The Teaching of Science PDF

The Teaching of Science Unit 1 The Specialized Field Lesson 1 The Field of Science 1.1 What is Science? Science is the investigation and interpretation of natural phenomena that occur daily. Some of the definitions of science are as follows....

The Teaching of Science Unit 1 The Specialized Field Lesson 1 The Field of Science 1.1 What is Science? Science is the investigation and interpretation of natural phenomena that occur daily. Some of the definitions of science are as follows. a. “Science is an interconnected series of concepts and conceptual schemes that have developed due to experimentation and observation and are fruitful of further experimentation and observation.” – James B. Conant. b. Science is nothing but perception. c. Science is organized and systematized knowledge relating to our physical world. d. Science is classified as knowledge gained from a systematic study of the behavior of nature. e. Science is nothing but gaining knowledge based on experience. f. Science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observations that result in the formation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and theories being subject to modification in the light of further empirical observation. g. Genius persons, by their persistent efforts, careful experimentation, and exact reasoning, have collected a mass of test information, which we call science. h. Science is a process of thinking, a means of acquiring knowledge, and a means of understanding the natural world. i. Science is a quest for understanding certain aspects of human experience. It is a process of experiencing. j. Science is a body of knowledge and the process of acquiring refined knowledge. Science is multidimensional, and searching for a universally acceptable definition of science is very difficult. Thus, Science is a body of knowledge and a continuous, self-evaluative inquiry process. Science thus has two important approaches: (a) Science as a Product and (b) Science as a Process. 1.2 The Nature of Science (Corpuz and Salanaman, 2014) 1. Science is a wonderful world. It deals with nature and natural phenomena. 2. Science is evidence-based. It deals with observable and verifiable. It deals with empirical data. 3. Science has limits. Not all of reality is verifiable by the physical senses. 4. Science knowledge is inherently uncertain. Scientific knowledge is tentative. 5. This fundamental uncertainty makes science a dynamic and expanding body of knowledge. It is a field of scientific inquiry. 6. Science is both a product and a process. 7. As the field of study, science demands eyes keen for observing, analytical, synthesizing, and bias- free mind, traits such as perseverance, diligence, and sacrifice. 1.3 The Goals, Standards, and Scope of the Teaching of Science Based on the K to 12 Curriculum Guide for Science, the main goal of science teaching is scientific literacy. This goal of scientific literacy for science teaching is reflected in the learning area/program standard: 1  “The learner demonstrates understanding of basic science concepts and application of science inquiry skills. They exhibit scientific attitudes and values to solve problems critically, innovate beneficial products, protect the environment, conserve resources, enhance the integrity and wellness of people, make informed decisions, and engage in discussions of relevant issues involving science, technology, and the environment.” Scientific attitudes and values that science teaching wants to integrate are: a. Critical problem solving b. Innovation of beneficial products c. Environmental care d. Conservation resources e. Enhancement of integrity and wellness f. Informed decision-making g. Discuss relevant issues involving science, technology, and the environment. Science teaching is also expected to develop the students’ scientific attitudes and values such as (1) belief, (2) curiosity, (3) objectivity, (4) critical mindedness, (5) open-mindedness, (6) inventiveness, (7) risk- taking, (8) intellectual honesty, (9) humility, and (10) responsibility. MATATAG Curriculum: Science (Grades 3-10) The science curriculum is based on the General Shaping Paper, considering the findings of the curriculum review conducted in 2019-2020. Furthermore, the Science curriculum draws on the 2016 Science K to 12 curriculum goals. Its new features include: (a) expanding technological literacy to technology and engineering literacy to enable learners to develop their ability to connect science content to real-world technological and engineering applications; (b) introducing key stage and grade level standards to articulate expectations of what learners should be capable of doing at each key stage and grade level; and (c) developmental sequence of content in consideration of the prior learning of students and the cognitive and language demands of learning new science ideas. Specifically, in sequencing the science content, three modes of thinking have been considered, starting from the simplest level when a person reacts to the physical environment, can internalize actions through words and images, and at the most complex level, and is already able to think using a symbol system such as written language and number systems. The recalibration of the Science curriculum draws from and supports the DepEd MATATAG agenda, which sets the new direction in resolving basic education challenges through the four critical components: MAking the curriculum relevant to produce competent, job-ready, active, and responsible citizens; TAking steps to accelerate delivery of basic education facilities and services; TAking good care of learners by promoting learner well-being, inclusive education, and a positive learning environment; and Giving support to teachers to teach better. Goals The overall goal of the Grades 3 to 10 Science curriculum (MATATAG) is the achievement of scientific, environmental, technology, and engineering literacy of all learners. A central feature of the Science curriculum is the balanced integration of three interrelated content strands: Performing scientific inquiry skills; Understanding and applying scientific knowledge; and Developing and demonstrating scientific attitudes and values. 2 Learning Area Standard Science Curriculum Overview The Science curriculum provides learners with a repertoire of competencies important for lifelong learning and work in a skill-based society. It envisions the development of scientifically, environmentally, and technology-literate learners who are productive members of society and critical problem solvers, responsible stewards of nature, innovative and creative citizens, informed decision makers, and collaborative and effective communicators. It is designed and organized by integrating the three interrelated content strands. The acquisition of these content strands is facilitated by drawing from the key pedagogical approaches: inquiry-based learning, applications-led approach, the science-technology-society approach, problem-based learning, and multi- disciplinary learning. The approaches are based on sound and valued educational research and concepts, including Constructivism, the Social Cognition Learning Model, Brain-based Learning, and Vygotsky’s Zone of proximal development. The Science curriculum explicitly adapts developmentally Big Ideas (Harlen et al., 2015) and Cross Cutting Concepts of Science (A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas, 2012) and integrates governmental thrusts of the Philippines identified as appropriate to the science learning area. The science curriculum recognizes the place of science and technology in everyday human affairs. It integrates science and technology into life's social, economic, personal, and ethical aspects. The science curriculum promotes a strong link between science and technology, including indigenous technology, thus preserving our country’s cultural heritage. Science concepts and processes are intertwined through the learning competencies in the Science G3 to G10 curriculum. A learner-centered and inquiry-based approach facilitates the acquisition of science concepts. Organizing the curriculum around situations and problems that challenge and stir up learners’ curiosity motivates them to learn and appreciate science as relevant and useful. Rather than relying solely on textbooks, various hands-on, minds-on, and hearts-on activities are advocated to develop learners’ interest and lead them to become active learners to acquire deep knowledge for applying 21st Century Skills. The Science curriculum emphasizes using evidence in constructing explanations and providing opportunities for collaboration, innovation, creative scientific exploration, and engineering design. Concepts and skills in the learning domains are not taught in isolation but rather in the context of important ideas in Science with increasing levels of complexity from one grade level to another in developmental progression, thus paving the way to a deeper understanding of core concepts. Integrating science topics and other disciplines will lead to a meaningful understanding of interrelated concepts and their applications in real-life situations. Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. The curriculum is designed to progressively introduce science concepts and skills and build towards learning more conceptually complex content. Therefore, it is crucial that learners' prior experiences, knowledge, and understanding are considered and assessed in a formative way. Doing so ensures that an accessible and engaging level of teaching and learning is offered to learners, maximizing the effectiveness of instruction (Vygotsky, 1978). Regular monitoring will ensure the effectiveness of the implementation of the Science curriculum and its responsiveness to the needs of the learner and the demands of the highly globalized community. 3 Key Stage Standards STAGE KEY STAGE STANDARDS 1 At the end of Grade 3, the learners acquire healthy habits and curiosity about themselves and their environment using basic process skills of observing, communicating, comparing, classifying, measuring, inferring, and predicting. This curiosity will help learners value science as an important tool in helping them continue to explore their natural and physical environment. This also includes developing scientific knowledge or concepts. The specific objectives of the Key Stage 1 are to ensure that the learners: a. understand the properties of objects around them; b. describe the basic needs of living things; c. demonstrate and practice basic science process skills to investigate scientifically; d. exhibit curiosity and appreciation of the natural world. 2 At the end of Grade 6, the learners have the essential skills of scientific inquiry – designing simple investigations, using appropriate procedures and tools to gather evidence, observing patterns, determining relationships, drawing conclusions based on evidence, and communicating ideas in varied ways to make meaning of the observations and/or changes that occur in the environment. The content and skills learned will be applied to maintain good health, ensure the protection and improvement of the environment, and practice safety measures in daily activities. The specific objectives of the Key Stage 2 are to ensure that the learners: a. acquire knowledge and skills necessary to explain natural phenomena; b. understand and recall science concepts and connect them with new information; c. conduct investigations safely using appropriate equipment; d. communicate scientific observations and ideas accurately. 3 At the end of Grade 10, the learners demonstrate scientific, environmental, technological, and engineering literacies that would lead to rational choices on issues confronting them. Having been exposed to scientific investigations related to real life, they recognize that the central feature of an investigation is that if one variable is changed, the effect of the change on another variable can be measured. The contexts of investigations can be problems at the local or national levels and can encourage learners to communicate their findings to others. The learners demonstrate an understanding of science concepts and apply science inquiry skills in addressing real-world problems through scientific investigations. The specific objectives of the Key Stage 2 are to ensure that the learners: a. apply science concepts in designing scientific investigations and/or possible solutions to real-world problems; b. evaluate scientific evidence in drawing interpretations and conclusions; d. demonstrate desirable attitudes and skills in conducting scientific investigations. Grade Level Standards GRADE LEVEL GRADE LEVEL STANDARDS Kindergarten -2 The grade-level standards for Kindergarten, Grade 1, and Grade 2 form part of other curricula, including the English and Mathematics curricula. The content, including learning competencies for these grades, is not included in the Science curriculum; however, the content of other curricula has been used to develop the Science curriculum. The use of the Science curriculum should be built on and incorporate the content of other curricula, especially in use with Grade 3 learners, where understanding of expected prior learning is essential. 3 At the end of Grade 3, learners demonstrate simple science process skills of observing, predicting, and measuring to explore common local materials, their physical properties, and how they have been used over hundreds of years. They locate and describe non-living things that produce useful materials. They observe, describe, and measure living and non- living things in their local environment. They describe the basic needs of living things and explain how their body parts allow them to carry out their daily activities. They recognize the need to protect the environment to ensure that the basic needs of living things can be met. 4 At the end of Grade 4, learners describe the chemical properties of materials and that changes to them are sometimes harmful. They identify that plants and animals have systems whose function is to keep them alive. They observe, describe, and create representations to show how living things interact with their habitat, survive, and reproduce. They use diagrams to show the feeding relationship among different organisms. Learners use simple equipment to identify types of soil that hold water and support plant growth. Learners use simple equipment and processes to measure and record data about movement and describe and predict how things around them move. They describe the concepts of speed and force. They recognize that scientific processes are used to understand better the properties of magnets, light, sound, and heat. Learners apply their developing observation skills and objectivity to identify where energy is evident in their local communities and how people use it. They use instruments and secondary sources to measure and describe weather characteristics and use the information to make predictions. Learners demonstrate appreciation for the dangers of extreme weather events and use safe practices to protect themselves. Learners use personal observations and reliable secondary information sources to describe the sun and explain its 4  importance to life on Earth. They exhibit objectivity and open-mindedness when gathering information about environmental issues and community concerns. 5 At the end of Grade 5, learners identify matter as having mass, taking up space, and existing in three states based on the properties of shape and volume. They identify that heat is involved in changes of state. They plan and conduct a simple scientific investigation following appropriate steps and identifying appropriate equipment. Learners describe and create models of the body systems that represent how humans grow, develop, and reproduce. They use tables to group living things as plants, animals, or microorganisms. They use observing, predicting, measuring, and recording skills to plan and carry out a simple activity to compare the life cycles of plants and animals. They plan and conduct valid and reliable scientific investigations to explore frictional forces by identifying and controlling variables. They observe and describe the basic features of static electricity and electric current and explain and recognize applications of forces and electrical energy in the home and community. Learners explain the water cycle's role in changing landforms and earth materials. They explain the causes and impacts of extreme weather and identify appropriate and safe ways to respond to such events. They recognize the scale of space and describe the features of the solar system. They use models to communicate significant relationships and movements. They demonstrate curiosity and creativity in communicating information about earth processes to other people. Learners use objectivity and measurement to conduct scientific investigations using fair tests and multiple trials to explore how forces influence the movement of familiar objects and predict how gravity affects objects on Earth. 6 At the end of Grade 6, learners describe the benefits of various separation techniques and demonstrate skills using the equipment. They use diagrams and flowcharts to describe state changes. They use the words reversible and irreversible to describe changes to materials. They identify mixtures such as solutions and give examples such as mixtures. They recognize and apply their understanding of the features of a fair test. Learners describe how plants reproduce and plan a simple scientific investigation to determine which method works best in a habitat. They describe vertebrates as animals with a backbone and as invertebrates that do not have a backbone. They design and produce an example of a food web that identifies the role of consumers, producers, scavengers, and decomposers. They identify the technical terms biotic and abiotic as referring to living and non-living things. Learners carry out investigations to observe patterns and systems scientifically. They support their observations and conclusions by explaining occurrences and concepts using technical, scientific language. They use critical thinking skills and creativity to make models and other devices to communicate their understanding to other people. Learners describe that volcanoes can have unexpected and severe impacts on communities and that the uncertainty and impacts of unpredicted eruptions can be offset by understanding and following alerts from authorities. Learners explain that the weather patterns that produce seasons are largely predictable and use models to explain natural processes and timing, such as the changes of seasons. Learners identify that scientific models are valuable in explaining other observations of natural patterns, such as the apparent movement of celestial objects across the sky. They exhibit respect for cultures and interpretations of natural phenomena by indigenous people over generations and respect explanations of phenomena using scientific inquiry and objectivity. 7 At the end of Grade 7, learners use models to describe the Particle theory of matter. They use diagrams and illustrations to explain the motion and arrangement of particles during state changes. They explain the role of solute and solvent in solutions and the factors that affect solubility. They demonstrate skills in planning and conducting scientific investigations, making accurate measurements, and using standard units. Learners describe the parts and functions of a compound microscope and use this to identify cell structure. They describe the cell as the basic unit of life and that some organisms are unicellular and some multicellular. They explain that there are two types of cell division and that reproduction can occur through sexual or asexual processes. They use diagrams to make connections between organisms and their environment at various levels of organization. They explain the process of energy transfer through trophic levels in food chains. Learners use systems to analyze and explain natural phenomena and the dynamics of faults and earthquakes. They identify and assess the earthquake risks for their local communities using authentic and reliable secondary data. They use national and local disaster awareness and risk reduction management plans to identify and explain to others what to do during an earthquake and/or tsunami. Learners explain the cause and effects of secondary impacts that some coastal communities may experience should a tsunami be produced by either a local or distant earthquake. Learners identify and explain how Solar energy influences the atmosphere and weather systems of the Earth and that these are the dominant processes that influence the country's climate. Learners employ scientific techniques, concepts, and models to investigate forces and motion and describe their findings using scientific language, force diagrams, and distance-time graphs. They use their curiosity, knowledge, understanding, and skills to propose solutions to problems related to motion and energy. They use scientific investigations to describe the properties of heat energy. They apply their knowledge and problem-solving skills in everyday situations and explore how modern technologies may be used to overcome current global energy concerns. 8 At the end of Grade 8, learners apply knowledge and understanding of acceleration to everyday motion situations. They represent and interpret acceleration in distance-time and velocity-time graphs to make predictions about the movement of objects. Learners link motion to kinetic energy and potential energy and explain transformations between them using everyday examples. Learners relate an understanding of kinetic and potential energy to an appreciation of the country's hydroelectric resources, which generate electricity for use in homes, communities, and industries. They use scientific investigations to explore the properties of light and apply their learning to solving problems in everyday situations. Learners 5  use models, flow charts, and diagrams to explain how body systems work together for the growth and survival of an organism. They represent patterns of inheritance and predict simple ratios of offspring. They explain that the classification of living things shows the diversity and the unity of living things. They describe the processes of respiration and photosynthesis and plan and record a scientific investigation to verify the raw materials needed. They use flow charts and diagrams to explain the cycles in nature. Learners describe the large-scale features of the ‘blue planet’ Earth and relate those features to the geological characteristics of the upper crustal layers of the Earth. They identify and describe the nature and impact of volcanic activity in building new crust and identify that these crust-forming processes account for patterns and changes in the distribution of volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain chains that have occurred over time. Learners identify the relationships between landforms and oceans to explain the formation and impacts of typhoons. Learners describe the structure of the atom and how our understandings have changed over time. They draw models of the atom and use tables to identify the properties of subatomic particles. They explain that elements and compounds are pure substances. They identify elements, their symbols, their valence electrons, and their positions in groups and periods on the periodic table. They design and/or create timelines or documentaries as interesting learning tools. 9 At the end of Grade 9, learners describe that DNA, genes, and chromosomes determine the transmission of traits and explain that high levels of diversity help maintain an ecosystem's stability. They identify critically endangered plants and animals of the Philippines and strategies to protect and conserve them. They describe features of typical Philippine ecosystems and survey to explore possibilities to minimize the impact of human activities. Learners carry out a valid and reliable scientific investigation, showing the formation of a new substance. They demonstrate an understanding of the significance of valence and identify bonds as ionic, covalent, or metallic. They recognize the symbols of common elements and the formula for common compounds. They describe the properties of ionic, covalent, and metallic substances. They demonstrate critical and creative thinking in producing a learning tool about the role of bonds. Learners exhibit skills in gathering information from secondary sources and identifying the location and geological setting of the Philippines to explain its unique landforms and dynamic geologic activity in a global context. They recognize the size and scale of the Earth and describe evidence for a dynamic Earth. Learners demonstrate curiosity and open- mindedness to evaluate theories of the formation of the Solar System. They describe modern scientific processes and technologies used by scientists to investigate the nature and evolution of the Solar System. Learners demonstrate a practical understanding of Newton’s three laws of motion and explain the everyday application of Newton’s laws. Learners explain the features of electricity and electrical circuitry in homes. Learners gather information from secondary sources to describe the nature and features of frequencies across the electromagnetic spectrum and identify practical applications and detrimental effects that electromagnetic radiation can have on living things. 10 At the end of Grade 10, learners describe and explain the geologically dynamic nature of the Philippine archipelago concerning its plate tectonic setting and use models to explain the earth’s structures, movements, and natural events that occur. They explain mechanisms that have contributed to the current distributions of continents and make predictions about changes that can be expected in the future. Learners describe rapid changes occurring in local and global climate patterns and propose solutions to address these changes. Learners describe qualitatively the factors that affect the trajectory of projectiles. They distinguish different types of collisions and describe the impacts on the motion of objects. They conduct investigations using models to identify relationships that affect the motion of objects and apply their understanding to real-life situations. Learners gather information from secondary sources to identify, describe, and explain how science impacts human activities and the environment. Learners explain that there are different indicators for classifying substances as acids, bases, or salts. They describe the identifying factors for a chemical reaction and the important types of chemical reactions. They explain how some important chemical reactions impact the natural and built environments. They write balanced chemical equations using formulas and apply the principles of conservation of mass. They explain factors that affect the rate of a reaction, such as that some reactions are exothermic and others are endothermic. They demonstrate the knowledge and skills to plan and conduct valid and reliable scientific investigations and record them appropriately. Learners describe homeostasis as a process that allows an organism to maintain stability. They describe and discuss that natural selection is the driving mechanism of evolutionary change. They explain the meaning of biotechnology and debate the societal, environmental, and ethical implications of utilizing biotechnological products and methods. They discuss the factors that limit the ecosystem’s carrying capacity and the role of population growth. For the operational purposes of curriculum implementation in schools, the four domains in the Science curriculum have been assigned in quarters as shown below, with Grades 3 to 6 in the elementary school and Grades 7 to 10 in the junior high school. 6 SEQUENCE OF DOMAIN PER QUARTER Quarter Elementary Junior High School Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6 Grade 7 Grade 8 Grade 9 Grade 10 First Materials Materials Materials Materials Science of Life Force, Earth and Materials Science Motion, Space and Science Energy Second Living Living Living Living Life Science of Earth and Force, Things Things Things Things Science Materials Space Motion, Science and Energy Third Force, Force, Force, Force, Force, Earth and Life Science of Motion, Motion, Motion, Motion, Motion, Space Science Materials and and and and and Science Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy Fourth Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Earth and Force, Science of Life Space Space Space Space Space Motion, Materials Science Science and Energy Spiral Progression Approach In the spiral progression approach, teaching begins with the basics but becomes more complex in treatment as they are taught across the grades. The basic science concepts are revisited repeatedly as the teacher teaches science across the grades. Figure 1.0 shows that earth science, biology, chemistry, and physics, which used to be taught as separate disciplines, are all taught in every grade level. Teachers go back to the basic concepts in every grade level but teach them with increasing sophistication as they go up the Grade level. Grades 7-10 Grades 4-6 Grades 1-3 K-12 Earth Science Biology Chemistry Physics Figure 1.0 The Spiral Progression Approach in the Teaching of Science 7  The Teaching of Science Unit 1 The Specialized Field Lesson 2. Scientific Inquiry 2.1 What is Science made up of? Scientists use their knowledge of scientific principles, concepts, theories, laws, and science process skills to form new explanations (Rutherford & Ahlgren 1990). Science can be looked at as containing three main facets (Koch 2000): The Scientific Process: Scientists use several skills when conducting science, known as the Science Process Skills. Scientists methodically use these skills, often known as the Scientific Method. Scientific Knowledge: Scientific process skills and scientific methods are used by scientists to produce knowledge, ideas, and concepts. These are commonly formulated as hypotheses, theories, and laws. Scientific Attitudes and Values: Different scientists might work in different ways or believe in different things, but they still have shared values and attitudes. Science contains several key values. These three things combine together to form something known as the ‘nature of science.’ But this is how science is done and the qualities it possesses. 2.2 The Scientific Process Skills While following the ‘Scientific Method’ or one of the other methods of conducting science, scientists must use several different skills and techniques. These skills are known generally as the ‘science process skills.’ It is important to remember that these skills are transferable. Scientists do not exclusively use them, but they are important in several activities unrelated to science. What makes the science process skills special is that scientists use them in a specific manner and sequence. 1. The Basic Science Process Skills: Observation: Maybe the simplest but most important skill. Scientists must be able to use their senses to observe the world around them. Classifying: The grouping and ordering of objects into categories. Measuring: describing the specific dimensions of an object or event. Communication: This describes an object or event that others have observed. Inferring: This is drawing a conclusion as to why something occurs based on collected data. Predicting: making an educated guess about future events based on what we have seen. 2. The Integrated Science Process Skills: Controlling variables: Identifying variables and then controlling all but one is an important part of conducting science. Defining operationally: This identifies the measurements to be used in the experiments. How often will you measure? What will be measured? Formulating hypotheses: this is similar to making a prediction. What is the expected outcome of the experiment? Collecting data: the gathering of information in a systematic way. Interpreting of data: the organization, analysis, and interpretation of information. Experimenting: the designing of an experiment to test some hypothesis. Making models: the use of information to simulate some event or observation. 8 2.3 The Scientific Method When scientists work, they follow a simple procedure or several steps. This is generally known as the ‘scientific method.’ Generally, the agreed-upon steps of the scientific method are: Observation and Description: The first step is to observe and describe something. Scientists tend to be good at noticing the world around them. This stage can include keeping notes, describing objects or processes, or even researching and reading. Scientists spend a lot of time studying and reading to improve their knowledge and to learn what other scientists have already done. Questioning: After observing and describing something, the scientist discovers a problem. This is normally expressed in the form of a question. Hypothesis formulation: A hypothesis is developed to explain what has been observed and described. The scientist tries to identify an answer to his formulated question. Predicting: The hypothesis is then used to predict what could happen in a certain situation. Experimenting: Next, an experiment is conducted to see if the predicted results have been obtained. This is known as the testing of the hypothesis. Normally, variables are identified in an experiment, and all but one is controlled. All the variables are kept the same apart from the one being investigated. Experiments must be replicated many times to ensure reliable results are obtained. Conclusion: The experiment results are used to see if they support the hypothesis. If so, the hypothesis can be accepted; if not, then the hypothesis is wrong. New problems and questions to investigate are generated at this stage. The scientific method is repeatable. If different scientists conduct the same experiment repeatedly, the same results should be obtained by following the same method. Anyone should be able to repeat an experiment. The results of the Scientific Method do not depend on the prejudices of any given researcher. If you do not believe a certain scientist, you can repeat their experiment and see if you obtain the same results. The results of the Scientific Method are independent of belief. Is there really a ‘Scientific Method’? In the preceding section, we described in detail the several steps of the scientific method and how scientists use these steps to test hypotheses. But is there a scientific method? Is there really a single way of creating scientific knowledge? The simple answer is no. There is no step-by-step method of ‘doing science,’ trying to produce one is an oversimplification. There are many various ways of conducting science that do not necessarily follow the steps given above. There is no single agreed-upon definition of the scientific method or the steps it involves. Different kinds of scientists working in different fields work in different ways. The way a chemist works in the lab with chemicals is very different from how a geologist works in the field, looking at fossils or how a meteorologist studies the weather at the North Pole. Even scientists in the same field will use different steps and methods and work in different orders. ‘Let's change this and see what happens’ is an equally valid and much-used way of conducting science used by scientists who do not follow the steps of the scientific method given above. Maybe it would be better if the term ‘scientific methods’ was used instead to encompass these different working methods. 9  This does not necessarily mean that the concept and steps of the Scientific Method are useless. The term Scientific Method is useful because it provides a broad generalization of what scientists do and helps explain the scientific process. It is a good starting point to start learning about science and trying to understand how science works. It creates a certain order and structure, which can be a useful starting point for school learners. Some of the other methods of conducting science are given below. Although the methods of teaching inquiry in this book often follow the traditional scientific method steps, please bear in mind that real scientists do not necessarily work in this way. Other ways of conducting science Experimentation is the most well-known method of conducting science, but it is not the only one. The following techniques are also ways of conducting science and were described in detail by Bentley et al. (1999). Trial and Error: Although this might seem too random to be considered scientific, it is an important scientific technique. Drug and pesticide companies test hundreds of chemicals to find ones that work. New products are often not invented but rather found through calculated luck. Product testing: Many scientists test things to see which ones work best. Think of the safety tests different brands of cars have to go through. Many things we use every day need to be tested. Inventing: When inventing, scientists use their prior knowledge, but through inventing, they develop new ideas. Inventing is a bit like trial and error; if something does not work, you try something different until it does. Making Models: Models are made to show how something works when it is not possible to do or use the real thing. They are a form of simulation. It can include making physical models, such as making model planes to see how real ones will fly when they are built. However, it can also include making mathematical or theoretical models that show how some processes work, for example, how animal populations change over time when the level of food available alters. Documenting: This is simply the keeping of records, often over long periods of time. A good example is meteorologists and weathermen, who observe and document the weather to study climate change. Another example would be ecologists who document how the species present in an ecosystem change over time. 2.4 Scientific Knowledge Scientists work to produce knowledge, ideas, and concepts. These are usually formulated as hypotheses, theories, or laws. Many non-scientists misunderstand hypotheses, theories, and laws, leading them to misinterpret the importance of scientific work. For example, many people denounce evolution by saying, ‘It is just a theory,’ thinking that a theory is something non-proven, purely theoretical, and untested. In colloquial speech theory, it is used to mean a simple guess. How often have you heard someone say, “Well, that’s my theory,” when they have guessed why something occurred? In fact, for scientists, a theory is extremely robust, and all the evidence shows is correct. A hypothesis is best described as an ‘educated guess.’ From looking at some object, event, or occurrence, scientists predict what might happen next time the same thing happens. A hypothesis is the main driver of experimentation. Scientists experiment to try to show whether hypotheses are correct or not. A Theory is an explanation for a certain event supported by many verified hypotheses. When scientists conduct an experiment many times and continually obtain the same result, they develop a theory. This is the idea of why something occurs or happens. Correct hypotheses can be considered as the ‘evidence’ for this theory. Scientific law is considered to be pretty much a ‘fact.’ The same thing happens every time and everywhere where you try it. They are always true, and no one has shown they are untrue. Famous scientific laws include the law of gravity and the law of thermodynamics. Laws tend to be simple and specific. 10  There is often a false belief that there is a step-like progression between hypotheses, theories, and laws. For example, many believe that theories that have been ‘proved’ well enough become laws. Laws are seen as being ‘better’ or more certain than theories. This is not the case. Laws and theories are not interchangeable. They are simply different scientific knowledge (Bredermann et al. 2002). While a Scientific Law is relatively simple, a theory can be complex and comprises many separate parts. Although separate parts of a theory can be shown to be wrong, this does not mean the theory, as a whole, is incorrect. Scientists work on making the many separate parts of a theory simpler or more encompassing. Scientists generally consider both theories and scientific laws to be true. If enough evidence is collected that does not fit into a theory, the old theory can be overturned, and a new one can be developed. However, this rarely happens, and theories tend to be extremely robust. An important feature of a hypothesis and a theory is that they must be falsifiable. It must be possible that some new discovery or results from some experiment could show that a theory is incorrect. The statement ‘there are no aliens’ is scientific because it will be proved wrong if aliens come to visit one day. A statement that cannot be proven false is not scientific; it is faith. 2.5 Scientific attitudes and values Scientists have a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes that influence how they think about science and how they conduct science. Perhaps the most basic of these is the belief that the universe is understandable and how it functions can be discovered. By studying natural objects, scientists believe they can discover patterns, relationships, and rules that help them understand how the universe functions. There is a lively debate amongst scientific philosophers and scientists about what views and attitudes scientists have. There is no agreed-upon list, and different authors have different ideas. The following list is taken from Smith and Sharman (1999) and includes what most scientists consider important scientific attributes. Science is empirical: Science relies upon observation and experiment. The word empirical means to experiment and comes from the Greek word for a test or trial; it is related to the Latin word for experiment. Scientists use their senses to collect information about the environment around them using measurement. Knowledge is built from experimentation and experience. Science is tentative: Scientists make guesses about why certain things occur. Scientists do not prove anything. Old ideas can be shown to be wrong. There are no right answers. The knowledge developed by science is, therefore, not rigid but can change and be altered with time. Experiments can be repeated: The experiments conducted by one scientist can be repeated by another scientist, and similar results can be obtained. Replication of experiments helps to confirm whether conclusions are correct or not. Science is falsifiable: Scientific claims must be testable and be shown to be false. Scientists must be able to collect data that supports or refutes a claim. Science is self-correcting: Repeated experimentation leads to discovering errors and their correction. Some authors argue that science is characterized by progress and that scientific knowledge is built upon and developed over time, but this is disputed (Lakatos 1970, Popper 1972). Others consider science heuristic, meaning it is based on assumptions and hypotheses Smith and Sharman (1999). Scientists value open-mindedness, and although all scientists conduct research with prior views, scientists try to be objective and fair in their work. Scientists consider the process of developing ideas, designing experiments, and forming explanations to be a creative process. Scientists also value criticism. The work done by one scientist can be criticized by another. There is no single authority within science; even if someone is an ‘expert,’ this does not necessarily mean they are always right and can never be proven wrong. 11 2.6 Doing Science Science is a process. Teachers are advised to teach science by doing science and not only by knowing science concepts. The following process skills may help develop science process skills and literacy, which is the goal of science teaching. a) Observing i. Observe objects or events in various ways, using one or more senses. ii. Identify properties of an object (e.g., shape, color, size, and texture). b) Classifying i. Identify properties useful for classifying objects. ii. Group objects by their properties or similarities and differences. iii. Construct and use classification systems. c) Inferring i. Suggest explanations for events based on observation. ii. Distinguish between an observation and an inference. d) Predicting i. Forecast a future event based on prior experience, e.g., observation or experiments. e) Measuring i. Compare and order objects by length, area, weight, volume, etc. ii. Measure properties of objects or events by using standardized units of measure. f) Communicating i. Construct and use written reports, diagrams, graphs, or charts to transmit information learned from science experiences. ii. Verbally ask questions about, discuss, explain, or report observations. g) Using space/time relations i. Describe an object’s position to other objects (e.g., above, below, or beside). h) Defining Operationally i. State definitions of objects or events in terms of what the object is doing or what is occurring in the event. ii. State definitions of objects or events based on observable characteristics. i) Formulating Hypotheses i. Identify questions or statements which can and cannot be tested. ii. Design statements (e.g., questions, inferences, and predictions) that an experiment can test. j) Experimenting i. Design an investigation to test a hypothesis. ii. Conduct simple experiments. iii. Recognize limitations of methods and tools used in experiments (e.g., experimental error) k) Recognizing Variables i. Identify the manipulated (independent) and responding (dependent) variables in an investigation. l) Interpreting Data i. Organized and state in his or her words information derived from scientific investigation. ii. Revise interpretations of data based on new information or revised data. m) Formulating Models i. Create a mental, physical, or verbal representation of an idea, object, or event. ii. Use models to describe and explain interrelationships among ideas, objects, or events. 12  The Teaching of Science Unit 1 The Specialized Field Lesson 3. Indigenous Scientific Knowledge and Culture-based Education 3.1 Indigenous Scientific Knowledge Mindanao, the second largest island in the Philippines, is culturally diverse, with an estimated 17 million Indigenous Peoples (IPs), where sixty-one percent (61%) belong to 110 ethnolinguistic groups (Hirai, 2015). Valuing their identity, the government enacted Republic Act 8371, also known as the "Indigenous Peoples Rights Act" (1997, IPRA), which recognized the right of IPs to manage their ancestral domains and became the cornerstone of the national policy on IPs (UNDP, 2010). It is believed that indigenous knowledge came from the everyday life experiences of the people as they grow up and encounter things in nature. This knowledge was prominently practiced by the community and was relayed by the parents and other elders through the minds of the young generations. Indigenous science comprises traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and is guided by community and culture. (Pawilen, 2006) Indigenous science, as part of the system of Indigenous knowledge, was developed from the various encounters of humans with the natural world because human communities are composed of different experiences, skills, traditions, and fields of knowledge such as agriculture, medicine, naming, and describing the natural phenomenon, and methods to adapt with the changing environments. It is believed that indigenous science is essential in developing science and technology in the country. It helps the individual to comprehend and survive in the natural world. This knowledge system paved the way for the birth of science and technology as a specific field and discipline. Indigenous research was acknowledged in the UNESCO Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge (1999) as a historical and essential contribution to science and technology. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying, measuring, problem-solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as (a) The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator. (b) The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as people. (c) All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each other. (d) Human beings are stewards or trustees of the land and other natural resources. They have a responsibility to preserve it. (e) Nature is a friend to human beings — it nests to respect and proper care. Indigenous science comprises traditional knowledge practiced and valued by the people and communities, such as ethnobiology, ethnomedicine, Indigenous farming methods, and folk astronomy. Some examples of Indigenous Knowledge include the following: 1. Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animal behavior and celestial bodies; 2. Using herbal medicine; 3. Preserving foods; 4. Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties; 13  5. Preserving and good seeds for planting; 6. Using Indigenous technology in daily lives; 7. Building local irrigation systems; 8. Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties; 9. Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits and 10. Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard. Indigenous knowledge is produced in an ongoing manner and accumulated from everyday experiences. Ocholla and Onyancha (2005) argued that cultural knowledge is inseparable from realistic knowledge. It is unfortunate that due to ignorance and arrogance, IP knowledge has been neglected, vindicated, stigmatized, illegalized, and suppressed among the majority of the world communities. Since indigenous knowledge is oral by nature and passed on from adults to younger generations, one would expect this knowledge to remain exclusively historical. For example, the classification of animals was partly adapted and adopted from indigenous people, whereby the local people's extensive knowledge of plants and animals was a source for compiling the extensive list classifying living organisms and not a sole invention of Linnaeus; some reports indicated that the indigenous people had accumulated knowledge about medicines, some of which have been upgraded using scientific techniques (ICSU, 2000). Indigenous Science comprises traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and is guided by community values and culture. (Pawilen, 2006) Community Culture and Values Science Traditional Process Knowledge Skills Indigenous Science Figure 1.0 The Concept of Indigenous Science. Reference: Alata, Caslib, Pwilen and Serafica. Science Technology and Society, 1st Edition, Rex Book Store, Inc., Quezon city, Philippines, pp. 42-46 IRR, Philippines, 1996: Recording and using indigenous knowledge: A manual. 14 3.2 Culture-based Education The Philippine Culture-Based Education seeks to develop a greater consciousness and appreciation of our arts, history, geography, and heritage in the Philippines to develop a consciousness that improves the quality of our lives. A Philippine CBE is planning to establish a nation of culturally literate and cultured Filipinos who, at the same time, are responsible and committed to the world's population as well as patriotic and ardent nationalists. Makatao, Makabayan, Makabansa and Makakalikasan. Thus, Cultural education enables us to participate from the perspective of the Filipino people globally and makes us acquainted with and appreciate our countries and local history, heritage, language, and culture. The Significance of Culture-based Education in the Philippines Culture is the foundation of education, sustainable development, and governance in culture-based education. Culture provides perspective, methodology, principle, assessment, framework, and evaluation upon which abilities, skills, and knowledge regarding a person and the world are disseminated. It is a teaching strategy and a philosophy of education where student learning is grounded on the community's unique values, norms, cultural beliefs, knowledge, practices, heritage, language, and experiences. The Filipinos develop a great understanding, awareness, and appreciation of their history, arts, heritage, and geography towards the perception that will enhance the quality of life. With the implementation of culture-based education, the Philippines visualizes progress as a nation of culturally empowered and literate Filipinos who are committed global citizens as well as ardent nationalists and patriotic people. Motive of Culture-based Education Applying cultural values in education has a positive effect on several elements. It nurtures a sense of belonging and identity, strengthens community participation; it also promotes appreciation and understanding of history and cultural heritage. Cultural heritage is about old things and new objects, practices, and places that hold cultural value for recent generations. The crucial role of the community’s culture carriers in the teaching and learning process is maintained. Children are inculcated with a sense of responsibility for valuing, developing, and protecting the environment. Students develop competencies and cultural skills that are required to interact with people around the world. The culture instills a sense of national pride and develops an individual’s identity as a nation. Preserving the cultural memory will lead to a greater understanding of the nation’s destiny in the global society and community of nations. References: https://theknowledgereview.com/significance-culture-based-education- philippines/#:~:text=It%20is%20a%20teaching%20strategy,language%2C%20experiences%20of%20the% 20community. 15  The Teaching of Science Unit 1 The Specialized Field Lesson 4. The Teacher and the Student 4.1 The Science Teacher Any teaching procedure centers around three pivotal factors: the pupils, the teacher, and the subject. Of these three, the teacher is the most important factor in the teaching-learning process since he is the communication medium between the other two. He teaches the subject to the pupils and has to know the subject and the pupils he is to handle. Teaching science to different grades of pupils presents different problems, and the techniques adopted for teaching science to elementary and junior pupils differ from those adopted for senior pupils of the higher classes. His ability to arouse and maintain the pupils' interest in learning science will reveal the teacher's success. he must stimulate both the more and less able pupils. The teaching of science is not to hand out facts and scientific information. it is much more than that. The teacher should keep the good aims of learning science before him, and suitable experience should be devised for the pupils to attain those aims. The science teacher should always remember that the ultimate purpose is to educate the pupils through science teaching. because science is undoubtedly full of facts, principles, and concepts, but its teaching is not just giving out information about them. Besides motivating and presenting things interestingly, the teacher must be able to create situations for the pupils where they have to think, do, and reason out. Each pupil must be involved in the learning process because learning results from the learner's active involvement. The science teacher must succeed in making science a part of their activity and, as a science teacher, must do his part in planning and administering a continuously balanced flexible program in science- a program based on sound philosophy and providing for the needs, interests, and ability of the learners. Obviously, all science teachers need a thorough understanding of the basic principles that underlie good teaching. 4.1.1 Academic and Professional Qualifications Guru was given great prestige, respect, and honor in ancient times. He was considered a man of ‘simple living and high thinking.’ He has sound knowledge of the subject and continually renews it. Besides having personal qualities, a teacher should fulfill the following broad requirements. 1. Academic Qualifications 2. Professional Education or Training in modern methods and techniques. 3. Practical knowledge of child psychology and the process of learning. 4.1.2 Professional Growth of Science Teachers Different agencies have started several programs to help science teachers' professional growth and development, but the teacher's effort is equally important. To be in touch with the latest developments in the field of science education, the teacher should take the following steps; 1. He should familiarize himself with the National Policy in Education and identify the thrust areas. 2. He needs to upgrade his knowledge and understanding of the subject. 3. He should pursue higher education. 4. He should master teaching skills, e.g., conducting experiments, preserving specimens, and constructing models. 5. He should develop his own style of teaching based on psychological principles. 16  6. There should be an exchange of teaching positions in the same school or through exchange programs. 7. He should actively participate in various science activities, such as science club. 8. He should visit other schools to study various methods of teaching followed by different teachers in different schools. 9. He should acquire professional efficiency. 10. He should follow a problem-solving approach. 11. He should participate in a refresher course to get acquainted with the latest developments in the field. 12. The impact of verbal interaction with a teacher is everlasting. The government and other agencies provide several opportunities to keep the teachers updated on new development problems and concepts. a. Seminar and Conference b. Workshops c. Refresher Courses d. Summer Institutes e. Professional Writings f. Study Groups Membership of Professional Qualifications in Science Educational Journals such as African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education, Cultural Studies of Science Education, CBE Sciences Education, etc. Some suggestions to Science Teachers: 1. The first requisite for the science teacher is that he should have thorough grasp of the subject- matter that he has to teach. Preferably he should plan his lesson before-hand. 2. He should not expect that he knows the answer to all the questions that the children ask him. It is a bad policy to doge pupils, at least in science which is so exact and accurate. 4.1.3 Varied Roles of a Teacher (Acero, Javier, & Castro, 2000) 1. As a Manager. The teacher is responsible for the effective management of his class from start to finish. He carries out systematic activities throughout the day to develop learners’ cognitive, psychomotor, and effective aspects of the teaching-learning process. 2. As a Counselor. Every teacher is a guidance teacher. He acts as a counselor to the learners especially when they are beset by problems. In general, teachers comfort and make learners feel they have a ready shoulder to cry on. 3. As a Motivator. Encouraging and motivating learners to study well and behave properly in and outside the classroom is an enormous task. A dynamic teacher is always good at motivating learners to make them listen, participate, and understand instructions. 4. As a Leader. A teacher always assumes the position of a leader, and he has to be credible in this regard. He should, therefore, manifest the highest leadership potential demanded of his role as a teacher and leader. 5. As a Model. A teacher is an exemplar. He serves as a model to his learners. Learners idolize their teachers; they believe the things that they say, especially if they show kindness and are approachable and sympathetic to their needs. 17  6. As a Public relations specialist. The credibility of the school is attributed most of the time to the ways the teachers deal with people outside the school, like the school’s benefactors, parents of the learner, church leaders, government employees, and others. 7. As Parent-surrogate. In school, the teacher is the parent of the learners. The teacher is also expected to take over the role of the parents, attending to the needs of the learners and offering them the comforts away from home. 8. As a Facilitator. The teacher prepares guidelines that will serve as the focus of the discussion and activities. He oversees the activities inside the classroom. 9. As an Instructor. The main function of the teacher is instruction. All other aforementioned roles are corollary to teaching. 4.1.4 Professional Attributes of a Teacher (University of Houston – College of Education, n. d.) Criterion 1. Physical Characteristics a. Health and Wellness – physical and mental b. Appearance – personal appearance and well-groomed Criterion 2. Personal Characteristics a. Cooperation – good moral attitude and works cooperatively and constructively b. Tactfulness – modest in words and actions c. Flexibility and patience – willingness and ability to adapt to change d. Organization – good at classroom and time management e. Enthusiasm – displays energy and enthusiasm f. Creativity – synthesizes theory and practice into new personal adaptations and applications. g. Initiative and risk-taking – displays independence and motivation and is not resistant to new activities and assignments. Criterion 3. Responsibility Characteristics a. Responsibility – undertake and complete assigned tasks and assume functions. b. Attendance and punctuality – always present and punctual. c. Maturity – displays poise in task completion and personal interactions. Criterion 4. Communication Skill a. Oral communication – reflect appropriate voice and speech delivery. b. Written communication – written output reflects appropriate and accurate English usage. Criterion 5. Professional Relationship Skills a. Demeanor – demonstrates positive attitudes in interactions with other professionals. b. Rapport – relates easily and appropriately to children, youth, and others responsibly. c. Awareness of individual differences – recognizes and empathizes with human differences. Criterion 6. Commitment to the Teaching Profession a. Professionalism – passion for teaching and commitment to education as a career. b. Withitness – exhibits simultaneous awareness of all aspects of the learning environment. c. Reflectivity – reflects and evaluates professional experiences with constructive criticism. 4.1.5 Qualities of a Good Teacher (Department of Education, Training, and Employment, 2014) 1. Being good at explaining things. 2. Being a person who enjoys working with wide range of people. 3. Being enthusiastic. 4. Having a strong knowledge in a particular subject area. 18  5. Being good at time management. 6. The ability to work in a team and use his own initiative. 7. Keeping cool under pressure. 8. Having patience and a good sense of humor. 9. Being fair-minded. 10. Coping well with change. 11. Enjoying a challenge. 4.2 The Learner The Learner is the core of the teaching-learning process. It is from him that revolves all activities related to classroom activities. He is the person who receives instruction from the teacher. A learner is either a pupil or a student, depending upon the level of education being pursued. A pupil is a learner at the elementary level, and a student is a learner who attends an institution beyond the elementary level. 4.2.1 Factors Affecting the Cognitive Development of Children (Dutta, 2012) A. Biological Factors are substances that affect biological systems and are necessary to produce a result or cause an activity in the body. a. Sense – sense organs receive stimuli from the environment. Proper development helps them receive the correct stimuli to form the correct concepts. b. Intelligence – the ability to learn about, learn from, understand, and effectively interrelate with one’s environment. c. Heredity – is the process of transmitting characteristics from one generation to the next. Cognitive development is also influenced by the hereditary traits one gets from one's parents. d. Maturation – the process of learning to cope and respond emotionally appropriately. B. Environmental Factors can be divided into physical, biological, social, cultural, and spiritual, any or all of which can influence the health status of people. a. Learning opportunities – the more opportunities the learner gets, the better the cognition because he can add to his mental capacities by letting through opportunities. b. Economic status – learners with a better economic status get more opportunities and better training. c. Play is also important in developing cognition. d. Various types of stimuli e. Family and society – family provides good learning opportunities through observing and imitating other people and family members. 4.2.2 Seven Characteristics of Independent Learners (AOA, 2012) Not all students can be independent learners. Some students naturally become independent learners based on life circumstances and learning styles. Dependency on instruction is tied closely to student age and maturity. The older the student, the more independent he tends to be. The seven characteristics of independent learners are: 1. Curiosity. Independent learners seek out ways to explore. They are proactive. 2. Self-motivation. Their own personal achievement drives them. 3. Self-examination. They can see their strengths and weaknesses and measure their progress. 4. Accountability. The sooner a student becomes responsible for the consequences of his decisions and actions, the less dependent he will be on outside sources for discipline or motivation. 19  5. Critical thinking. They examine all possibilities and often come up with multiple solutions. 6. Comprehension (with little or no instruction). Regardless of the topic or subject studies, an independent learner will find ways to understand the material through the application (generally, trial and error). 7. Persistence. They strive to understand a concept as much as possible by working independently before asking for help. 4.2.3 The Role and Responsibilities of Students in Classroom Management (Positive Action, 2023) Does the success of a classroom solely depend on the teacher? Not necessarily. In fact, students play an integral role in shaping and managing a positive learning environment. Here are some key roles that students can play in effective classroom management: 1. Being Inquisitive. We value a student’s ability to answer teachers’ questions in education. But it may be more important to gauge their ability to ask their own great questions—and, more critically, their willingness to do so. Make your students feel comfortable enough to (respectfully) ask questions that nurture their curiosity. 2. Taking Initiative as Active Participants Students should come to school ready to participate. Why does this matter? Full academic engagement maximizes the opportunity for learning and sets the tone for the entire classroom. This includes but is not limited to: Asking and answering questions Completing in-class assignments Consistently aligning behavior to classroom norms Students should always acknowledge that they are a part of a learning community. Each person is responsible for taking ownership of their actions in a way that values building safe and positive classrooms. As the teacher, you can create these opportunities by: Inviting students to come up with ideas for homework related to the topics Letting students share their different approaches and thinking processes for solving problems Facilitating problem-based learning, splitting the class into small groups to come up with solutions to issues 3. Other Responsibilities Naming student roles and responsibilities should begin when students first arrive in the learning environment. So, be open to students having more ideas about roles and responsibilities they would like to own. Inviting students to be strategic partners in their learning affirms their roles in the classroom, thus building their confidence. Here’s a list of eight additional duties students should perform in the classroom environment: Obey the teachers Maintain discipline in class Keep the school neat and tidy Be helpful by clearing their materials after a class Abide by the rules of the school Participate in the activities organized in the school 20  Co-operate with the teachers Decorate their classrooms with charts, posters, etc. 4.3 The Importance of Teacher-Student Relationship (Coristine, S., Russo, S., Fitzmorris, R., Beninato, P., & Rivolta, G. (2022, April 1) A student-teacher relationship in the classroom is a positive relationship between the teacher and the student to gain trust and respect from each other. This relationship may consist of getting to know your students better, providing choices, and encouraging the students to become stronger learners every day. By doing this, teachers respect their students, value their individuality, and be polite. A positive relationship with your students helps them become more successful in the classroom and makes it a safe and welcoming environment for all. 4.3.1 The Importance Of Student-Teacher Relationships: Short and Long-Term As stated, student-teacher relationships are highly essential in an effective classroom. Specifically, student-teacher relationships are important for students in their short-term and long-term education. Student- teacher relationships are important in the short term because they create a thriving classroom environment, help students develop self-worth, and improve student mental health (Buffet, 2019). Similarly, these positive relationships may decrease behavioral problems and promote academic success. Student-teacher relationships help foster students' academic success. With this being said, student- teacher relationships assist students in the short term. These relationships support students for the specific year they spend in that educational setting with the educator (Buffet, 2019). Likewise, a positive student-teacher relationship is important in the long term because it gives students confidence and ensures they know their ideas are valuable. This allows students to carry this confidence throughout their future years pursuing academics. Also, this confidence and recognition of self- worth can be seen in the social and emotional aspects of the student's life. Another long-term effect is that positive teacher relationships teach students that mistakes indicate that they are learning. Learning is ongoing, and students can identify this by producing positive student-teacher relationships. This type of relationship will foster the student's confidence in the long term. 4.3.2 Ways To Build A Student-Teacher Relationship Many tips and tricks can be used to build a strong student-teacher relationship. A strong student- teacher relationship can be created by showing that the teacher cares about the students (“6 Ways to Build Strong Teacher-Student Relationships with SEL”, 2022). This can be done by talking with your students, such as asking about their day. Another way could be by listening to your students; this can be done by hearing their opinions, considering their interests, and learning about each student’s unique learning styles (“6 Ways to Build Strong Teacher-Student Relationships with SEL”, 2022). You can also develop mutual trust with your students by giving them choices and always keeping their best interest in mind (“6 Ways to Build Strong Teacher-Student Relationships with SEL”, 2022). In addition, you always have to be respectful and fair with each and every one of your students (“6 Ways to Build Strong Teacher-Student Relationships with SEL”, 2022). You can ensure this by not picking favorites and having the same corrected behavior for each student. Furthermore, you can get to know your students and their families. This can be done by paying attention to your students during class and offering them opportunities to talk or share what they want about their families. Lastly, give your students positive encouragement and constructive criticism (“6 Ways to Build Strong Teacher-Student Relationships with SEL”, 2022). This is important because it creates trust with your students, 21 as they know they can rely on you to be honest. Of course, there are many other alternative ways to build a positive student-teacher relationship, but these are some great examples of how to start. 4.3.3 Advantages of a Student-Teacher Relationship Student-teacher relationships have displayed many advantages in the classroom. First, students who share a positive relationship with their teacher develop stronger social-emotional skills. In addition, these students are more likely to absorb more academic knowledge (Positive teacher-student relationships have cascading benefits, 2021). The result of a strong student-teacher relationship is that it allows students to feel confident through exploration and taking risks in their academic tasks. In short, students with a positive student-teacher relationship demonstrate a stronger performance in the classroom (Positive teacher-student relationships have cascading benefits, 2021). However, one of the most important impacts of a positive student-teacher relationship is producing an environment that incorporates mutual respect. One way an educator can produce a strong relationship with a student is to define learning goals and expectations explicitly in a positive manner. This could look different for groups of students or individual students. The strong relationship will make educators aware of their students’ learning and adjust their learning goals and expectations as needed (Admin, 2017). Similarly, the educator should allow opportunities for students of all learning styles to participate in class discussions through oral and written communication. In addition to academic advantages, positive student-teacher relationships improve mental health and assist students in developing self-worth (Admin, 2017). Frequently, students look up to their educators as mentors. With this in mind, students will likely feel pride when the educator encourages them in their learning and social interactions. Social competence, problem-solving abilities, autonomy, and a feeling of a bright future or purpose are protective elements that boost resilience, and all of these can be developed in a supportive teaching atmosphere (Bondy et al., 2007). As noted, students benefit from positive student-teacher relationships. Likewise, educators benefit as well. While creating strong relationships with their students, educators are strengthening their own interpersonal and professional skills (Admin, 2017). Educators are more likely to respond effectively to stressful situations by strengthening their interpersonal communication skills. In addition, educators can form relationships with parents and coworkers. In summary, it can be noted that students and educators benefit from creating positive student-teacher relationships. 4.3.4 Causes of Poor Student-Teacher Relationships Poor teacher-student relationships result from the instructor’s lack of awareness. Some students require tailored educational approaches since they do not respond to learning the same way as others. When a teacher fails to regard an individual student’s educational needs, problems arise between teachers and students. Students' ability to learn and interact with educators is influenced by their personalities, family backgrounds, mental processes, learning styles, priorities, maturity levels, and academic ambitions (Tucker, 2021). When possible, teachers should treat each student as an individual who deserves one-on-one attention and specialized, concentrated education. In addition, a poor student-teacher relationship will develop if the educator’s main or only priority in the classroom is academics (Tucker, 2021). In correspondence with academics, students need to feel cared for and have the chance to feel strong emotions. Educators are responsible for building relationships with students that are not surface-level or academically focused. Students should feel that their educator is someone they can trust and communicate freely with. The lack of empathy displayed by an educator can result in a poor student-teacher relationship. 22  The Teaching of Science Unit 1 The Specialized Field Lesson 5. Learning Theories and Learning Styles 5.1 Educational Theories on Which Science Teaching is Grounded (Corpuz and Salanaman, 2014) The following underlying learning educational theories support the framework: a. Constructivism. Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in constructing meaning and knowledge. b. Social Cognition. Bandura’s (1986) social learning theory states that learning as a cognitive process occurs in the social context and can occur through observation or direct instruction. This implies that science teachers must model scientific literacy and science processes. c. Learning Style. This theory explains that students have preferential individual learning styles; therefore, people are angry in their response to learning opportunities and how they learn (Kolb, 1984). Learners perform best when the teaching style fits the learning cycle. d. Brain-based Learning. This theory on which science teaching in the K to 12 curricula is founded. This is the purposeful engagement of strategies based on how our brain works. Here are some brain- based learning principles: i. The brain is a parallel processor. ii. The search for meaning is innate. iii. The search for meaning occurs through pattern. iv. Emotions are critical to patterning. v. Learning is enhanced by a challenge and inhibited by a threat. e. Experiential Learning, as David Kolb (1975) advocates, is learning that occurs by making sense of direct everyday experiences. According to him, concrete experience provides the information as a basis for reflection. f. Situated Learning (Lave and Wenger, 1990) is learning in the same context in which concepts and theories are applied. g. Reflective Learning refers to learning that is facilitated by reflective thinking. Deeper learning occurs when learners can think about and process their experiences, allowing them to make sense of and derive meaning from their experiences. h. Discovery Learning occurs in problem-solving situations where the learner draws on his/her experience and prior knowledge to solve a problem. i. Cooperative Learning and Inquiry-based Learning 5.2 Pedagogies Used in MATATAG Science Curriculum The Science Curriculum Framework identifies the pedagogies that the curriculum embraces to improve learning in science for Filipino learners. These pedagogical approaches can be included appropriately by teachers in the delivery of science lessons to adapt to the learners’ context and learning environment. These approaches are described below to guide teachers in using each pedagogical approach. The inquiry-based learning approach emphasizes questioning, investigating, proving, probing, explaining, predicting, and establishing connections between evidence (Calburn, 2020). Instead of a transmissive teaching mode, this approach involves inquiry and sustained active engagement of learners. The approach is characterized in the classroom by questions and discussions. Inquiry allows learners to formulate questions and find solutions through learning real-life-based investigations and research projects. 23 Concepts and specific scientific terms need to be explained in simple language. Applications and situations need to be explained in relevant contexts and are best explored through science activities. In this approach, learners also develop process skills, analyzing and evaluating evidence, experiencing and discussing, and talking to their peers about their own understanding (Suchman, 1964). Learners collaborate with others to make discoveries, solve problems, and plan investigations. An applications-led approach suggests that it is useful to consider the application of the concept rather than an approach based on the traditional logic of the discipline. The applications-led approach means that the science to be taught is determined by applications from life and NOT by the logic of the science discipline. Although this curriculum does not suggest an applications-led approach for the entire curriculum, the inclusion in each quarter in each of the domains of learning of suggested Performance Tasks is intended to reflect the importance given to the expectation that the learners demonstrate how their learning can be applied to their everyday lives. The Science Technology Society approach (STS) focuses on the societal role of science and technology in the contemporary and modern world. It provides a dynamic and interdisciplinary relationship of history, philosophy, and sociology, including cultural perspectives to answer and respond to current scientific concerns, issues, and problems (Pritchard & Woollard, 2010). Using this approach, the learners expand their understanding of science across disciplines and holistically view problems by examining the consequences of science and technology. The problem-based Learning approach (PBL) is acquiring knowledge and skills using critical thinking and creativity to solve real-life problems. In this approach, real-world problems motivate learners to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts, design reasoned decisions, defend them, and collaborate among themselves (Duch et al., 2001). Through this approach, the development of critical thinking, problem- solving abilities, and collaboration and communication skills are essentially given a focus. An effective and versatile approach for PBL is design thinking or engineering design process, which can be used to generate solutions based on the needs of intended users. A multidisciplinary (cross-disciplinary) design is built into the Science curriculum. UNESCO defines a multidisciplinary approach as “curriculum integration which focuses primarily on the different disciplines and the diverse perspectives they bring to illustrate a topic, theme or issue. A multidisciplinary curriculum is one in which the same topic is studied from the viewpoint of more than one discipline.” The science curriculum lends itself to greater integration of disciplines, which may be adopted in some schools. Similarly, UNESCO defines a transdisciplinary approach as “an approach to curriculum integration which dissolves the boundaries between the conventional disciplines and organizes teaching and learning around the construction of meaning in the context of real-world problems or themes.” An interdisciplinary approach is “An approach to curriculum integration that generates an understanding of themes and ideas that cut across disciplines and the connections between different disciplines and their relationship to the real world. It normally emphasizes process and meaning rather than product and content by combining contents, theories, methodologies, and perspectives from two or more disciplines.” 5.3 Guiding Principles in the Teaching of Science In addition to creating a positive atmosphere, developing mastery and understanding, and extending learning by giving real-world situations where students can apply what they learn, observe the following guiding principles: 1. Constructivist principle – discover and consider the learners' ideas in your teaching. 2. Discovery principle: learning by doing principle – don’t tell the answer. Make children discover answers to their own questions with your guidance. Make them do “hand-on-minds-on-hearts-on” activities. 24  3. Brain-based principle – Teach for meaning. Make your teaching meaningful. Give your lesson an emotional touch. Keep the learning atmosphere challenging but non-threatening. 4. Make students work together. Encourage collaborative learning. It is less threatening. 5. Consider multiple intelligences and learning styles. Make use of varied teaching methods and activities. 5.4 Accommodating Different Learning Styles People learn, or more precisely prefer to learn, in different ways. Many favor learning by doing hands- on activities, some by reading and writing about a topic, others by watching demonstrations and videos, and others by listening to a lecture. These preferences are key to how people learn most easily, commonly known as learning or processing styles. Should instructors then teach their material differently to cater to these different styles? Maybe they should prepare students for life in the real world by not giving them special treatment. Nevertheless, knowing and being able to take advantage of students’ learning style strengths also helps instructors prepare them for the real world. Particularly now, when our society is concerned with fairness and equality for those of different genders, races, ethnicities, and abilities, teaching different learning styles is a major facet of equity. Teaching that better matches learning preferences is more likely to engage and motivate students to participate in the discussion and learn from the experience. It is also recognized that each person prefers different learning styles and techniques. It is through learning styles that common ways people learn can be devised and planned. Below are some guidelines about learning styles. 1. There is no single/definite learning style. There is a mix of learning styles for everyone. 2. Some people have a dominant style for learning with far less use of the other styles. 3. Others may use different learning styles in different circumstances. There is no right combination. 4. Styles that are developed can still be further improved for learning enhancement. The quality of learning can bring about positive results by recognizing and understanding one’s own learning styles and using varied techniques. 5.4.1 The Seven Learning Styles The Memletic styles recognizes that each of us prefers to learn in different ways. 1. Visual (Spatial) – prefers using pictures, images, graphs, charts, logic, puzzles, and spatial understanding. 2. Aural (Auditory-musical) – prefers using sound and music. 3. Verbal (Linguistic) – prefers using words in speech and writing. 4. Physical (Kinesthetic) – prefers using body, hands, and sense of touch. 5. Logical (Mathematical) – prefers using logic, reasoning, and systems. 6. Social (Interpersonal) – prefers to learn in groups or with others. 7. Solitary (Intrapersonal) – prefers to work alone and use self-study. 5.4.2 The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model The cornerstone of the Dunn and Dunn Learning Style model is that most people can learn, and each individual has his own unique way of mastering new and difficult subject matter (Dunn, 2000). The Dunn’s Learning Style model is complex and encompasses five strands of 21 elements affecting each individual’s learning. Some of these elements are biological, and others are developmental. Styles changes over time. 1. Environmental. This refers to lighting, sound, temperature, and seating arrangement. People prefer a place to study that facilitates more learning.