippines; and, 4. Examine the current status of tourism sustainability in your respective locality. DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABILITY According to youmatter.world, etymologically, the word sustainability comes from sustainable + ity. And sustainable is, for instance, a composition of sustain + able. So if we start from the beginning, to means “give support to”, “to hold up”, “to bear” or to “keep up”. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 6 What is sustainability, then? Sustainable is an adjective for something that is able to be sustained, i.e, something that is “bearable” and “capable of being continued at a certain level”. In the end, sustainability can perhaps be seen as the process(es) by which something is kept at a certain level. “improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems” (The International Union for the Conservation of Nature – The World Conservation Union, United Nations Environment Programme, and the World Wide Fund for Nature in Caring for the Earth 1991). According to Daniel Christian Wahl, the author of Designing Regenerative Cultures, sustainability refers to sustaining the underlying pattern of health, resilience, and adaptability that maintain this planet in a condition where life as a whole can flourish DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? The views on sustainability seem to have a stronger focus on the present moment and on keeping things above a certain level. By its turn, sustainable development focuses more on a long-term vision. In fact, sustainable development has a universally agreed definition that was first written in the Brundtland Report. The Brundtland Commission (1987) defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. It takes into account the needs of the future and present generations in terms of the management of resources, investments, technology and institutions. The Philippine Agenda 21 – the country’s blue print for sustainable development, defined sustainable development as the “harmonious integration of a sound and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion, and ecological integrity, to ensure that development is a life-sustaining process.” (1996) Goals of Sustainable Tourism Sustainable tourism aims to achieve the following goals: 1. Economic prosperity – can be achieved by developing appropriate tourist products for carefully selected markets and profitable business operations, providing decent employment to all especially local communities, fostering livelihood and small enterprises, and adopting fair procurement practices 2. Social equity – can be pursued through respecting local traditions, protecting indigenous communities, and preventing the exploitation of women and other vulnerable groups TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 7  3. Environmental conservation – sustainable tourism requires that the environment is safeguarded from destruction and the the industry and tourists behave in a responsible manner. Sustainable Tourism and its Principles In 1988, adopting the parent concept of sustainable development, the UNWTO defined sustainable tourism as “… the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social, and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity, and life support systems.” It is “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social, and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities.” For tourism to be sustainable, it is essential for the following elements to be present: 1) Informed participation of relevant stakeholders 2) Strong political leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building 3) Constant monitoring of impacts and adoption of preventive or corrective measures when necessary 4) Maintaining a high level of tourist satisfaction and providing meaningful experience to the tourists 5) Raising the tourists’ awareness about sustainability issues and sustainable practices. Principles of Sustainable Tourism According to the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (n.d.) the principles of sustainable tourism are the following: 1. Enhances the well-being of communities in which tourism takes place; 2. Supports the protection and enhancement of the natural and cultural resources of the destination; 3. Recognizes the importance of product quality (physical products, hospitality, and services) and tourist satisfaction as key factors for the economic success of tourism; and 4. Adopts adequate management and monitoring measures. Requisites for Sustainable Tourism Sustainability simply means being able to continue for an indefinite period of time. Many tourism projects suffer from the “ningas cogon” syndrome where they tend to experience a rapid boom and bust cycle. They become hot destinations for a few TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 8 years, the decline rapidly for lack of maintenance, funding or demand from the target market. To increase the chances of success of tourism sites, a few questions need to be addressed first (DOT et. al. 2014): 1. Is the area safe? 2. Are the attractions unique? 3. Do the attractions have social and cultural value? 4. Is it accessible? 5. Is there political support? 6. Is the community supportive of the project? 7. Are there sources of funds for the project? 8. Are there available utilities and infrastructure? 9. Are there onsite facilities? 10. Is the area open for tourism development? 11. Is the quality of the are conducive for tourism development? HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM CONCEPT The International Union for the Protection of Nature is funded, which 1948 later changed its name to International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1956 Harrison Brown’s The Challenges of Man’s Future was published, 1954 with themes that later on comprised the term “sustainable development” The World Wildlife Fund, now World Wildlife Fund for Nature was 1961 established Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring was published, which discusses 1962 interconnections between the environment, the economy and social well-being. The first Earth Day was proclaimed in San Francisco; and was held as 1970 a national teach-in on the environment The UN Conference on the Human Environment is held in Stockholm, Sweden which led to the establishment of numerous national 1972 environmental protection agencies and the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) George Young published the book, Tourism: Blessing or Blight which 1973 drew attention to the negative impacts of tourism (Swarbrooke 1999). The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) published the World Conservation Strategy (WCS) which contains a section 1980 “Towards Sustainable Development” that identifies the main agents of habitat destruction. October 1982 when the UN approved the World Charter for Nature that presented several measures for the protection of the environment 1982 such as natural habitat protection, conservation of non-renewable resources, re-use and recycling of resources, environmental impact assessment, prevention and mitigation, etc. The World Commission on Environment and Development published 1987 Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report which laid down the principles of sustainable development. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 9  DENR drafted the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development (PSSD) and was approved by the Cabinet in 1989 Its goal was to achieve economic growth while ensuring adequate protection of the Philippines’ biodiversity, vital ecosystem functions, and overall environmental quality. 1988 UNTWO defined sustainable tourism Wood and House published The Good Tourist which tired to influence 1991 tourists’ behavior by making them aware of the potential negative impacts of tourism (Swarbrooke 1999) The UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro; agreements were reached on Agenda 21, Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework Convention on Climate Change, and non-binding Forest Principles. Rio Declaration was produced which tackled sustainable 1992 development principles tackled in previous international conferences UNWTO, UNEP, and the World Conservation Union published the Guidelines: Development of National Parks and Protected Areas for Tourism Philippine Agenda 21 was also published UNEP and the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives 1993 published the “Tourism and Local Agenda 21: The Role of Local Authorities in Sustainable Tourism” UNWTO published the “Global Code of Ethics for Tourism” which is a comprehensive set of principles which are designed to guide the main stakeholders in tourism development, namely, governments, the travel industry, local communities, and tourists. The WTO held the World Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Canary Islands, Spain. It produced a resolution which called on the 1995 international community, particularly those in the field of tourism, to adopt the criteria of sustainability in tourism development. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change signed the Kyoto 1997 Protocol, which commits developed nations to reducing overall emissions of several GHGs The UN issued the Berlin Declaration on Biological Diversity and Sustainable Tourism which adopted principles for the sustainable development of tourism in vulnerable ecosystems and protected areas The UNWTO published the Guide for Local Authorities on Developing Sustainable Tourism which presents techniques for planning and 1998 developing tourism in a way that minimizes negative environmental and socio-economic impacts at the local level. The UN Millennium Summit created a declaration that contains the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) comprised of 8 primary goals: 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; 2. Achieve universal primary education; 2000 3. Promote gender equality and empower women; 4. Reduce child mortality; 5. Improve maternal health; 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 10  7. Ensure environmental sustainability; and, 8. Develop a global partnership for development. The UNWTO also produced Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainable Tourism which aims to guide self-regulation of the tourism industry. 2002 These cover certification systems, eco-labels, awards and prizes, environmental management systems, codes of conduct, and others. The Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations: A 2004 Guidebook was released – a result of an extensive study on indicator initiatives worldwide UNWTO and UNEP published Making Tourism More Sustainable – A 2005 Guide for Policy Makers Al Gore published An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of 2006 Global Warming and What We Can Do About It 2008 Climate Change and Tourism – Responding to Global Challenges The UN Conference on Sustainable Development gathers in Rio de Janeiro to mark the 20th anniversary of the 1992 Rio Summit 2012 Member States also decided to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) built upon the Millennium Development Goals The year 2015 marked the deadline for achieving the MDGs formulated in 2000. In the Global Sustainable Development Report, the UN 2015 identified key sustainable development goals for the next 15 years, which was participated by 195 nations. UN Universal Sustainable Development Goals (Osborne, Cutter, and Ullah, 2015) It embodies universally shared vision of progress toward a safe, just, and sustainable world. Founded on the beliefs that no country should lag behind, and every country should be committed to achieving the global vision. Depending on the state of economic development and national circumstances, the relative weights among the social, economic, and political goals will be different for every country. This will be accomplished by bringing together their respective governments, businesses, media, institutions of higher education, and local NGOs to improve the lives of the people in their country by the year 2030. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 11 The 2030 Agenda: TOURISM AND SUSTAINABILITY PARADIGM IN THE PHILIPPINES Tourism development in the Philippines has been evolving in the past forty years. 1970s - The focus had been on undifferentiated mass tourism - The main strategy was to boost tourist arrivals in order to maximize tourism revenues for both the government and the private businesses but this has led to socio-cultural issues such as child prostitution and drugs as well as concomitant disillusionment by the general public 1980s - Motivation was still economic but with tourism being managed like a corporation - The Department of Tourism staff complement was trimmed down, and a master plan was formulated o The plan embodied strategies of creating tourism clusters with supporting international airports, regional dispersal of accommodation facilities, deregulation of the transportation industry, and diversification of markets and tourism offerings 1990s - Saw the advent of sustainable development as a tourism development paradigm TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 12 Circa 2000 - environmental dimension was given more prominence, culminating the passage of the National Ecotourism Strategy - the DOT also paid attention to the development of the rural areas through agritourism initiatives Since then, tourism has solidified its position as an anchor of the Philippine economic development. Sustainable development principles have been embodied in a landmark legislation through Republic Act 9593 or the Tourism Act of 2009. The [State] declares … tourism as an indispensable element of the national economy and an industry of national interest and importance, which must be harnessed as an engine of socio-economic growth and cultural affirmation to generate investment, foreign exchange, and employment, and to continue to mold an enhanced sense of national pride for all Filipinos (Chapter 1, Section 2). To achieve the above goals, the State recognized “sustainable tourism development as integral to the national socio-economic development efforts to improve the quality of life of the Filipino people…, promote … tourism… that is ecologically sustainable, responsible, participative, culturally sensitive, economically viable, and ethically and socially equitable for local communities.” Three Dimensions of Sustainable Development There are three components of development – economy, environment and culture. They can also be referred to as the three Es – economy, environment, and equity. Some refer to them as the three Ps, - profit, planet, and people. People – most crucial component since it influences the way all three develop. - They hold the key to sustainable development. FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING THE INTERACTION OF THE THREE DIMENSIONS OF DEVELOPMENT TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 13  Connelly’s Venn Diagram Development is deemed viable when there is a balance between environmental and economic goals; it is equitable when there is balance between economic and social goals, and livable when there is a balance between environmental and social goals. LIMITATIONS OF TOURISM AS A TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Image by: Devaiah Mallangada Kalaiah at Chitwan National Park, Subarnapur, Nepal Johnson and Wilson (2000) argued that realities in political structures often mean that not everyone’s voice will be heard concerning a proposed tourism project. Lack of understanding (Reid et al. 2004 in Moscardo 2007) and limited experience of tourism (Pearce et al. 1996 in Moscardo 2007) by residents themselves mean that decisions tend to be dominated by local elites and external agents, such as consultants and the NGO staff. Moscardo (2007) also pointed out that tourism professionals and academics often assume that locals lack the knowledge and skills to participate in tourism, therefore excluded them in (marketing) decisions. She also perceived that tourism needs to be re-conceptualized as just one of the many possible development options, that the emphasis should not be on sustaining tourism per se but the community as a whole. Thus, instead of using the community as a resource for tourism development, the case should be the other way around. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 14  CHAPTER 2: DEFINITION, DIMENSIONS, AND DETERMINANTS OF TOURISM IMPACTS This chapter aims to equip you with the knowledge of the factors that determine the nature of tourism's impacts, and the various ways by which such impacts may be assessed, prevented, mitigated, or promoted, as the case may be. Learning Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Define tourism impact and correlate its relationship to tourism sustainability; 2. Enumerate and discuss the dimensions and determinants of tourism impacts; and, 3. Recognize and evaluate a destination’s situation in terms of tourism impacts. TOURISM IMPACT: DEFINITION Hall and Lew (2009, p. 54) defined impact as “a change in a given state over time as the result of an external stimulus.” For the purpose of this subject, our external stimulus is tourism. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 15 Tourism impact may be defined as an effect brought about directly or indirectly by tourism policies, tourism-related establishments and infrastructure, and tourist behavior. DIMENSIONS OF TOURISM IMPACTS SCOPE - It may be economic, environmental, social, cultural, or political. o Example of an economic impact: inflation – the supply of products and services usually lags behind the increase in demand which results to shortage and ends in price increase of airplane fares, hotel rates, and even real estate o Example of an environmental impact: connectivity among transportation nodes o Social: increased crime and prostitution o Cultural: cultural diffusion such as broadening of food choices in major tourist areas and the spread of such sports as surfing o Political: Places that are able to contribute substantially to government funds from their tourism income are able to get higher priority in terms of government allocations for tourism-related projects Tourism impacts tend to be multi-dimensional. For instance, a focus on tourism may make governments obsessive in protecting nature at the expense of indigenous people, creating a conflict between environmental and cultural concerns. Example: Expansion of protected areas might be good for nature conservation and ecotourism but has a negative effect on ethnic people who rely on swidden farming or kaingin for their livelihood (Dressler 2006). In the given example, indigenous people who cannot utilize kaingin because of nature preservation may turn to mainstream jobs which can result to loss of skills, rituals, and belief systems that are part of their culture and way of life. DIRECTION OF CHANGE - Tourism may cause positive or negative changes on the economy, environment or society. Tourism may either contribute to the improvement or the deterioration of a place. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 16 The creation of employment is a positive impact. However, leakage, caused when the tourism industry imports food stuff, wine, and managerial expertise is a negative impact. Leakage refers to the money that gets out of the local economy due to spending on imported goods, and remittances to their home countries by expatriate managers. TYPE Can be categorized into: Actual or Objective – backed up by hard data, such as increased population, number of jobs, amount of investment, amount of tourist receipts generated by tourism Perceived or Subjective – refer to the opinions of somebody concerning the effects of tourism which can be influenced by their social status, world view, educational attainment, culture, etc. Quantitative – impacts which can be measured and expressed in numerical form Examples: amount of taxes collected from tourism businesses, number of people employed by tourism, length of roads constructed as part of a program to make a place accessible for tourists Qualitative – impacts that can only be observed and described. Examples: effects of tourism on social relationships and the effect of tourism experiences on an individual’s self-esteem Direct – immediate and flows from tourism to the receiver of the impact (e.g. residents) without intervening persons, agencies, or industries. Indirect – flows from tourism to the receiver of the impact through intervening persons, agencies, or industries. Example: The demise of fishing in some tourist destinations like Boracay is often DIRECTLY attributed to tourism as fishermen convert their fishing boats to ferry tourists. This shift of livelihood results to people sleeping early and abandonment of going out to sea in the late hours. An INDIRECT effect of this would be an increase in night-time entertainment establishments and sales of television. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 17 Bangka waiting to take passengers from Caticlan Jetty to Boracay © photopixel / Shutterstock.com taken from https://howdoigo.asia/caticlan-to-boracay-best-ferry/ Perceived tourism impacts are affected by a number of variables. Butler and Doxey linked resident’s perception of tourism to the stage of tourism development. Butler’s (1980) Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) Theory – this theory predicts that the community will experience and perceive more and more negative impacts as a tourism destination goes through the various stages of growth: exploration, involvement, TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 18 development, consolidation, stagnation, and the final stage with 5 different possible scenarios. Tensions between the tourists and the hosts increase in the consolidation phase. As tourist facilities deteriorate, tourist numbers also decline in the stagnation stage. TEMPORAL DIMENSION Cumulative Impact – one that is caused by tourism over time Example: Urbanization of hitherto idyllic island resorts like El Nido, Palawan and Panglao, Bohol which were once tranquil and untouched islands Water pollution on the coastal areas as evidenced by algal blooms is another cumulative effect of increasing amounts of untreated effluents dislodged by tourism establishments into the sea just like in Boracay. Immediate Impact – impact caused by a single event, and could happen within a short period of time. Example: Increased occupancy of hotels in Clark, Pampanga brought about by the hosting of the SEA Games A South Korean village turned into a popular tourist destination brought about by the hype of the Korean drama series, Crash Landing on You Long-term Impacts – impacts that will be borne or experienced by the affected sectors or stakeholders for years or even generations to come. Short-term Impacts – impacts that do not endanger the welfare of the affected people or places way into the distant future. DISTRIBUTION Impacts are also said to be distributed among stakeholders or according to geographical coverage. Leiper’s (1990) Tourism Attraction System Model – according to this model, tourism impacts will be felt at varying levels in the different areas where tourism activities could take place. These areas are identified as: 1) Tourist Generating Region 2) Transit Route Region 3) Tourist Destination Region TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 19 Places that are endowed with outstanding tourism assets and in close proximity to the transportation terminals or gateways, and have high concentration of skilled human resources are more likely to benefit from tourism than less-endowed areas. Tourism impacts will also be felt at varying levels in the different areas where tourism activity could take place. It is also said that most tourism income will accrue mostly to local elites, such as wealthy entrepreneurs and powerful politicians. In contrast, poor people are not able to take advantage of the opportunities presented by tourism because of lack of skills, financial capacity, or social capital (lack of connections). Tourism-induced impacts may be reversible or irreversible. Reversible impact is one which can be corrected immediately or over a short period of time. Example: Trash left by festival attendees during the Opening Salvo of Dinagyang Festival can be collected and disposed of in a matter of hours or days. Irreversible impact is one that requires a long period of time to recover. Example: The effect of irresponsible diving on coral reefs. Coral reefs grow very slowly and it takes generals to replace coral reefs stepped on by divers or hit by boat propellers and anchors. A flattened mountain to provide space for an airport or a theme park, or for its soil to fill in a land reclamation project for a tourism complex. Tourism impacts may have a chain reaction or just an isolated effect. A chain reaction effect is potent in tourism when carried out on a mass scale, and has a potential to affect the environmental, economic, and social systems in an interconnected manner. Example: The unexpected deluge of tourists to the Puerto Princesa Underground River caused by the successful bid to become a new wonder of nature has generated tremendous employment and investment opportunities. The sudden increase in tourist arrivals has caused: airport congestion shortfalls in water and electricity supply migration to the city making people feel less secure As for isolated or inconsequential effect: TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 20 A tourist whose idea of a vacation is to spend the whole day in bed will hardly create a ripple as far as social impact is concerned. If there is such an impact, it may be intended/expected or unintended/unexpected. SOURCE According to Hall and Lew (2009, p. 64), a tourism impact may come from a: Point source – a specific tourism-related facility, project, or object. This could be an airport, hotel, attraction, or event. Point sources of impact are self-specific, tangible, and have clear finite lifespans. Non-point source – mobile, intangible, and has an indefinite lifespan. CHAPTER ACTIVITY 1 Select an attraction/s in your respective municipality and based on the dimensions of tourism impacts discussed, cite at least five impacts that affected (indicate whether it is positive or negative) the destination’s environment, economy, and culture. Provide pictures of the selected destination. Tackle and discuss the following question: Do the attraction have sustainable practices? If yes, cite them. DETERMINANTS OF TOURISM IMPACTS Level of Development of the Tourism Industry The more developed the tourism industry, the more destination stands to gain economically from tourism. Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) – this is a concept developed by the World Economic Forum and is a measure of the level of tourism development in a country. However, it is just a rough guide on a country’s tourism attractiveness since not all countries in the top list of the TTCI are among the list of top destinations in a given year. A’s Framework (Cruz, 2009) – consists of: o Access o Accommodation o Activities TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 21  o Attractions o Amenities o Atmosphere o Attitude o Administration o Assistance o Awareness Strength of Economy and Linkages – the net economic impact of tourism depends on the proportion of income that is retained in the local economy which is equal to: Tourism Revenues – Amount of Leakages Leakage – happens when we import products or pay for managerial expertise of expatriates. To minimize this, we should patronize and buy local products as well as managerial services. Such inputs must be sufficient and at acceptable quality levels. Also, a diversified local economy and strong linkages in the tourism value chain will aid in minimizing leakages. Stakeholder’s Power and Capacity – Tourism development has also something to do with the extent by which the benefits and the opportunities are shared by the stakeholders. Ideally, there must be equity in tourism outcomes but the reality is that the more powerful stakeholders are able to rake the benefits while the weaker ones get to bear the costs of development. Social representations theory (Moscardo, 2011) holds that where there is limited knowledge of tourism, a destination community must either develop its own social representation of tourism or adopt an existing one. Tourism Policy Impacts are also determined through republic acts, presidential decrees, or local ordinances. Tourism policy serves as the biggest influence on tourism development framework and provides focus and direction to it. Investment Incentive Criteria and Weights Tourism impacts are shaped by the chosen development strategies, like establishment of Tourism Enterprise Zones which have evaluation criteria with assigned weights. In the case of TEZ, there was no direct reference to poverty reduction, and the investment opportunity may be limited to large corporations, LGUs, or specific individuals. Tourism Volume, Density and Ratio Tourism density refers to the number of tourists at a given time in relation to the area of the destination. Tourism ratio refers to the volume of tourists in relation to the local population. In general, the impact of tourism rises in proportion to the increase in tourism density or ratio. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 22 Concentration or Dispersal of Tourist Zones Designating tourism development clusters is one way to spread the benefits of tourism. The government can also contain the negative side effects of tourism by concentrating tourism activity in a confined section of a city. Tourist Markets Served The tourist markets served determine the kind of impacts that are exerted on the host as well as those experienced by the tourist themselves. Cohen (1972) classified tourists as: o Institutionalized tourists – composed of organized mass tourists and individual mass tourists Tours are closely linked to the travel industry made up of travel agencies, tour operators, hotels, etc. which encourages standardization of tourism facilities and services In terms of impact, organized mass tourists tend to be shielded from local experiences because they remain largely within their “environmental bubble”, although the individual mass tourist may experience some level of impact because his/her itinerary is not as fixed as organized mass tourists. o Non-institutionalized tourists – composed of explorers and drifters Explorers avoid the popular tourist attractions but still prefer the comfortable accommodation and reliable modes of transportation Technology – Tourism impacts, especially on the environment, may be modified by technology. Example: - noise and greenhouse gas emissions from aircraft, which is the primary mode of long-haul travel, have been significantly reduced with the deployment of the newest generation of aircrafts. - Water pollution may be abated by installing wastewater treatment facility. - Tourist resorts may install solar panels to reduce their reliance on commercial electricity Carrying Capacity The impact of tourism in a given environment will depend on the volume of tourists compared with the carrying capacity of the site. Tourism carrying capacity is defined as” …the level of human activity an area can accommodate without the area deteriorating, the resident community being adversely affected, or the quality of visitors’ experience declining” (Middleton & Hawkins 1998; Chamberlain 1997 in Massiani & Santoro 2012) TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 23 The World Tourism Organization defined it as “the maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment, and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors’ satisfaction.” Other Factors Emergence of bureaucrats, the rise of unlivable industrial cities and women’s liberation as driving force for tourism development. CHAPTER ACTIVITY 2 Research and read the Tourism Act of 2009 (Republic Act 9593). (For Graded Recitation) Guide Questions: How important is its role in shaping the tourism industry of the Philippines? Based on RA 9593, what are the key strategies that can be utilized to augment the current status of the Philippine tourism industry amidst the Covid19 pandemic? REFERENCES Cruz, Reil G. Sustainable Tourism. First Edition. Rex Book Store. 2019. Cruz, Reil G. Tourism Impacts and Sustainability. First Edition. Rex Book Store. 2016. TOURC4: Sustainable Tourism 24