Ultra Vires Doctrine in Constitutional Setting (PDF)

The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... For educational use only The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the central principle of administrative law Mark Elliott Journal Article Cambridge Law Journal C.L.J. 1999, 58(1), 129-1...

The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... For educational use only The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the central principle of administrative law Mark Elliott Journal Article Cambridge Law Journal C.L.J. 1999, 58(1), 129-158 Subject Administrative law Other related subjects Constitutional law Keywords Constitutional law; Judicial review; Rule of law; Ultra vires acts *C.L.J. 129 I. INTRODUCTION FEW branches of English law have grown so rapidly in scope and significance over recent decades as the law of judicial review. After the neglect of administrative law in the early part of the twentieth century, the judges have now rediscovered their constitutional duties. The supervisory jurisdiction has been reinvigorated and extended, so that by the early 1980s "the courts were waiting with refined instruments of torture for ministers and departments … who took their public law obligations cavalierly". 1 It is perhaps this expansion of judicial review at "breakneck speed" 2 which has led to so much uncertainty concerning its juridical basis. As Sir John Laws has remarked, "there may be a price to pay for so speedy a development; it carries the risk that principles are built on a foundation with too much sand and not enough rock". 3 Although the constitutional foundations of judicial review have, to some extent, been overlooked in the past, such criticism can no longer be sustained. This matter is now the subject of intense and often divisive debate amongst public lawyers, both academic and judicial. The protagonists can be broadly separated into two camps. In orthodox theory, the principles of good administration which the courts apply in order to secure fairness and rationality in public decision-making are said to amount to nothing more than judicial enforcement of legislative intention. For reasons which will be discussed in detail later, this theory holds that considerations of parliamentary sovereignty dictate that judicial review should lie on the sole ground that administrative action is ultra vires, or beyond *C.L.J. 130 the powers granted by Parliament. Thus the familiar obligations which are incumbent on the executive--to observe the rules of natural justice; to take all relevant (but no irrelevant) considerations into account; to make only reasonable decisions--are all said to spring from unwritten legislative intention. Sir William Wade has long been the leading proponent of this view. He has expressed it, with characteristic clarity, in the following terms: The simple proposition that a public authority may not act outside its powers (ultra vires) might fitly be called the central principle of administrative law.… Having no written constitution on which he can fall back, the judge must in every case be able to demonstrate that he is carrying out the will of Parliament as expressed in the statute conferring the power. He is on safe ground only where he can show that the offending act is outside the power. The only way in which he can do this, in the absence of an express provision, is by finding an implied term or condition in the Act, violation of which then entails the condemnation of ultra vires. 4 Opponents of this traditional approach argue, for reasons which will be addressed below, that the values which the courts vindicate through judicial review are not, and do not need to be, related to legislative intention. Rather, it is said, administrative law embodies a series of principles that are the fruit of judicial creativity and which are founded in the common law. These © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 1 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... ideas were expressed in an influential paper by Dawn Oliver in 1987 5 and have been articulated more recently by Sir John Laws who, through a series of lectures and articles, has become a leading exponent of this theory: [The principles of judicial review] are, categorically, judicial creations. They owe neither their existence nor their acceptance to the will of the legislature. They have nothing to do with the intention of Parliament, save as a fig leaf to cover their true origins. We do not need the fig leaf any more. 6 In 1996, Christopher Forsyth 7 published an important article on this subject, which has since prompted thoughtful responses from Professor Paul Craig 8 and Sir John Laws. 9 Although Forsyth has generally been interpreted as defending the traditional ultra vires doctrine, such a view is not wholly accurate. In fact, Forsyth seeks to lay the foundations of a new approach to the justification of judicial *C.L.J. 131 review which embraces the best features of the two contrasting models described above. It is the purpose of this paper to build on that approach by demonstrating that any attempt to choose between legislative intention and judicial endeavour as the real basis of the supervisory jurisdiction is ultimately futile. In reality, both the will of Parliament and the creativity of the judges have important roles to play. However, the true foundations of judicial review can be fully appreciated only when this branch of public law is located within its broader constitutional setting. II. THE IMPORTANCE OF JUSTIFYING JUDICIAL REVIEW In recent decades, the role of judicial review has steadily expanded. As the comparative lawyer Mauro Cappelletti observes, the rise of the administrative state has led to the courts in many jurisdictions "becoming themselves the "third giant' to control the mastodon legislator and the leviathan administrator". 10 The growth of judicial review of executive action in English law is certainly consistent with this trend. It is, perhaps, this increasing prominence of judicial review which has inspired commentators to search for constitutional foundations of the supervisory jurisdiction which have deeper roots than those which the ultra vires doctrine acknowledges. Whereas the methodology of ultra vires confines the judicial function to the implementation of Parliament's will, the more modern approach recognises the creative role which the judges undoubtedly play in the development of legal limits on public power. In this way, it has been possible to relate judicial review to broader constitutional principles such as the rule of law and the separation of powers which, many writers have cogently argued, furnish a more convincing--and more constitutionally satisfying--basis for judicial review. This question of how judicial review is to be justified must be returned to later. First, it is necessary to evaluate the premise on which that question is founded, by asking whether it is necessary to justify judicial review at all. That premise has been challenged by Sir John Laws. In an essay which was first published in 1991, he set out the following view of the constitutional position of the courts: [F]or every body other than the courts, legal power depends upon an imprimatur from an external source; but this is not true of the High Court and its appellate hierarchy. In point of theory, there exists no higher order of law for them. It follows that any *C.L.J. 132 analysis of their jurisdiction, if it is not to be confined to the simplest statement that the court reviews what it chooses to review, must consist in a description of the nature and extent of judicial review in practice…. [T]he ultimate freedom of movement which on my analysis the judges enjoy needs to be understood in order to appreciate that the court, if it decides in effect to push out the boundaries of judicial review in the particular case, is not guilty of any constitutional solecism. 11 Similarly, Laws has written that: "Jurisdiction", like "reasonableness", is a protean word. Its easiest application is the case where a body has express but limited powers conferred on it by another body: so if it acts outside those powers, it exceeds its jurisdiction. But the superior courts in England are not constituted on any such basis. They have, in the last analysis, the power they say they have. 12 The essence of this argument is that the constitution prescribes no limits to judicial power, and that the only true limits on the powers of the other branches of government are those which the courts choose to recognise. This is indeed a "trailer for a constitutional theory of judicial supremacism" 13 which demands the closest inspection. © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 2 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... Laws's approach is inconsistent with any legal duty of judicial fidelity to the legislative will of Parliament. Consequently it sweeps away the constitutional theory of sovereignty on which the ultra vires doctrine is based. However, Laws's thesis goes further still. His conceptualisation of judicial power would, if accepted, render otiose any attempt to justify judicial review. If the judges have "the power they say they have", 14 then Laws is correct to argue that any analysis of the courts' public law jurisdiction 15 must either "be confined to the simplest statement that the court reviews what it chooses to review" or "consist in a description of the nature and extent of judicial review in practice" 16 since, in the absence of fixed constitutional constraints on the courts, there exists no yardstick by which to assess the constitutional legitimacy of their jurisprudence. Thus Laws's thesis questions the relevance of both the orthodox justification for judicial review and the more modern theories, based on the rule of law and the separation of powers, which have been put forward. 17 *C.L.J. 133 However, this view of the British constitution must be challenged. Laws argues that the courts are in the unique and privileged position of possessing legally unlimited power. The basis of this proposition is unclear. Although it is true that, at root, all power is factual in nature, it must be recognised that developed societies employ power-allocation methodologies which are based in law and which regulate the distribution of power to the various branches of government. These processes can be observed most transparently in countries which have adopted written constitutions. For instance, the first three articles of the United States Constitution set out, in clear terms, the manner in which power is allotted to the three branches of government. The only alternative to such constitutional power-allocation is the approach which obtains in primitive and undemocratic societies, where governmental power is exercised by those who are best able to arrogate it to themselves. If Britain is not to be likened to such societies, then it must be recognised that it is the constitution--its unwritten character notwithstanding--which assigns and, where necessary, limits the powers of the different branches of government. This conclusion has important implications for the conception of the judicial function which Laws propounds. The power of the courts is not unlimited. They do not have "the power they say they have". In truth, the courts--like every other branch of government 18 --have the power which the constitutional order says they have. 19 The implications of this for the courts have been outlined by Lord Woolf, who remarked that, "Our parliamentary democracy is based on the rule of law…. [T]he courts derive their authority from the rule of law … and can not act in manner which involves its repudiation." 20 More specifically, this view has important consequences for judicial review. As Lord Scarman observed, "Judicial review is a great weapon in the hands of the judges: but the judges must observe the constitutional limits set by our parliamentary system upon their exercise of this beneficent power." 21 *C.L.J. 134 Thus, in approaching the power which the courts exercise over the executive by way of judicial review, it is crucial to be aware of the sensitive power-allocation issues which arise in this area. The judges must be alert to the importance of ensuring that they do not transgress the bounds of their allotted constitutional province, as the following dictum of Lord Mustill emphasises: As the judges constantly remark, it is not they who are appointed to administer the country. Absent a written constitution much sensitivity is required of the parliamentarian, administrator and judge if the delicate balance of the unwritten rules [of judicial review] evolved … in recent years is not to be disturbed, and all of the recent advances undone. … [T]he boundaries [between the proper functions of the different branches of government] remain; they are of crucial significance in our private and public lives; and the courts should I believe make sure that they are not overstepped. 22 It is, therefore, broadly accepted that any claim of judicial power must be scrutinised and evaluated against the delimitation of governmental functions prescribed by the constitutional order. Nowhere is this more important than in relation to judicial review since, in exercising their supervisory jurisdiction, the judges risk usurping both legislative functions (because it has traditionally been Parliament which promotes responsible government) and executive functions (since if review is too intensive, the courts, in substance, become the primary decision-makers). It should be emphasised that it is no part of the present argument that the courts have in fact transgressed the boundaries of their proper constitutional province. Rather, it is the existence of those boundaries, and the imperative of justifying judicial review by reference thereto, which is propounded. Having established the importance of justifying judicial review, it is necessary to consider how this may best be achieved. © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 3 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... III. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEGISLATIVE INTENTION AND JUDICIAL REVIEW The modern tendency within public law scholarship is to challenge the received wisdom that the grounds of judicial review are related to the intention of Parliament. 23 Recently, this argument has been *C.L.J. 135 articulated with particular force by Paul Craig, who contends that the principles of good administration which the courts enforce are simply part of the common law. 24 There are many attractions in such an approach. The implausibility of the direct connection between legislative intention (or, in reality, legislative silence) and the grounds of review, which the ultra vires doctrine postulates, is avoided. Moreover, the common law potentially provides a foundation for all types of judicial review, whether or not the source of the power scrutinised is statutory. However, Christopher Forsyth has argued that in spite of these attractions of a supervisory jurisdiction resting on common law foundations, constitutional logic dictates that judicial review of statutory power must ultimately be related to the sovereign will of Parliament. The following passage captures the essence of Forsyth's thesis: [W]hat an all-powerful Parliament does not prohibit, it must authorise either expressly or impliedly. Likewise if Parliament grants a power to a minister, that minister either acts within those powers or outside those powers. There is no grey area between authorisation and prohibition or between empowerment and the denial of power. Thus, if the making of … vague regulations is within the powers granted by a sovereign Parliament, on what basis may the courts challenge Parliament's will and hold that the regulations are invalid? If Parliament has authorised vague regulations, those regulations cannot be challenged without challenging Parliament's authority to authorise such regulations…. The upshot of this is that … to abandon ultra vires is to challenge the supremacy of Parliament. "Weak" critics [who purport to criticise only the ultra vires doctrine, and not the sovereignty of Parliament], whether they intend it or not, are transmuted into "strong" critics [who challenge parliamentary sovereignty]. 25 Thus, for Forsyth, when Parliament grants executive power, it is either a condition of that grant that the decision-maker must act fairly, reasonably and consistently with all the other requirements of good administration, or it is not. According to this view, logic dictates that any requirements of fairness and rationality which obtain must be internal to the grant itself. If Parliament chooses not to attach such a requirement to a grant of administrative power, such that, in effect, executive power is created free from any obligation to act fairly and rationally, it would be improper for a court to seek to impose such obligations, since to do so would be to set up the common law against the sovereign will of Parliament: the common *C.L.J. 136 law prohibition on unfair or unreasonable decisions would cut across the broader statutory power to make such decisions. 26 Both Laws 27 and Craig 28 disagree fundamentally with this reasoning. It is necessary to set out Laws's critique in some detail: I think … [Forsyth's] reasoning as to the "analytical consequences" of the abandonment of ultra vires is faulty. I do not accept that "what an all powerful Parliament does not prohibit, it must authorise either expressly or impliedly"…. The absence of a legislative prohibition does not entail the existence of a legislative permission … Forsyth's argument is vitiated by an implicit mistake: the mistake of assuming that because Parliament can authorise or prohibit anything, all authorities and prohibitions must come from Parliament. It is a non sequitur. It neglects what the logicians call the "undistributed middle"--an obscure, but useful, academic expression, meaning that although X and Y may be opposites, like praise and blame, they do not cover the whole field; there might be Z, which involves neither. Thus Forsyth mistakes the nature of legislative supremacy, which is trumps, not all four suits; specific, not wall-to-wall. How could it be otherwise? A legislature makes and unmakes laws when it thinks it needs to; the fact that in England the common law allows it to make or unmake any law it likes confers upon it no metaphysic of universality. 29 Laws's central argument is that the common law can constitute a satisfactory legal basis for the supervisory jurisdiction, and that there is no need to relate judicial review to the intention of Parliament. He arrives at this conclusion by holding that the analytical reasoning of Forsyth--which was summarised above, and which provides that judicial review must be related to parliamentary intention--is faulty. This disagreement lies at the very heart of the debate concerning the theoretical underpinnings of judicial review, and it is the issues which it raises that must now be addressed. *C.L.J. 137 A. The nature and consequences of legislative supremacy It has already been seen that, for Forsyth, the proposition that "what an all powerful Parliament does not prohibit, it must authorise either expressly or impliedly" dictates the logical necessity of relating judicial review to legislative intention. It is this © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 4 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... proposition which Laws seeks to challenge. He ascribes to Forsyth the view that "because Parliament can authorise or prohibit anything, all authorities and prohibitions must come from Parliament". 30 Thus, according to Laws, Forsyth presents a "wall- to-wall" view of parliamentary sovereignty. He concludes that Forsyth misunderstands the nature of legislative supremacy and that his argument is consequently undermined. The conception of sovereignty which Laws ascribes to Forsyth would, indeed, be open to serious doubt. For instance, if all prohibitions really had to come from Parliament, then it would not even be constitutionally possible for the courts to impose such classic common law requirements as the duty to take care to avoid harming one's neighbour. 31 Similarly, the development of the criminal law by the courts 32 would not be permissible. Such a view of sovereignty would clearly be inaccurate. However, in truth, the consequences of sovereignty which Forsyth identifies are much more modest. By stating that "what an all-powerful Parliament does not prohibit, it must authorise either expressly or impliedly", 33 Forsyth is simply asserting that once Parliament has created a power, the limits which the courts impose on that power must logically either coincide with or cut across the scope of the power which Parliament actually conferred. This is apparent from Forsyth's statement that "if Parliament grants a power to a minister, that minister either acts within those powers or outside those powers. There is no grey area between authorisation and prohibition or between empowerment and the denial of power." 34 An analogy may be drawn with the effect of European Union legislation on the competence of national legislatures. Once the *C.L.J. 138 Community institutions have adopted a regulation in relation to a particular matter, it is no longer open to member states to legislate on the same topic. The position has been expressed thus: "Under the "classic' preemption doctrine, once the Community legislates in a field, it occupies that field, thereby precluding Member State action. The Community has assumed exclusive competence in the field." 35 Consequently, the European Court of Justice has held that "there can be no question … that the States may … take measures the purpose of which is to amend [a regulation's] scope or to add to its provisions. In so far as the Member States have conferred on the Community legislative powers … they no longer have the power to issue independent provisions in [that] field." 36 Thus, once the Community has enacted legislation in the form of a regulation (which is, of course, a supreme form of law in all member states), it is not open to national legislatures to interfere in that field. No-one would suggest that this means that the Community legislature enjoys "wall-to-wall" competence in the sense that "all authorities and prohibitions" must come from that legislature. On the contrary, in the majority of cases it is open to member states to enact their own legislation until such time as the Community legislature "occupies the field". This is precisely the approach which Forsyth envisages as regards the sovereignty of the United Kingdom Parliament. Thus, in the absence of a statutory framework, it is for the courts--by imposing common law requirements of rationality and fairness--to regulate the use of de facto public power. It has been argued that the courts do this through their long-established jurisdiction to control monopoly power. 37 However, once de facto public power is replaced with statutory power, regulated by a statutory framework, any limits which the courts subsequently impose on the use of such power through the judicial review process must, in orthodox theory, relate to the scope of the power which Parliament granted. Once Parliament has "occupied the field", it is improper for the courts to use the common law (which is inferior to parliamentary law) to impose limits on the power concerned different from those limits which inhere in the grant of power itself--just as national legislatures are not permitted to invoke domestic law (which is inferior to Community law) to modify the scope of regulations adopted by the Community legislature. *C.L.J. 139 Neither of these propositions ascribes a "wall-to-wall" sovereignty to the legislature concerned, in the sense that "all authorities and prohibitions must come from" that legislature; in reality, the position is more subtle. Properly understood, Forsyth's approach to statutory discretionary power simply involves the notion that once Parliament has occupied the field by creating an administrative competence, no legitimate opportunity exists for the common law to determine the scope of that power since, logically, the scope of a power created by Parliament can only be determined by reference to the terms of the parliamentary grant itself. 38 B. The argument of logic As well as arguing that Forsyth's central point--that "what an all power Parliament does not prohibit, it must permit expressly or impliedly"--is based on a misconception of sovereignty, Laws contends, more broadly, that it is simply illogical. He submits that Forsyth's approach "neglects what the logicians call the "undistributed middle'--an obscure, but useful, academic expression, © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 5 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... meaning that although X and Y may be opposites, like praise and blame, they do not cover the whole field; there might be Z, which involves neither". 39 It is noteworthy that this argument is fundamentally inconsistent with some of Laws's earlier work. In a lecture delivered in 1994, he remarked that no government can "be neutral about free speech. If it is not to be denied, it must be permitted; there is no room for what the logicians would call an undistributed middle." 40 By way of illustration Laws cited the biblical passage, "He that is not with me is against me." 41 It is difficult to see how these comments can be reconciled with Laws's more recent attempt to undermine Forsyth's analysis, which is based on precisely the same logic as that which underpinned Laws's comments on free speech. In spite of this inconsistency, Laws's most recent argument is that there does exist an "undistributed middle". Thus he contends that, when Parliament grants discretionary power, the grant itself is not exhaustive of the conditions which apply to the exercise of the power. While some limits may be related to legislative intention (such as those appearing expressly in the enabling provision), as regards other *C.L.J. 140 limitations (for instance, the rules of natural justice) it is assumed that Parliament possesses no intention whatsoever. 42 It is, so the argument runs, this "undistributed middle" which creates the opportunity for the common law to intervene and supply the duty of fairness. This, it is said, occurs without any constitutional impropriety because the common law is not being set up against legislative intention; rather, it is filling a gap where no intention exists. Prima facie this is a persuasive argument against the intention-based model. It appears to clear the way for a common law approach which avoids the problems usually associated with the methodology of ultra vires. 43 Ultimately, however, the common law model does not withstand analysis, as the following discussion seeks to demonstrate. C. Alternative conceptions of the relevance of legislative intention to judicial review The disagreement between proponents of the intention-based and common law models stems from the question of what role, if any, should be ascribed to parliamentary intention vis-a-vis the grounds of judicial review. It is submitted that the entire range of possible views on this subject can be expressed in a series of five competing propositions. It will be argued that all but one of these propositions must be rejected. The first possibility is that, when Parliament confers discretionary power, it actually intends that there should be no implied limits on that power. On this approach, judicial enforcement of common law requirements of good administration would be constitutionally improper because it would infringe the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty. The only limits which could legitimately be enforced would be those mentioned explicitly in the enabling provision. Any additional common law limits would cut across the power which Parliament had intended should be fettered only by those limits set out in terms in the empowering provision. However, it could not reasonably be assumed, in the absence of express contrary enactment, that Parliament would wish to create administrative power free from any duties to exercise it fairly, rationally, in conformity with the purpose of the legislative scheme and according to the other general principles which usually limit *C.L.J. 141 executive discretion. For this reason, this first view of the role of legislative intention must be rejected because it involves attributing to Parliament an absurd intention. Secondly, it may be that, when Parliament creates discretionary power, it specifically intends every detail and nuance of the principles of good administration which the courts apply. According to this view there exists a direct relationship between legislative intention and the grounds of review. However, this approach is at least as absurd as the first. It is simply unrealistic to suggest that Parliament possesses specific intention as regards the detailed requirements of good administration, as critics of the ultra vires doctrine such as Craig point out: [T]he ultra vires doctrine … does not accord with reality … The orthodox approach has been to legitimate [the principles of good administration] by reference to Parliamentary intent … [However,] the legislation which is in issue in a particular case will often not provide any detailed guide to the courts as to the application of these controls on discretion … This is particularly so in relation to legislation which is framed in broad, open textured terms. The court will of necessity have to make its own considered judgment on such matters. 44 Indeed, even those, such as Forsyth, who argue in favour of some role for legislative intention reject the existence of any direct relationship between the grounds of review and the will of Parliament: © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 6 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... It cannot be plausibly asserted that the implied intent of the legislature provides any significant guidance to the reach of the rules of natural justice or the fine distinctions to be drawn between decisions that are unreasonable but not irrational and the like. 45 Thus this second view of the role of legislative intention must also be discarded. The third possibility is that Parliament may have no choice but to grant discretionary power subject to the condition that it must be exercised in accordance with the rules of good administration. On this view legislative intention would be beside the point. Equally there would be no need for common law principles of good administration. The grounds of review would derive straightforwardly from the limited nature of the grant of power which Parliament would be capable of making. This approach presupposes an attenuated conception of parliamentary sovereignty. It is traditionally held that Parliament can enact any *C.L.J. 142 legislation it chooses. Therefore, in orthodox theory, Parliament can always elect whether to grant discretionary power subject to or free from the obligation to abide by the principles of good administration. However, although this received view of the sovereignty of Parliament has been questioned, 46 I have argued elsewhere that the recognition of limits on parliamentary competence does not necessarily impact on the basis of judicial review. 47 This third approach could only operate if such significant inroads were made into legislative supremacy as to render Parliament incapable of modifying or, where appropriate, suspending the operation of the principles of good administration (presumably on the basis that the procedural rights of individuals are so important that they should be placed beyond the possibility of legislative interference). However, none of the leading commentators posits the erosion of parliamentary sovereignty on such a grand scale. Indeed, given that the substantive rights which will be protected under the Human Rights Act 1998 are not to be accorded this fundamental status, there is certainly no case for such treatment of the procedural values currently vindicated by judicial review. Thus, as Laws recognises, it is still the case that "Parliament may at any stage legislate so as to change, curtail, or qualify the … doctrines of rationality and the rest" which are enforced through judicial review. 48 So long as this position continues to subsist, it will not be possible to justify review by reference to the limits of Parliament's legislative capacity. Provided that Parliament retains the choice whether to create discretionary power subject to or free from the requirements of good administration, the role of legislative intention must be grappled with. The attempts of the first two propositions to deal with this complex issue have been rejected. It is now necessary to consider two further, and more subtle, approaches to this question. The fourth model holds that when Parliament confers power on an administrative agency, it must follow in logic that it either grants or withholds the authority to act unfairly and unreasonably. It is this principle which lies at the core of Forsyth's reasoning. However, it is, prima facie, difficult to appreciate the nature of the relationship between this legislative intention and the complex rules of good administration which the courts enforce. In order to resolve this difficulty, it is necessary to have recourse to the constitutional setting *C.L.J. 143 within which legislation is enacted by Parliament and interpreted by the courts. The rule of law, which is a fundamental of the British constitution, clearly favours the exercise of public power in a manner that is fair and rational. It is entirely reasonable to assume that, in the absence of clear contrary enactment, Parliament intends to legislate in conformity with the rule of law. As Lord Steyn remarked in a recent decision of the House of Lords, "Parliament does not legislate in a vacuum. Parliament legislates for a European liberal democracy founded on the principles and traditions of the common law. And the courts may approach legislation on this initial assumption". 49 Thus, Parliament, intending to legislate in conformity with the rule of law, is taken only to grant such administrative power as is consistent with the requirements of that constitutional principle. 50 It is therefore taken to withhold from decision-makers the power to act unfairly and unreasonably, while recognising that the detailed requirements of fairness and rationality can most appropriately be determined incrementally by the courts through the forensic process. Hence, Parliament grants to the judges a margin of freedom--or, as Forsyth puts it, an "imprimatur" 51 --to set the precise limits of administrative power. It is the simple--and wholly plausible-- assumption that Parliament intends to legislate consistently with the rule of law which bridges the apparent gulf between legislative silence and the developed body of administrative law which today regulates the use of executive discretion. Consequently there is a relationship between parliamentary intention and the grounds of review. However, whereas the traditional ultra vires doctrine conceptualises the relationship as direct in nature, the present approach maintains that the relationship exists in indirect form. While the details of the principles of review are not attributed to parliamentary intention, the © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 7 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... judicially-created rules of good administration should nevertheless be viewed as having been made pursuant to a constitutional warrant granted by Parliament. This proposition involves no conceptual novelty, since Parliament often delegates interpretive functions to the courts. Sometimes this *C.L.J. 144 occurs explicitly. For instance, the Occupiers' Liability Act 1957 requires an "occupier" of premises to take reasonable care for the safety of his visitors. 52 The sphere of operation of the legislation turns, inter alia, on the meaning of the term "occupier". The Act states that, for the purposes of the legislation, the term is to be accorded the same meaning as that which it bears at common law. 53 Thus, recognising that the notion of occupation is complex, Parliament has explicitly delegated to the courts the task of determining the precise meaning of the concept. It is more common for Parliament implicitly to assign this type of function to the judiciary. For example, a great deal of protective legislation extends only to individuals who are parties to a particular class of legal relationship. Hence tenants acquire many more statutory rights than mere licensees, 54 and employees benefit from a much more generous regime of employment protection than independent contractors. 55 Yet the protective legislation which confers such benefits on tenants and employees, while withholding them from licensees and independent contractors, does not define those types of relationship. As with "occupation", so with "tenancy" and "employment": Parliament, recognising the complexity of such concepts, realises that it is desirable to leave to the courts the task of determining their exact content. No-one would question the existence of a relationship between the intention of Parliament and the courts' jurisprudence on the meaning of terms such as "occupier", "tenant" and "employee". The courts are, quite clearly, determining the reach of the protective legislation pursuant to an explicit or implicit legislative warrant. There is no conceptual distinction between the courts' activities in these private law fields and their public law jurisprudence on the ambit of discretionary power created by Parliament. Since it is not reasonable to assume that Parliament intends to confer unlimited discretionary power, and impossible to maintain that legislative intention predetermines the exact limits on such power, the only reasonable assumption is that Parliament has delegated to the courts the task of determining the precise scope of executive discretion. The relationship between legislative intention and the grounds of review *C.L.J. 145 is directly analogous to the relationship between parliamentary intention and the meaning attributed to terms such as "employee". No-one would maintain that Parliament intends the nuances of the complex definition of that term which the courts have, in the best traditions of the common law, developed incrementally over many years; but nor would they deny the existence of a relationship between legislative intention and the courts' jurisprudence on the point. By the same token it cannot realistically be maintained that Parliament intends the precise details of the limits which the courts impose on discretionary power. However, as the private law analogies demonstrate, this does not mean that there exists no relationship between the legislature's intention and the courts' jurisprudence. In each case the relationship exists, but in an indirect form. Hence, the ultra vires doctrine, once placed in its proper constitutional setting by acknowledging the important contribution of judicial creativity within an interpretive framework based on the rule of law, provides a convincing account of the theoretical basis of the supervisory jurisdiction. It reconciles judicial review with the doctrine of legislative supremacy, while eschewing the implausible, direct relationship between parliamentary intention and the grounds of review which the traditional approach posits. The fifth, and final, conceptualisation of the relevance of legislative intention to judicial review is articulated by Sir John Laws. 56 He argues that there is actually no relationship at all between parliamentary intention and the grounds of review. Rather, it is for the common law to supply the principles of good administration, Parliament having desisted from occupying the logician's "undistributed middle". The logical basis of this model--which directly challenges the approach favoured by Forsyth-- has already been questioned. However, Laws's methodology must also be doubted on another ground. It is necessarily implicit in this fifth model that Parliament is wholly neutral about the extent of the administrative power which it grants and the manner in which such power is exercised: Parliament is to be taken to have no opinion on the matter, neither prescribing nor proscribing limits to the executive power which it creates. For this reason, it is said, the common law can, and does, supply this legislative omission without constitutional impropriety: there is no risk of the common law being set up against legislative intention, because there exists no intention capable of contradiction. The choice between the fourth and fifth models is therefore stark. The former attributes to Parliament a reasonable, plausible *C.L.J. 146 and straightforward intention--that the rule of law should be upheld--while leaving it to the good sense and experience of the courts to determine precisely how this outcome can best be secured. In sharp contrast, the fifth model © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 8 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... necessarily imputes to Parliament an intention which is both absurd and implausible, requiring the assumption to be made that Parliament is entirely unconcerned about the use and misuse of the governmental power which it creates. For this reason-- together with the failure of common law theorists to rebut the argument that the limits of statutory power must, logically, be determined by reference to the extent of the parliamentary grant--the fifth approach must be rejected. The fourth model stands alone in accommodating the theory of legislative supremacy and the practice of judicial review in a manner which is both logical and plausible. Indeed, the modest role for legislative intention which is being argued for is, in some respects, supported by opinions which Sir John Laws has himself expressed, both judicially and extra-curially. In the Witham decision, the Divisional Court struck down regulations made by the Lord Chancellor in order to raise court fees and to remove the exemption which persons receiving income support had previously enjoyed. 57 The reasoning of Laws J., with which Rose L.J. concurred, is clearly consistent with the present argument which holds that a relationship exists between the standards of legality applied by the courts on review, and the legislative intention of Parliament: [T]he primary submission is that there exist implied limitations upon the Lord Chancellor's power to prescribe the fees to be taken in the Supreme Court. Section 130 [of the Supreme Court Act 1981, which was the putative legal basis on which the Lord Chancellor relied] does not permit him to exercise the power in such a way as to deprive the citizen of what has been called his constitutional right of access to the courts. 58 Moreover, in his conclusion, Laws J. rejected counsel's submission "that there is no vires argument here". 59 Such references to "implied limitations" and "vires" appear to acknowledge some form of relationship between legislative intention and the grounds of review. Indeed, this is entirely consistent with a number of House of Lords *C.L.J. 147 decisions, such as Page 60 and Pierson, 61 which have affirmed the importance of the ultra vires doctrine. Most recently, the centrality-- and practical consequences--of the ultra vires principle have been underscored by the House of Lords in Boddington v. British Transport Police. 62 Lord Steyn could see "no reason to depart from the orthodox view that ultra vires is the "central principle of administrative law' 63 …. This is the essential constitutional underpinning of the statute based part of our administrative law." 64 Lord Irvine L.C. 65 and Lord Browne-Wilkinson 66 were equally supportive of the ultra vires doctrine. 67 It is also instructive to refer to the following passage from Laws's contribution to the recently-published Festchrift in honour of Sir William Wade: In an age when respect for human rights has received the imprimatur of civilised society, which regards it not as a political option but as a moral necessity, the reasonable public decision-maker is bound to entertain a bias against any infraction of such rights…. A public authority cannot be neutral about the demands of individual freedom without building a wall between itself and current public morality. So, in the name of reasonableness, the law insists that the decision-maker is not neutral. 68 *C.L.J. 148 The essence of this argument is that it is unreasonable to be neutral about individual freedoms. If it is unreasonable to be neutral about the substantive freedoms with which the excerpt is concerned, then this must be equally true of the procedural rights which are presently vindicated by way of judicial review. Furthermore, if--as Laws contends--neutrality on this matter is unreasonable on the part of administrative authorities, then it is equally (or perhaps even more) unreasonable on the part of the legislature. Laws argues that "in the name of reasonableness", the law (by which he means the judiciary) precludes such neutrality. However, it is submitted that in relation to the scope of discretionary power created by Parliament, the courts do not need to insist that the limits of such power are biased in favour of, rather than neutral about, the protection of individuals' procedural rights. If Parliament is not to be taken as neutral--and, therefore, on Laws's own argument, unreasonable--then it must be assumed that Parliament itself is biased in favour of the limitation of public power in accordance with the precepts of the rule of law, while leaving it to the courts to determine the detailed requirements necessary to give effect to this bias. The courts do not possess a monopoly on reasonableness. Parliament can be reasonable too, and should be taken to be so--by presuming an intention to legislate in conformity with the rule of law--unless strong evidence exists to the contrary. It is this straightforward proposition which lies at the heart of the ultra vires principle within its proper constitutional setting. © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 9 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... IV. A CONSTITUTIONAL SETTING FOR THE ULTRA VIRES DOCTRINE: OVERCOMING THE SHORTCOMINGS OF THE TRADITIONAL MODEL The charge most frequently levelled against the ultra vires doctrine is its inability to explain the connection between legislative intention and the rules of good administration which the courts enforce through judicial review. It has already been argued that, once the ultra vires principle is located within its proper constitutional setting, this criticism can no longer be sustained. However, this is certainly not the only criticism which has been made of the traditional model. It is the purpose of the remainder of this paper to address the other principal shortcomings of the orthodox ultra vires doctrine--helpfully set out by Craig in his recent article on the subject 69 --and to demonstrate that those problems do not beset the ultra vires principle once it is understood within its constitutional setting. *C.L.J. 149 A. The development of administrative law across time The direct connection between legislative intention and the grounds of review which the traditional ultra vires doctrine seeks to establish is placed under particular strain when the development of administrative law across time is considered, as Craig observes: The constraints which exist on the exercise of discretionary power are not static. Existing constraints evolve and new types of control are added to the judicial armoury. Changes in judicial attitudes towards fundamental rights, the acceptance of legitimate expectations, and the possible inclusion of proportionality as a head of review in its own right are but three examples of this process. These developments cannot plausibly be explained by reference to legislative intent. 70 This is a strong criticism of the orthodox view of ultra vires. However, once the ultra vires doctrine is properly understood, the development of administrative law over time is readily comprehensible. Within the modified ultra vires model which has been set out, the task of the courts is not to ascertain and effectuate a crystallised legislative intention regarding the limitation of discretionary power. Rather, the creativity of the judicial function can be openly acknowledged. It is for the courts to decide how discretionary power should be limited in order to ensure that its exercise complies with the requirements of the rule of law. Consequently, instead of relating the development of administrative law to putative changes in legislative intention, the modified ultra vires model holds that such developments relate to the evolution, across time, of the content of the constitutional principle of the rule of law. As the fluid and dynamic British constitution develops, so the courts rightly draw on changing constitutional norms in order to fashion new principles of judicial review and reformulate old ones. This approach to statutory interpretation, according to which legislative provisions are construed in light of prevailing conditions, is widely accepted, as Professor Jack Beatson explained in a lecture dealing with the modern role of the common law within a legal system which is increasingly dominated by legislation: The vitality of the common law is preserved by the presumption that Parliament intends the court to apply to an ongoing statute … a construction that continually updates its meaning to allow for changes since it was initially framed. This means that in its application on any date the language of the Act, though necessarily embedded in its own time, is nevertheless to be construed in accordance with the need to treat it as current law *C.L.J. 150 … [For example,] at the time the Land Registration Act 1925 was passed giving a person "in actual occupation" of property an overriding interest, the balance of authority suggested that a wife residing with her husband where the husband alone was the legal owner of the property was not "in actual occupation". But by the beginning of the 1980s the social and legal status of husband and wife had changed and it was held that the wife was "in actual occupation" and entitled to the statutory protection. The solution was derived from a consideration of the statute in the light of current social conditions. 71 Just as the courts' interpretation of legislation changes according to social conditions, so their view of what limits on discretionary power are required by the rule of law alters as the constitution develops over time. 72 The evolution of judicial review to date can be related to the constitutional changes which have been prompted by the massive expansion of the administrative state, necessitating the development of safeguards for individuals as they interact with government in order to ensure that citizens are treated in accordance with rule of law. In this manner, it is possible to understand the development of administrative law within an analytical model which ascribes a relevance to legislative intention, but without resorting to the strained proposition that changes in judicial control correspond directly to the will of Parliament. © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 10 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... B. Preclusive clauses The traditional methodology of ultra vires also encounters problems in relation to the courts' treatment of legislative provisions which--at least on their face--seek to curtail or exclude judicial review of a particular decision-making process. As Craig points out, "If the rationale for judicial review is that the courts are thereby implementing legislative intent this leads to difficulty where the legislature has stated in clear terms that it does not wish the courts to intervene with the decisions made by the agency." 73 These difficulties can be observed in their most acute form in the celebrated decision of the House of Lords in Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission. 74 In spite of a legislative enjoinder that determinations of the administrative agency in question could "not be called in question in any court of law", 75 the court nevertheless *C.L.J. 151 intervened, holding that Parliament could not have intended to insulate unlawful decisions from judicial review. 76 As Craig points out, if judicial review is about nothing more than ascertaining and enforcing the literal meaning of the words which Parliament uses, then cases like Anisminic cannot be accommodated within such a model. However, it has been argued that the exercise of the judicial review jurisdiction occurs within a constitutional setting that leads the courts to impute to Parliament an intention to legislate consistently with the rule of law. As a long line of authorities attests, the rule of law strongly favours citizens' access to the courts. 77 Consequently, ouster provisions present the courts with a tension which must be resolved, since the literal meaning of the provision appears to be inconsistent with the deeply embedded canon of construction that Parliament intends to legislate in conformity with the rule of law. Two countervailing forces are therefore at work. The court must attempt to find the right constitutional balance between the prima facie meaning of the provision and the strong preference for access to justice which the rule of law embodies. This interpretive methodology is certainly not peculiar to the construction of ouster provisions. British courts have long been required to look beyond the plain meaning of national legislation in order to construe it compatibly with European Community law, whenever possible. 78 A comparable interpretive obligation will be imposed on the judiciary by the Human Rights Act 1998, which will enjoin the courts to read and give effect to primary and secondary legislation in a way which is compatible with fundamental rights, so far as it is possible to do so. 79 In each instance, the interpretive function of the judiciary transcends the mechanical implementation of the words which Parliament employs. The doctrine of indirect effect and the Human Rights Act contribute to the rich tapestry which forms the backdrop against which British courts discharge *C.L.J. 152 their interpretive duties. The rule of law also constitutes a fundamental part of that backdrop. 80 To the extent that the traditional ultra vires doctrine denies to the courts any interpretive role beyond effectuating the literal meaning of enactments, it is indeed incapable of accommodating the creative approach which has been adopted in such cases as Anisminic. This has led some writers to argue that, in their decisions concerning preclusive clauses, the courts must be enforcing some deeper constitutional logic which is prior even to the sovereignty of Parliament. 81 However, such attempts to rationalise the courts' jurisprudence on ouster provisions is fundamentally inconsistent with the British constitutional framework. In contrast, by placing the ultra vires doctrine within its proper constitutional setting, it is possible to articulate an explanation of the courts' approach to ouster clauses which accommodates both the theory of parliamentary sovereignty and the constitutional duty of the judges to uphold the rule of law. Such an approach will not always make it possible for the courts to construe ouster provisions so as to preserve some role for judicial review. For example, the courts give effect to the literal meaning of clauses which preclude review only after a certain period of time has expired: in this area, there is less tension between the plain meaning of the provision and the dictates of the rule of law, because judicial review is not precluded altogether by the clause. 82 The field of collateral challenge also illustrates judicial acceptance that Parliament can reduce the scope for vindication of public law values in the courts. Thus, in R. v. Wicks, 83 the House of Lords recognised that, although the rule of law generally requires defendants in criminal proceedings to be able to raise as a defence the invalidity of the secondary legislation under which they are charged, such collateral challenge will not be permitted when this would be inconsistent with the statutory scheme which Parliament has established. As Lord Nicholls observed, "the general principles [which favour the availability of collateral challenge] … must always take *C.L.J. 153 effect subject to any contrary indication in the relevant legislation". 84 However, the court is more likely to conclude that Parliament truly intended to prevent collateral challenge when the defendant © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 11 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... had sufficient opportunity to question the validity of the delegated legislation by administrative means since, in this situation, the threat to the rule of law is not so serious. 85 Nevertheless, in our constitutional system, any irreconcilable conflict between the intention of Parliament and the rule of law must ultimately be resolved in favour of the former, 86 and judicial decisions which fail to respect this axiom must be rejected as lacking constitutional legitimacy. Some ouster provisions enacted since the Anisminic decision seek to circumvent the reasoning employed in that case by, for example, providing that even "purported determinations" 87 or decisions "as to jurisdiction" 88 are not reviewable. It may well be that such clauses would, if put to the test, be held to evince a legislative intention which is sufficiently clear to preclude judicial review. It would then be the duty of the courts to enforce those provisions. However, it is the function of the judiciary to ensure that, so far as possible, legislation is interpreted in a manner which is consistent with the rule of law. The values which underlie our constitution dictate that Parliament cannot be assumed--in the absence of very clear countervailing evidence--to intend anything else. Understood thus, the judicial attitude to ouster clauses and the view of the ultra vires doctrine which is propounded are of a piece with one another: in each case, the courts' jurisprudence springs from the interpretation of legislation within a framework based firmly on the rule of law. 89 *C.L.J. 154 C. Judicial review of non-statutory power It is often said that a further shortcoming of the traditional ultra vires principle is its inability to justify the entirety of judicial review. 90 The courts now confidently supervise not only the use of statutory power, but also the exercise of prerogative and de facto power. 91 This raises important problems for proponents of the traditional ultra vires doctrine. As Paul Craig clearly explains, judicial review of non-statutory power "cannot be rationalised through the idea [embodied in the traditional ultra vires principle] that the courts are delineating the boundaries of Parliament's intent". 92 Thus, Sir William Wade has remarked--in response to the review of non-statutory power in the Gillick case 93 --that, "The dynamisn of judicial review is such that it has burst through its logical boundaries". 94 If the boundaries of judicial review are taken to be wholly delimited by the ultra vires rule, then review of prerogative and other non-statutory power is indeed unjustifiable. However, our constitution would be highly defective if it were incapable of legitimising judicial review of non-statutory forms of governmental power. Indeed, in light of its capacity to adapt to changing circumstances--which derives from its unwritten and flexible character--the British constitution should be well-placed to rise to new challenges such as the need to regulate the exercise of different forms of public power. Consequently, proponents of the traditional ultra vires doctrine may argue that while the orthodox view of ultra vires explains judicial review of statutory power, a different justification must be articulated in relation to review of other types of power. Unfortunately, this view is also problematic, since it raises a difficult paradox. It means that the justifications for judicial review of statutory and non-statutory power are entirely distinct, the former being found in judicial vindication of legislative intention, with the latter--of logical necessity--resting on wholly separate foundations. However, it must be recalled that--considerations of justiciability aside--the courts apply very similar grounds of review to all forms *C.L.J. 155 of governmental power which have been held amenable to judicial supervision. 95 If it is maintained that wholly distinct constitutional foundations underpin the review of statutory and non-statutory power, it is difficult to explain why the two regimes are nevertheless, in substance, the same as one another. 96 These shortcomings do not beset the modified ultra vires principle. This model does not seek to justify judicial review of statutory power purely in terms of legislative delegation, and nor does it require the justifications for judicial review of different types of power to be separated into watertight compartments. It recognises that the whole of judicial review rests on one foundation, viz. the rule of law. In relation to review of statutory power, the operation of the sovereignty principle raises special considerations which require the rule of law to be vindicated presumptively in order to ensure that judicial review can be reconciled with constitutional principle. Outside the realm of statutory power, the rule of law can be effectuated directly, since the constraints which the sovereignty principle imposes on review of statutory power do not operate in relation to non-statutory power. Consequently, the ultra vires doctrine, within its proper constitutional setting, is consistent with a judicial review regime which transcends the supervision of statutory power and which applies identical principles of good administration, based on the rule of law, to all types of governmental power. The fact that the interpretive methodology of ultra vires is applicable only to the review of statutory power should not be perceived as a criticism of the modified ultra vires model but, rather, as an important © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 12 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... strength. It is this feature of the model which allows requirements of legality to be applied to powers created by Parliament in a way which is compatible with the doctrine of legislative supremacy, yet within a *C.L.J. 156 coherent framework which embraces judicial review of all forms of governmental power. V. CONCLUSION The uncertainties surrounding the juridical basis of administrative law become increasingly conspicuous and unsatisfactory as the importance of judicial review grows. The need to address this question is made more urgent by the impending changes which will occur within administrative law when the Human Rights Act 1998 is brought into force. The courts' public law jurisdiction will assume an even higher profile once the judiciary is charged with the important task of protecting not only individuals' procedural rights, but also their substantive rights. Some--although by no means all--commentators who have, thus far, participated in the stimulating debate concerning the constitutional basis of judicial review have tended to polarise the potential solutions to this difficult problem, by presenting the traditional justification based on parliamentary intention and the theory which credits the judges with developing a common law of judicial review as two stark alternatives which must be chosen between. It is submitted that such an approach is ultimately misguided. It is important to recognise that, for the reasons discussed above, the vast majority of judicial review--viz. that which regulates the use of statutory power--must be reconciled with parliamentary intention. Only in this manner is it possible to avoid the heterodoxy of challenging legislative supremacy, which would inhere in any attempt to divorce judicial review from the will of Parliament. The impetus which underlies the desire of many critics to articulate an autonomous justification for judicial review, based on independent principles of the common law, is complex. Undoubtedly, however, it stems in a substantial part from a wish to abandon the fictitious direct relationship between legislative intention and judicial review which forms the focus of the orthodox ultra vires doctrine, and to acknowledge and give credit to the fundamental role which the judiciary has played in fashioning the important safeguards which citizens now enjoy as they interact with governmental agencies. These ideas have been expressed with particular clarity by Sir John Laws: The judges' duty is to uphold constitutional rights: to secure order, certainly, but to temper the rule of the state by freedom and justice. In our unwritten legal system the substance of such rights is to be found in the public law principles which the courts have developed, and continue to develop. Parliament may (in the present stage of our constitutional evolution) override *C.L.J. 157 them, but can only do so by express, focussed provision. Since ultra vires consigns everything to the intention of the legislature, it may obscure and undermine the judges' duty…. More deeply, ultra vires must logically reduce the constitutional norms of public law to the same condition of moral neutrality as in principle applies to legislation, because by virtue of it the decisions of the courts are only a function of Parliament's absolute power. It means that the goodness of the common law is as short or as long as the legislature's wisdom. But the common law does not lie on any such Procrustean bed. 97 It is the contention of this paper that it is possible to deal with these issues without taking the constitutionally unacceptable step of challenging the sovereignty of Parliament by denying any role to legislative intention in explaining the basis of judicial review. The manner in which the courts have developed the law of judicial review to date, and the further development which will no doubt take place in the future, 98 undeniably amounts to the articulation of a substantive body of public law which has its basis in judicial creativity. Located within its constitutional setting, the ultra vires doctrine does not consign this judicial achievement to the intention of the legislature; nor does it reduce the emerging and developing norms of public law to a position of moral neutrality. In truth, the courts' public law jurisprudence is based on the vindication of the rule of law, which forms part of the bedrock of the British constitution. Neither constitutional propriety nor the ultra vires doctrine, properly understood, requires the courts to conceal the true nature of their enterprise in this regard. Nevertheless, so long as the common law accords a legislative supremacy to Parliament, it must be possible to reconcile the courts' public law jurisprudence with this constitutional principle. It is the interpretive methodology of ultra vires--and only this methodology-- which is capable of securing this reconciliation. It does so not through any sleight of hand or trick of logic, but simply by recognising the good sense in the dual propositions that Parliament ought to be taken to intend that the rule of law should be upheld, and that the limitation of discretionary power which is consequently required is a task most appropriately left to the judgment of the courts. Understood thus, the achievement of the ultra vires principle is the provision of a conceptual basis for judicial review which truly comes to terms with the existing constitutional order, in contradistinction to competing © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 13 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... explanations of review which must ultimately founder because they are not firmly anchored to *C.L.J. 158 the realities of-- and the limitations imposed by--the prevailing constitutional framework. It has been written that "the [British] constitution possesses its own harmony, in which the protection of individual liberties can coexist with recognition of the ultimate supremacy of the democratic will of Parliament". 99 Indeed, this is so, and can be appreciated nowhere more clearly than in the operation of the ultra vires doctrine within its proper constitutional setting. Queens' College, Cambridge. I am grateful to Dr. Christopher Forsyth for his valuable comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Footnotes 1 Sir Stephen Sedley, "The Sound of Silence: Constitutional Law Without a Constitution" (1994) 110 L.Q.R. 270, 283. 2 P. Cane, An Introduction to Administrative Law (Oxford 1996), 3rd ed., describes the growth of judicial review in such terms at p. v. 3 "The Ghost in the Machine: Principle in Public Law" P.L. 27. 4 H.W.R. Wade and C.F. Forsyth, Administrative Law (Oxford 1994), 7th ed., pp. 41 and 44. 5 "Is the Ultra Vires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review?" P.L. 543. 6 Sir John Laws, "Law and Democracy" P.L. 72, 79. 7 "Of Fig Leaves and Fairy Tales: The Ultra Vires Doctrine, the Sovereignty of Parliament and Judicial Review" C.L.J. 122. 8 "Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial Review" C.L.J. 63. 9 "Illegality: The Problem of Jurisdiction" in M. Supperstone and J. Goudie (eds.), Judicial Review (London 1997), 2nd ed. 10 M. Cappelletti, The Judicial Process in Comparative Perspective (Oxford 1989), p. 19. 11 "Illegality: The Problem of Jurisdiction" in M. Supperstone and J. Goudie (eds.), Judicial Review (London 1991), 1st ed., at pp. 69-70. 12 Op. cit. n. 9, at p. 4.1 and op. cit. n. 11, at p. 51. 13 Sir Stephen Sedley P.L. 543, 544. 14 Laws, op. cit. n. 9, at p. 4.1. 15 And, for that matter, any other jurisdiction. 16 Laws, op. cit. n. 11, at p. 69. 17 Within the framework which Laws sets out, constitutional principles such as the rule of law and the separation of powers could still be used to guide the courts in their control of public power: see Laws's treatment of the rule of law, op. cit. n. 9, at pp. 4.30-4.35. Crucially, however, such concepts would be fulfilling an explanatory rather than a justificatory function, since justification would be unnecessary according to Laws's constitutional model. 18 This argument is not inconsistent with the doctrine of legislative supremacy. There is no reason why the constitution should not embody a consensus which ascribes to Parliament legislative competence over all matters. 19 In the words of H.R. Hahlo and E. Kahn, The South African Legal System and its Background (Cape Town 1968), p. 39, "The law should be [the judges'] only master." This comment formed part of an argument that judges should be independent and fearless in the face of government; however, it is also relevant to the present contention that the courts must recognise legal and, in particular, constitutional constraints. The constitution imposes on the judges imperatives of both activism and self-restraint. 20 "Droit Public--English Style" P.L. 57, 68. 21 Nottinghamshire County Council v. Secretary of State for the Environment A.C. 240, 250-251. 22 R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p. Fire Brigades Union 2 A.C. 513, 567-568. As the Lord Chancellor, Lord Irvine of Lairg, pointed out in a lecture given to the Historical Society of the United States Supreme Court (May 1998, Washington D.C.), it is an awareness of these sensitive power-allocation © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 14 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... issues which has deterred the British courts from establishing a substantive, rights-based review jurisdiction. The Human Rights Act will provide the courts with the constitutional warrant which is necessary to confer democratic legitimacy on such a development. 23 See, for example, Oliver, op. cit. n. 5, especially pp. 543-545. 24 Op. cit. n. 8. See also Woolf, op. cit. n. 20 and Laws, op. cit. nn. 6, 9 and 11. 25 Forsyth, op. cit. n. 7, at pp. 133-134. 26 I have argued elsewhere that this analysis holds true even if the traditional conception of full parliamentary supremacy is rejected. See M.C. Elliott, "The Demise of Parliamentary Sovereignty? The Implications for Justifying Judicial Review" (1999) 115 L.Q.R. 119 and below, for a summary of this argument. 27 Op. cit. n. 9, at pp. 4.13-4.19. 28 Op. cit. n. 8, at pp. 73-75. However, notwithstanding his expressed dissatisfaction with Forsyth's approach, Craig--somewhat paradoxically--appears to embrace the logic of Forsyth's point. Craig argues that if the common law is adopted as the legal basis of review, "there would be a common law presumption that the common law proscription against the making of vague or unreasonable regulations could be operative, and hence such regulations would be prohibited, unless there was some very clear indication from Parliament to the contrary". The difference between this approach and that of Forsyth is semantic only. The effect of Craig's common law presumption that Parliament does not prohibit common law rules of good administration acknowledges that legislative intention is relevant: Craig must be understood as conceding that, ultimately, judicial review is constitutionally justified only to the extent that Parliament so permits. Thus, it is difficult to see how Craig's "common law presumption" differs in substance from Forsyth's notion of the "imprimatur" which, he argues, Parliament grants to the courts to allow them to develop the law of judicial review (on which see Forsyth, op. cit. n. 7, at pp. 134-136). 29 Op. cit. n. 9, at pp. 4.17-4.18. 30 Ibid. 31 This pre-eminent common law duty was first articulated in its general form (as distinct from the earlier context- specific duties in negligence) by Lord Atkin in Donoghue v. Stevenson A.C. 562. His Lordship did not, of course, seek to justify this general private law prohibition on careless conduct by reference to legislative intention, and it would be unthinkable for anyone to question the legitimacy of the modern law of negligence on this ground. Naturally, if Parliament enacted legislation dealing with the general duty of care owed to one's neighbours, it would necessarily follow that, as regards the common law rule on this subject, Parliament would either have repealed it (expressly or impliedly) or ordained (expressly or impliedly) that the common law rule should continue. In the absence of such legislation, however, the courts are clearly free to develop the law in this area in accordance with traditional common law method. 32 For a notable example, see R. v. R. (Rape: Marital Exemption) 1 A.C. 599. 33 Forsyth, op. cit. n. 7, at p. 133. 34 Ibid. 35 S. Weatherill, "Beyond Preemption? Shared Competence and Constitutional Change in the European Community" in D. O'Keefe and P.M. Twomey (eds.), Legal Issues of the Maastricht Treaty (Chichester 1994), p. 16. 36 Case 74/69, Hauptzollamt Bremen v. Krohn E.C.R. 451, 459. See also Case 40/69, Hauptzollamt Hamburg-Oberelbe v. Firma Paul G. Bollman E.C.R. 69, 79. 37 There is broad agreement on this point. See Forsyth, op. cit. n. 7, at pp. 124-127; Craig, Administrative Law (London 1994), 3rd ed., pp. 222-225; Laws, "Public Law and Employment Law: Abuse of Power" P.L. 455. 38 Of course, background common law values are relevant to the interpretation of legislation and, therefore, to the identification of any limits which apply to statutory power. However, for the reasons discussed, the common law cannot independently delimit the scope of statutory power. The nature of the interpretive process and the relevance of the common law in this regard are discussed further below. 39 Op. cit. n. 9, at p. 4.18. 40 Op. cit. n. 6, at p. 84 (original emphasis). 41 St. Matthew's Gospel, Ch. 12, v. 30, quoted by Laws, ibid., at n. 32. 42 This attempt to divide the grounds of review into two categories--one based on legislative intention, the other resting on different foundations--is reminiscent of the analytical approach adopted by the South African Appellate Division in Staatspresident v. United Democratic Front 1988 (4) S.A. 830. See E. Mureinik Annual Survey of South African Law 34, 63-64 for criticism. © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 15 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... 43 These problems, some of which have been mentioned already, are considered in greater detail in section IV below, where it is argued that the shortcomings of the traditional ultra vires doctrine are overcome once it is placed in its proper constitutional setting. 44 Op. cit. n. 8, at p. 67. 45 Op. cit. n. 7, at p. 134. 46 See, inter alios, Sir Robin Cook, "Fundamentals" N.Z.L.R. 158; Woolf, op. cit. n. 20; Laws, op. cit. nn. 6, 9 and 11; Sir Stephen Sedley, "Human Rights: A Twenty-First Century Agenda" P.L. 386; T.R.S. Allan, "The Limits of Parliamentary Sovereignty" P.L. 614 and "Parliamentary Sovereignty: Law, Politics, and Revolution" (1997) 113 L.Q.R. 443. 47 See Elliott, op. cit. n. 26. 48 Op. cit. n. 9, at p. 4.18. 49 R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p. Pierson A.C. 539, 587. Similarly, at pp. 573-574, Lord Browne-Wilkinson observed that, "Parliament does not legislate in a vacuum: statutes are drafted on the basis that the ordinary rules and principles of the common law will apply to the express statutory provisions…. Where wide powers of decision-making are conferred by statute, it is presumed that Parliament implicitly requires the decision to be made in accordance with the rules of natural justice." See also Lord Steyn, "Incorporation and Devolution--A Few Reflections on the Changing Scene" European Human Rights Law Review 153, 154-155. 50 See R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Doody 1 A.C. 531, 560, per Lord Mustill: "where an Act of Parliament confers an administrative power there is a presumption that it will be exercised in a manner which is fair in all the circumstances". 51 Op. cit. n. 7, at p. 135. 52 See s. 2(1). 53 See s. 1(2). Similarly, "visitor" is defined as a composite term embracing the common law notions of "invitee" and "licensee". The same approach is adopted by the Occupiers' Liability Act 1984, which regulates the liability of the occupier to persons other than his visitors. 54 For example, tenants (but not licensees) enjoy protection under the Rent Act 1977 and benefit from the statutory schemes regulating assured tenancies (under the Housing Act 1988) and business tenancies (under the Landlord and Tenant Act 1954). 55 Thus, under the Employment Rights Act 1996, only employees are capable of qualifying for such benefits as the rights not to be unfairly dismissed, to receive a redundancy payment and to be permitted to return to work after taking maternity leave. 56 Craig makes a similar argument. 57 R. v. Lord Chancellor, ex p. Witham Q.B. 575. 58 Ibid., at pp. 579-580, per Laws J. (emphasis added). 59 Ibid., at p. 586. 60 R. v. Lord President of the Privy Counil, ex parte Page A.C. 682. See Lord Browne-Wilkinson at pp. 701-702: "[Judicial review] is based on the proposition that [administrative] powers have been conferred on the decision-maker on the underlying assumption that the powers are to be exercised only within the jurisdiction conferred, in accordance with fair procedures and, in a Wednesbury sense, reasonably … [Therefore,] the constitutional basis of the courts' power to quash [administrative decisions] is that the decision of the inferior tribunal is unlawful on the grounds that it is ultra vires." 61 R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Pierson A.C. 539. The speech of Lord Steyn provides a particularly striking illustration of the methodology of ultra vires operating in precisely the manner contended for in the present article. The question whether it was within the Home Secretary's powers under the Criminal Justice Act 1991, s. 35(2), to increase the tariff of a prisoner serving a mandatory life sentence had to be resolved by construing the enabling provision within the context of the rule of law: "Unless there is the clearest provision to the contrary, Parliament must be presumed not to legislate contrary to the rule of law. And the rule of law enforces minimum standards of fairness, both substantive and procedural" (see p. 591). The rule of law required that a tariff period, once set and communicated to the prisoner, should not be increased, and nothing in the Act displaced this presumption. Lord Browne-Wilkinson's reasoning is also consistent with the thesis of this paper, although in his dissenting speech he concluded that the decision was not unlawful (because his Lordship took a different view of precisely what the rule of law required of the Home Secretary). 62 2 W.L.R. 639. For comment on this decision, see M.C. Elliott, "Boddington: Rediscovering the Constitutional Logic of Administrative Law" Judicial Review 144. 63 This term is, of course, Sir William Wade's: see Wade and Forsyth, op. cit. n. 4, at p. 41. © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 16 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... 64 Boddington, at p. 662. 65 See ibid., at p. 650: "The Anisminic decision established … that there was a single category of errors of law, all of which rendered a decision ultra vires. No distinction is to be drawn between a patent (or substantive) error of law or a latent (or procedural) error of law." 66 See ibid., at p. 655: "I adhere to my view that the juristic basis of judicial review is the doctrine of ultra vires." 67 Lords Slynn and Hoffmann gave only very short, concurring speeches, and therefore did not discuss the ultra vires doctrine. 68 Sir John Laws, "Wednesbury" in C.F. Forsyth and I.C. Hare (eds.), The Golden Metwand and the Crooked Cord (Oxford 1997), p. 195 (original emphasis). 69 Op. cit. n. 8, especially pp. 64-70. 70 Ibid., at p. 68. A similar point is made by Laws, op. cit. n. 6, at pp. 78-79. 71 "Has the Common Law a Future?" C.L.J. 291, 302-303. 72 See R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex p. Doody 1 A.C. 531, 560, per Lord Mustill: "The standards of fairness are not immutable. They may change with the passage of time, both in general and in their application to decisions of a particular type." 73 Op. cit. n. 8, at p. 68. 74 2 A.C. 147. 75 Foreign Compensation Act 1950, s. 4(4). 76 The success of this argument depended, of course, on precisely what was meant by an "unlawful decision". It was the House of Lords' expansive reformulation of the notion of jurisdiction which permitted judicial review to lie in spite of the ouster clause. By holding that any contravention of the principles of good administration constituted an excess of jurisdiction on the part of the decision-maker, it was possible to characterise all unreasonable and unfair decisions as unlawful and, therefore, unprotected by the preclusive provision which operated only on determinations within jurisdiction. 77 In addition to Anisminic, a number of other decisions confirm the importance which is attached to the right of access to the courts. See, inter alia, Raymond v. Honey 1 All E.R. 756; R v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, ex parte Leech Q.B. 198; R v. Lord Chancellor, ex parte Witham Q.B. 575. 78 The European Court of Justice articulated this interpretive obligation, known as the doctrine of indirect effect, in order to secure some effect in national law for Community provisions which lack direct effect. See Case 14/83, Von Colson v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen E.C.R. 1891 and Case C-106/89, Marleasing SA v. La Comercial Internacional de Alimentacion SA E.C.R. I-4135. For an imaginative example of this interpretive approach in the English courts see Webb v. Emo Air Cargo (UK) Ltd. (No. 2) 1 W.L.R. 1454. 79 Section 3(1). 80 See Lord Steyn, "Incorporation and Devolution--A Few Reflections on the Changing Scene", op. cit. n. 49, at p. 154: "So much of public law concerns interpretation of statutes … Too often courts have asked: Is there an ambiguity in the statute? … It is sometimes a misguided journey to search for an ambiguity. The principle of legality may apply: it is in the words of Rupert Cross a constitutional principle not easily displaced by a statutory text." See also T.R.S. Allan, "Legislative Supremacy and the Rule of Law: Democracy and Constitutionalism" C.L.J. 111 on the importance of the rule of law in the interpretive context. 81 See Wade and Forsyth, op. cit. n. 4, at p. 737 and T.R.S. Allan, "Parliamentary Sovereignty: Law, Politics, and Revolution", op. cit. n. 46, at p. 448. 82 See Smith v. East Elloe Rural District Council A.C. 736 and R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex parte Ostler Q.B. 122 and, generally, Wade and Forsyth, op. cit. n. 4, at pp. 742-756. 83 A.C. 92. 84 Ibid., at p. 109. 85 See Boddington v. British Transport Police 2 W.L.R. 639, 653, per Lord Irvine L.C., who argued that the outcome in R. v. Wicks, op. cit. n. 83, turned on the point that it concerned an administrative act "specifically directed" at the defendant who, in turn, had enjoyed "clear and ample opportunity" to challenge administratively the legality of the act in question before being charged with an offence. 86 Indeed, it is this principle which lies at the heart of the Human Rights Act. The respect for fundamental rights which is facilitated by the interpretive machinery set out in s. 3 must give way to the sovereign will of Parliament when legislation cannot be reconciled with the European Convention. This is clear from ss. 3(2) (b) and 4(6)(a), which provide that neither the duty of consistent construction nor the issue of a declaration of incompatibility shall affect the "validity, continuing operation or enforcement" of primary legislation. 87 See Foreign Compensation Act 1969, s. 3(3) and (9). 88 See Interception of Communications Act 1985, s. 7(8), and Security Service Act 1989, s. 5(4). © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 17 The ultra vires doctrine in a constitutional setting: still the..., C.L.J. 1999, 58(1),... 89 Moreover, the logic of ultra vires generally enhances the courts' ability to vindicate the rule of law by narrowly interpreting ouster clauses. When the South African Appellate Division abandoned the ultra vires doctrine in favour of a common law basis for certain grounds of review in Staatspresident v. United Democratic Front 1988 (4) S.A. 830, it found itself unable to apply Anisminic reasoning to an ouster provision. For discussion, see Forsyth, op. cit. n. 7, at pp. 129-133. 90 See, inter alios, Oliver, op. cit. n. 5; Craig, op. cit. n. 37, at pp. 15-16 and op. cit. n. 8, at p. 70. 91 See principally R v. Criminal Injuries Compensation Board, ex parte Lain 2 Q.B. 864; Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service A.C. 374; R v. Panel on Take-overs and Mergers, ex parte Datafin plc. Q.B. 815. 92 Op. cit. n. 8, at p. 70. See also Craig, op. cit. n. 37, at pp. 15-16. 93 Gillick v. West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority A.C. 112. This case concerned judicial review of ministerial guidance to doctors relating to the provision of contraceptive advice to minors. In fact, Lords Fraser and Scarman (at pp. 166 and 177, respectively) thought that the advice was issued pursuant to a statutory discretion created by the National Health Services Act 1977, s. 5(1)(b), so that the traditional ultra vires doctrine could apply. However, Lord Brandon did not take this point, and Lords Bridge and Templeman (at pp. 192 and 206, respectively) agreed that the advice was not issued under any statutory authority, but that review could nevertheless lie. 94 H.W.R. Wade, "Judicial Review of Ministerial Guidance" (1986) 102 L.Q.R. 173, 175. 95 For example, in Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service A.C. 374, 411, Lord Diplock stated that the grounds of review based on "illegality" and "procedural impropriety" apply both to statutory and prerogative power; he also said that there is "no a priori reason to rule out "irrationality' as a ground for judicial review of ministerial decisions taken in exercise of prerogative powers", although he explained that the fields which are still governed by prerogative power are such that judicial review will lie less frequently because "[s]uch decisions will generally involve the application of government policy" and are therefore likely to be non-justiciable. 96 Of course, the precise content of the grounds of review, and the intensity with which they are applied, varies according to the context. As regards review of statutory power, the legislative framework may well indicate, for example, what fairness requires and which considerations are relevant and irrelevant. In relation to non- statutory power similar guidance may exist, but in more diffuse form. For instance, in R. v. Panel on Take- overs and Mergers, ex parte Datafin plc. Q.B. 815, 841, Lord Donaldson M.R. said that the court could intervene if (inter alia) the Panel misconstrued its Code, thereby leading it to commit what would be an "error of law" but for the non-legal character of the Code. However, the Panel had to be given a generous margin of appreciation in discharging this interpretive function because it could choose to change the rules at any time, and because of their open-textured nature. Nevertheless, in spite of this context-sensitivity in judicial application of the grounds of review, it remains the case that, at root, the courts apply the same broad requirements of fairness and rationality irrespective of the source of the power concerned. 97 Op. cit. n. 9, at pp. 4.18-4.19. 98 Particularly in light of the likely impact of the Human Rights Act. 99 T.R.S. Allan, op. cit. n. 80, at p. 112. © 2022 Cambridge University Press © 2024 Thomson Reuters. 18