History of Child Abuse PDF

The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of child care, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorized, and sexually abused....

The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of child care, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorized, and sexually abused. —deMause (1974, p. 1) History of Child Abuse According to Empey, Stafford, and Hay (1999), children have not always been valued and protected, and childhood has not always been seen as a special phase of life. They note that in previous times, children were “regarded more as small or inadequate versions of their parents than as sacred beings in need of special protection”. Contemporary conceptions of children and childhood— that children should be loved, nurtured, and protected from the cruel world—emerged only within the past 100 years. History of Child Abuse Empey and associates (1999) identify three periods in the history of childhood: indifference to childhood (pre-15th century),  discovery of childhood (15th to 18th centuries), and preoccupation with childhood (19th and 20th centuries). History of Child Abuse One illustration of the previous indifference to children as a group is found in the historical practice of infanticide, which some scholars maintain was the most frequent crime in all of Europe before modern times and remained a relatively common practice until about 1800. A study of ancient history reveals that infanticide (the act of killing an infant) was practiced in many societies. History of Child Abuse Reasons for infanticide included population control, appeasement of god(s), limitation of family size, and a way for an unwed mother to deal with shame. Allowing the murder of infants for any of these reasons suggests that children did not have even the most basic right – the right to life. Children who were permitted to live were considered the property of their fathers. History of Child Abuse During the Middle Ages, laws forbidding infanticide were passed. The widespread poverty of this time made children a liability. There are horrific stories of children who were severely mistreated by their parents in order to bring more money into their household. Some children were actually sold for profit by their own parents. Other children were mutilated so that they would be more effective beggars. History of Child Abuse A dramatic change in the view of children occurred as a result of the Reformation of the 16th century. This religious movement, marked by a rise in Protestantism, had a significant impact on how children were regarded. On a positive note, children were seen as fragile creatures of God who needed to be safeguarded. History of Child Abuse On the other hand, all humans were born marked with the stain of original sin. These beliefs led to a resurgence of interest in educating children in a way that would overcome the stain of original sin. Parents and teachers were urged to use strict discipline in the hopes of molding children into moral human beings. History of Child Abuse The next shift in how childhood was viewed has been largely attributed to the writings of John Locke and Jean- Jacques Rousseau. Locke saw children as tabula rasa, which means blank slate. Locke viewed children not as innately flawed, but simply as blank or neutral. If children are tabula rasa, then parents and teachers need only to shape them, to mold them into whatever is good; there is no need to eliminate innate badness. History of Child Abuse Rousseau believed that a parent’s training would only interfere with a child’s innate, orderly, moral development. Instead of forcing or molding a child, an adult needs to be sensitive to a child’s needs. Some of the saddest stories about the mistreatment of children come from the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution. Although the Industrial Revolution brought relief from hard labor for many, it was merely a new age of abuse for poor children who were brought into the labor force. Even very young children were forced to work long hours in horrific conditions in which they were exposed to occupational hazards. History of Child Abuse Probably, the most famous early court case involving child abuse occurred in 1874. Church social worker Etta Wheeler discovered that 8- year-old Mary Ellen Wilson was being beaten and starved by her stepmother. After unsuccessfully seeking help to remedy the situation from several sources, Wheeler took the case to Henry Bergh, founder of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Mary Ellen was, after all, a member of the animal kingdom. History of Child Abuse A courtroom full of concerned New Yorkers, many of them upper-class women, heard the shocking details of Mary Ellen's life. She had been beaten almost daily and had not been allowed to play with friends or to leave the house. She had an unhealed gash on the left side of her face, where her stepmother had struck her with a pair of scissors. The jury took only 20 minutes to find the stepmother guilty of assault and battery. History of Child Abuse In Europe, the 19th-century French forensic physician Ambroise Tardieu led the child protection movement (Labbé, 2005). Tardieu's work focused on the poor working conditions of Europe's children and the emotional and physical effects of these conditions. He also conducted a large empirical study, arguably the first of its kind, on the physical signs of sexual abuse in children. Tardieu’s work had little impact on the French medical community, and child maltreatment remained a largely ignored social problem until well into the 21st century. History of Child Abuse The full recognition of child abuse as a social problem was not complete until the 1960s, when Dr. C. Henry Kempe and his colleagues first described the battered child syndrome and suggested that physicians should report any observed cases of abuse. Kempe and colleagues (1962) defined child abuse as a clinical condition with diagnosable medical and physical symptoms resulting from deliberate physical assault. With his famous work ‘Battered Child Syndrome’, he first drew attention to the physical abuse of children and then to sexual abuse of children. History of Child Abuse Dr. C. Henry Kempe, Denver Hospital, child psychiatrist trained in psychoanalysis He suspects that ten percent of babies and young children who come to the pediatric emergency room have been physically abused and begins an intensive investigation. X-rays of the children's skeletons and long bones revealed a pattern of abuse; Cracks that have occurred at different times in an arm and a new fracture, even if there is no fracture, a swelling (collection of blood) indicating that the skull has been hit. Historical Models of Child Abuse Psychological Models: During the 1960s parental psychopathology was identified as the leading cause of child abuse. The parental psychopathology view suggests that parents who abuse have a clinically diagnosable mental condition, such a personality disorder or psychosis. Historical Models of Child Abuse Psychological Models: Kempe and associates’ article, “The Battered Child Syndrome,” in which the authors argued that adults who physically abuse children suffer from a psychopathology and are in need of psychiatric treatment. They also suggested that child maltreatment is a rare social problem, which facilitated the assumption that perpetrators are disturbed individuals who must be crazy or sick. Historical Models of Child Abuse Psychological Models: Early theorists in the study of child sexual abuse viewed perpetrators as psychotic, brain-damaged, senile, or mentally retarded individuals who could not control their own behavior. Historical Models of Child Abuse Psychological Models: This idea grew out of the connotation associated with the term battered-child syndrome, indicating a narrow connection of parent-as-perpetrator with an illness. Research that compared abusive and non-abusive parents showed no abusive personality type and only a small percentage of those who abused experienced any psychopathologic disorder. Historical Models of Child Abuse Psychological Models: Although only a minority of child maltreatment perpetrators display severe forms of psychopathology, many reports demonstrate that child maltreatment offenders display elevated scores on measures of: cognitive distortions, depressive symptoms, stress, low self-esteem, substance abuse, anger control problems, parenting difficulties, and physiological hyperactivity. Historical Models of Child Abuse Psychological Models: Even without a mental illness, a parent who cannot sufficiently meet his/her needs or excessively needy may be unable to meet the needs of his/her own child. Historical Models of Child Abuse Sociological Models: Sociological models of child abuse emphasize factors such as: Poverty Social status Isolation Acceptance of violence in society as causes of child abuse and neglect Historical Models of Child Abuse Sociological Models: Much research exploring sociological variables has only been able to show indirect and often weak support for explanations of child abuse. While economic disadvantage does place children at greater risk of abuse, it does not show a casual link between poverty and abuse since most families living in poverty neither abuse nor neglect their children. Historical Models of Child Abuse Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory provides insight into the generational transmission of violence and acceptance of interpersonal violence through vicarious reinforcement. Children who are exposed to violence, either directly or indirectly,learn that violent behavior causes a desired response. Historical Models of Child Abuse Social Learning Theory: Exposure to violence can reinforce children to accept violence as a normal and appropriate way to handle situations, express emotions, and resolve conflict. Watching violent behavior can lead to repeating that behavior, at a later time, referred to a modeling. Children model the behavior around them especially if they identify with the perpetrator. Historical Models of Child Abuse Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory lacks explanatory power since it is easily refuted with the awareness that many individuals who witness or experience violence fail to become perpetrators of violence. Historical Models of Child Abuse While psychological, sociological, and social learning theories provide insight into child abuse, they fail to singularly render the multidimensional and complex eplanation of child abuse. They fail to explain the exception, therefore any single microtheory is inadequate. Researchers began viewing abuse from an ecological perspective that integrated individuals, social and cultural factors, and their ecological connections. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Brofenbrenner (1979) proposed an ecological perspective on human development, and Belsky (1980)applied the model to child abuse. Deviation from single-focused processes to a transactional and multilevel explanation. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: It’s explained in four level: Ontogenic Microsystem Exosystem Macrosystem Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Each level is ecologically nested within the next, abuse is determined by the interaction of, and between, levels. Each level is influenced by the culture in which the family lives. Parental and child bevahior must be understood within the cultural context in which behavior is learned and displayed. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Ontogenic Development: Explores the childhood of abusive parents, assessing how a particular parent grows to behave in an abusive manner. One well-known issue in ontogenic development is attachment. Research shows that abused children are more likely to have insecure attachments, and may have disorganized/disoriented atachment patterns. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Microsystem: Many of the additional factors that interact with the parents’ developmental history occur within the family itself. The immediate context in which child abuse takes place and includes the family system, the abuse itself, and both parent and child characteristics. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Microsystem: Parents Characteristics of the parent can impact the likelihood of abuse. Parents who abuse are more likely to have a history of abuse or neglect themselves. Parents who abuse are less satisfied with their children and perceived parenting as less enjoyable and more difficult. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Microsystem: Parents: Social isolation is more characteristic of neglecting parents, while social conflict is indicative of abusive parents. The marital relationship can also influence the occurence of child abuse, domestic/spousal abuse is related to child abuse. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Microsystem: Child: Certain characteristics can serve as contributors to a child’s own abuse; Premature born Less attractive appearance to the parent Physical or mental disability Child interaction styles also affect the parenting relationship. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Microsystem: Family System: Within a family, both the child and the parent influence one another’s behavior and responses. Child abuse must be considered an interactive process. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Exosystem: Encompasses the individual and family within larger social structures, including both formal and informal structures. Belsky primarily focuses on the influences that two primary structures exert on the family: work and neighborhood. Other structures include; school, formal and informal support networks, socioeconomic status, and social services. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Exosystem: Several aspects of the exosystem have been correlated with child abuse. Poverty and socioeconomic status are risk factors for child abuse. Unemployment has been shown to be associated with child abuse. High job loss----------- family stress Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Exosystem: Neighborhood in which the family lives can contribute to child abuse. Neighborhood with equal socioeconomic disadvantage, with more resources experience less child abuse Social isolation from other social networks and extended family is associated with abuse. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Exosystem: Mothers who commit physical abuse are shown to have fewer peer relationships, more difficulties with extended family and less social contact within their community. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Macrosystem: The macrosystem examines the embeddedness of the individual, community and the family within the larger cultural fabric. Cultural differences exist with regard to the value placed on physical punishment for child discipline. Racism is an integral component of the macrosystem. It places undue stress on families, as well as limiting the educational and economic opportunities and the distribution of resources. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological Models: Macrosystem: Societal attitudes toward violence in general, societal expectations about child discipline in the home and at the school, and the level of overall violence in the country and in the community. Historical Models of Child Abuse Ecological/transactional Model: Cicchetti and Lynch drew upon Belsky’s ecological model to develop ecological/transactional model of child abuse. While the ecological model focuses on the etiology of child abuse, the transactional model focuses more closely on the outcomes of child abuse with special attention to developmental outcomes for the children. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse Attachment Theory: A fundamental task of early childhood is the development of a secure attachment relationship(s) with a parent or guardian. John Bowlby (1982), who originated attachment theory, defined attachment as “any form of behavior that results in a person attaining or maintaining proximity to some other clearly identified individual who is conceived as better able to cope with the world”. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse Attachment relationships are transactional, in that they result from the mutual interactions between the infant and his or her caregiver, and they serve to provide the infant with a “sense of security,” “affective” regulation, “expression of feelings and communication,” a secure base from which to explore the world. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse Attachment begins at birth and occurs during the first three years of life. The infant relies totally on the primary caregiver, and in the context of this primary dependence, the caregiver’s response to the dependence is how the attachment relationship is established. The attachment relationship is hypothesized to be dyadic and reciprocal. Core functions of attachment relate directly to trauma: attachment relationships provide a safe haven and a secure base, and they also foster our ability to regulate our physiological arousal. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse An attachment bond is an enduring emotional relationship with a specific person; the relationship brings safety, comfort, soothing, and pleasure; and loss or threat of loss of the person evokes distress” (Perry, 2000). The mental representation of the primary attachment relationship, which manifests in an internal working model for future relationships. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse Bowlby (1982) purports that children form mental representations of their relationship to others based on their attachment to their primary caregiver, which includes affect, cognition, and expectations about future interactions. This primary relationship provides an internal working model (IWM), which serves as a template for other interpersonal relationships through-out one’s life (Bowlby, 1982). One’s expectations and view of relationships is impacted by the IWM that began during childhood. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse The safe haven of an attachment relationship also provides a secure base for exploration of the world and thus for autonomy. Secure attachment not only promotes confident and playful exploration in good times but also fosters the ability to explore possible solutions to problems—including seeking help—in bad times. The external regulation of physiological functioning by sensitive caregiving gradually becomes internalized, such that the developing child becomes increasingly able to self- regulate. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse With adequate emotional attunement from the caregiver, the youngster has the repeated experience of his or her arousal being soothed and then develops the capacity for self-soothing. The secure base of attachment not only facilitates exploration of the outer world but also promotes exploration of the inner world—the world of the mind; that is, one’s own mind and the mind of others. Developmental Perspective of Child Abuse Attachment can classify into two major categories: secure and insecure, which has three classifiable subtypes. Attachment has historically been studied using the “strange situation” (Ainsworth et al., 1978), which involves a laboratory setting and a series of separations and reunions between child and primary caregiver (attachment figure). Attachment Theory Anxious Attachme nt Insecure Avoidant Attachme Attachme Attachme nt nt Disorganiz nt Types Secure ed Connectin Attachme g nt Attachment Theory Secure Attachment: The securely attached child uses the caregiver as a secure base. The child explores freely in the caregivers presence but “checks” on the care-giver periodically either through eye or physical contact. When the caregiver leaves, the child’s reaction to the separation ranges from little to extreme distress. However, upon reunion, the child actively positively greets the caregiver, seeks physical contact, and then continues playing. Attachment Theory Insecure/Avoidant: The insecurely avoidant child “avoids” the caregiver in her/his presence. The child appears not interested in the caregiver and explores his/her environment without interest in the caregiver’s presence. When the caregiver leaves, the child is minimally distressed. Upon re-union, the child again continues to ignore the caregiver. Attachment Theory Insecure/Ambivalent-Resistant The insecure resistant/ambivalent child is preoccupied with the caregiver when the caregiver is in the room; the child has great difficulty separating from the caregiver. These children have great difficulty leaving the caregiver to play or explore. Upon separation, ambivalently attached children tend to be extremely distressed. At reunion, they again become preoccupied with the caregiver and seek physical contact. Attachment Theory Insecure-Disorganized/Disoriented Children with insecure–disorganized/ disoriented attachment patterns utilize a disorganized coping strategy for dealing with separation from their primary caregiver. Children with disorganized/ disoriented attachments also have difficulty managing arousal patterns, and either fail to or seem confused about approaching the caregiver when distressed. Characteristics of this type of attachment pattern include odd behaviors in which the child appears confused or scared of the caregiver and her/his presence. These children are the most distressed upon separation from the caregiver.