The Holy Grail Final Exam 1Cc6 PDF

lOMoARcPSD|30849388 The holy grail final exam 1cc6 all super 7s HTHSCI 1CC6:Integrated Biological Bases of Nursing Practice I (McMaster University) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Ju Won Lee ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|26594...

lOMoARcPSD|30849388 The holy grail final exam 1cc6 all super 7s HTHSCI 1CC6:Integrated Biological Bases of Nursing Practice I (McMaster University) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Ju Won Lee ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 The Holy Grail - Final Exam 1Cc6, All Super 7'S Integrated Biological Bases of Nursing Practice I (McMaster University) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 The Holy Grail 1CC6 Intro to Biological Bases Cell Physiology C-V System I C-V System II Respiratory I Respiratory II Renal System I Renal System II Nervous System I Nervous System II GI System I GI System II Reproductive - Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Review of Cell Physiology Key Concepts 1. Review structure and function of plasma membrane properties The basic material of the plasma membrane is the PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER. It is composed of two layers of phospholipids that line up tail to tail.   It separates 2 of the body’s major fluid compartments – ICF within cells (intracellular fluid) and ECF outside cells (extracellular fluid) Fluid Mosaic Model – double layer of phospholipids with embedded proteins o Phospholipid – the lipids form the structural part of the plasma membrane  Charged, polar head (hydrophilic – love water)  These are on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane bc the polar heads are attracted to water which is the main constituted of ICF and ECF  Charged, nonpolar tail (hydrophobic – hate water) which is made of 2 fatty acid chains  Avoid water and line up in the center of the membrane o Glycolipid  Lipids w/ attached sugar groups; found on outer plasma membrane surface; provide energy and also serve as markers for cellular recognition o Cholesterol  20% of membrane; wedges between the tails of the fatty acids. This keeps the tails from packing too closely so it works to ensure the fluidity of the plasma membrane. o Membrane proteins – 2 Main: Integral and Peripheral  INTEGRAL PROTEINS are imbedded in the bilayer. Most span the entire width of the membrane, and others protrude from one side only  CHANNEL PROTEINS create a passive “pore”, contributing to the “leakiness” of the cell.  With CARRIER PROTEINS, a substance binds to the protein and it actively moves the substance across the membrane.  PERIPHERAL PROTEINS are attached to integral proteins or lipids, on one side of the membrane only (one or the other). The functions include acting as enzymes, receptors (when on outer surface) and mechanical support (when on inner surface). o Glycocalyx (CARBS – PROVIDE MARKERS FOR CELLS TO RECOGNIZE EACH OTHER)  The glycocalyx is a carbohydrate rich layer surrounding the cell surface. It is made up of GLYCOPROTEINS and GLYCOLIPIDS. A glycoprotein is a protein with a small polysaccharide, and a glycolipid is a phospholipid attached to a carbohydrate. The function of the glycocalyx is to aid in cell-to-cell recognition. Cells have different patterns of sugars that make them recognizable. Functions of the plasma membrane: Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 - Mechanical barrier: separates 2 of the body’s fluid compartments Selective permeability: determines manner in which substances enter or exit the cell Electrochemical gradient: generates and helps to maintain the electrochemical gradient req’d for muscle and neuron function Communication: allows cell to cell recognition (ex. of egg by sperm) and interaction Cell signaling: plasma membrane proteins interact with specific chemical messengers and relay messages to the cell interior 2. Differentiate cytosol vs. cytoplasm and membranous vs. non-membranous organelles CYTOSOL: the fluid which comprises the Cytoplasm. It is comprised of water and proteins. CYTOPLASM: everything between the Nucleus and the Plasma Membrane - this includes the Cytosol and the Organelles suspended in it. MEMBRANEOUS ORGANELLES are internal bodies surrounded by membrane. They maintain internal environments separate from cytosol. NON-MEMBRANEOUS ORGANELLES are internal structures composed of protein or nucleic acid. 3. Structure and function of organelles Mitochondria (Membranous) The Mitochondria are considered the “powerhouse” of the cell. This is where ATP production occurs in the cell (via cellular respiration). Mitochondria are capsule shaped, with a smooth outer layer and convoluted inner membrane that provides a lot of inner surface area. Mitochondria are unique in that they contain their own DNA! The quantity of mitochondria in a cell indicate its level of activity. Mitochondria = plural Mitochondrian = singular Endoplasmic Reticulum (Membraneous) The ER is a network of flattened, fluid-filled sacs that is continuous with the membrane around the nucleus (it’s part of the endomembrane system). There are two types of ER…the ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER), which has ribosomes imbedded into the membrane. This is the site of protein synthesis in the cell (just the basic protein product…not the end product). The SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER) is involved in lipid metabolism and the detoxification of drugs and carcinogens. Golgi Apparatus (Membraneous) Material from the ER goes to the GOLGI APPARATUS for modification, packaging and distribution. The Golgi apparatus is the “Pack-N-Ship” of the cell. It is a series of stacked, flattened and slightly concave discs Vesicles (Membraneous) Vesicles are “bubbles” of membrane containing some material. They are produced by the Golgi apparatus. There are three types of vesicles 1. Secretory vesicles 2. Lysosomes 3. Peroxisomes SECRETORY VESICLES contain material to be released from the cell, such as hormones, enzymes and mucus. The membrane of the vesicles fuses with the cell membrane and replenishes it. LYSOSOMES contain digestive enzymes for degrading biological molecules. PEROXISOMES detoxify substances and neutralizes free radicals. Vesicles are the only organelles that go in and out of the cell. Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Endomembrane System (Membranous) The endomembrane system is a continual flow of membrane through the cell. It does not include the mitochondria. Material flows through… nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, plasma membrane Ribosomes (Non-membraneous) Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell. They are made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and associated proteins in two unequal subunits that are only together when they are making protein. Ribosomes are located in the cytosol (free floating) where they create intracellular proteins, and in the RER where they create membrane-bound or exported proteins. 3 Cytoskeleton (Non-membraneous) There are three types of cytoskeleton organelles. The first are the MICROTUBULES. These are the largest of the three and they are composed of tubulin. The microtubules radiate from the centrosome and function in internal cell movement. MICROFILAMENTS are the smallest of the three. They are composed of actin (a globular protein) and function in cell motility. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS are intertwined filamentous proteins whose composition varies among cell types. The static strands provide strength and support. Centrioles (Non-membraneous) Centrioles are paired barrel-shaped organelles that reside in the centrosome (the main microtuble organizing center). Their structure is a circular array of nine microtubule triplets. The centrioles aid in cell division and form the base of cilia and flagella. Cilia (Non-membraneous) Cilia are numerous projections of the cell membrane. They contain a core of microtubules arranged in nine doublets around a central pair. They create a wavelike fluid motion over the cell surface. The action moves stuff (like mucus) across the cell surface. Flagellum (Non-membraneous) Flagella are structurally similar to cilia, but they are significantly longer and exist singly (only one per cell). Their movement propels the cell through medium…sperm cells are the only flagellated cells 4. Review membrane transport mechanisms Cell membranes are selectively permeable…it allows some things through, but not others. There are two methods for crossing the membrane: 1. Passive processes a. Diffusion, Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion 6 b. Osmosis c. Filtration 2. Active processes a. Primary Active Transport b. Secondary Active Transport c. Vesicular Transport i. Exocytosis ii. Endocytosis Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Passive Processes DIFFUSION involves the molecules of a solute distributing evenly throughout the solution…the way a sugar cube will dissolve in tea. The solutes move due to KINETIC ENERGY of the molecules…and they move DOWN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT. This movement occurs until equilibrium is reached and the gradient no longer exists. The speed with which this occurs depends on: The steepness of the gradient (steeper = faster), the size of the molecules (smaller = faster), the temperature (hotter = faster) There are two types of diffusion…simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. In SIMPLE DIFFUSION, the solute moves directly across the phospholipids membrane. The solute must be non-polar and lipid-soluble. This includes oxygen, CO2, fat-soluble vitamins and alcohol. In FACILITATED DIFFUSION, the solute moves through a carrier or channel protein. This process is for polar and or larger molecules (glucose, amino acids, ions). There is a maximum amount that can get across at any given time b/c there are only so many proteins available. ---OSMOSIS involves the solution (generally H2O) moving DOWN its own concentration gradient. This process comes into play when the membrane itself is impermeable to the solute. Because the solute molecule is too big to cross the membrane, the water itself moves across. TONICITY refers to the ability of a solution to change the H2O volume of a cell through osmosis. ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS = the same concentration of solutes. No net movement HYPERTONIC SOLUTION = has a higher concentration than the other solution. Will draw water TOWARD IT TO DILUTE ITSELF The compartment will EXPAND HYPOTONIC SOUTION = has a lower concentration than the other solution. Water will be DRAWN FROM IT The compartment will SHRINK In FILTRATION, the driving force is hydrostatic pressure gradient. The membrane selectively depends on the solute size. This occurs in capillaries and kidney tubules. Active Processes ACTIVE TRANSPORT is similar to facilitated diffusion in that it requires a carrier integral protein. The difference is that it moves the solute UP THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT by way of a “pump.” Active transport uses ATP for energy. There are two types: primary active transport and secondary active transport. PRIMARY ACTVE TRNSPT = involves the direct usage of ATP to move solute = solute binds to protein and waits for ATP to hydrolyze = the energy release transforms the shape of the protein Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 SECONDARY ACT TRNSPT = does not use ATP directly = the ACTIVE transport of one solute CREATES A GRADIENT that may be used to move a second solute NOTE: If it moves in the same directly it’s SYMPORT. If moving in both directions, it’s ANTIPORT VESICULAR TRANSPORT involves the moving of large particles across the membrane (bacteria and macromolecules such as proteins). This is used for the bulk intake of fluid. There are two types of vesicular transport…exocytosis and endocytosis. EXOCYTOSIS is the outward movement of particles. Vesicles are formed internally by the Golgi apparatus. Exocytosis is used for secretions such as mucus, signal molecules (hormones and neurotransmitters), and cellular waste….and for adding fresh membrane molecules to replenish the cellular membrane. ENDOCYTOSIS is the inward movement of particles…vesicle forms at the cell surface. STEPS OF EXOCYTOSIS: (*EXIT*) 1. Vesicle migrates to the cell surface 2. It fuses with the membrane 3. Contents are expelled into extracellular space STEPS OF ENDOCYCTOS: (*ENTER*) 1. Cell creates cytoplasmic extensions 2. They envelop extracellular particles/fluid 3. Vesicle is moved internally Phagocytosis (cell “eating”) is common among macrophages…and pinocytosis (cell “drinking”) is when the cell takes in fluid droplets containing solutes. Pinocytosis is common among absorptive cells. In RECEPTOR MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS, specific membrane-bound proteins bind substances like a lock & key. It allows for selective endocytosis…the cell gets exactly what it wants. This happens with things like enzymes, LDLs, iron and some hormones. 5. Types of cell junctions There are three types of membrane junctions 1. Tight Junctions are a series of integral proteins interlocking with adjacent cells. This type of junction restricts movement between cells, and serves to keep things in and out. (EX: epithelial cells) 2. Desmosomes are rivet-like integral proteins between adjacent cells. They are STRONGER than tight junctions. Intermediate filaments join desmosomes across cells to provide strength, structure and Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 resistance to pulls and stress. Desmosomes are found in tissues that stretch such as the heart and bladder. Desmosomes keep the integrity of the tissue. 3. Gap Junctions are transmembrane proteins that connect adjacent cells. This creates a cytoplasmic connection between cells, like a hallway between houses. This allows cells to communicate with neighbors and is especially important in electrically excitable cells, such as the heart muscle. Gap Junctions allow synchronicity of functioning. 6. Briefly review protein synthesis (BRIEF) (****See the end of document for Long answer)       A gene is defined as a DNA segment that provides the instructions to synthesize one polypeptide chain. Since the major structural materials of the body are proteins, and all enzymes are proteins, this amply covers the synthesis of all biological molecules. The base sequence of exon DNA provides the information for protein structure. Each three-base sequence (triplet) calls for a particular amino acid to be built into a polypeptide chain. The RNA molecules acting in protein synthesis are synthesized on single strands of the DNA template. RNA nucleotides are joined according to base-pairing rules. Instructions for making a polypeptide chain are carried from the DNA to the ribosomes via messenger RNA. Ribosomal RNA forms part of the protein synthesis sites. A transfer RNA ferries each amino acid to the ribosome and binds to a codon on the mRNA strand specifying its amino acid. Protein synthesis involves (a) transcription, synthesis of a complementary mRNA, and (b) translation, “reading” of the mRNA by tRNA and peptide bonding of the amino acids into the polypeptide chain. Ribosomes coordinate translation. o 3 steps: transcription (making a copy of the DNA strand), editing (the copy this long… have to edit and delete portions), translation (have to translate into the correct language) Introns and other DNA sequences encode many RNA species that may interfere with or promote the function of specific genes. 7. Complete cell structures chart HTH SCI 1CC6 – Cell Structures Complete the following table to fully describe the various cell parts. Cell Structure M or NM Location Function Plasma membrane M External boundary of the cell Confines cell contents, regulates entry and exit of materials Lysosome M Scattered in cytoplasm Digests ingested materials and worn out organelles Mitochondria NM Scattered throughout the cell Controls release of energy from foods, forms ATP Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Microvilli M Projections of the plasma membrane Increase the membrane surface area Golgi apparatus M Near the nucleus {in the cytoplasm} Packages protiens to be exported from the cell; packages lysosomal enzymes Centrioles NM Two rod-shaped bodies near the nucleus “Spin” the mitotic spindle Smooth ER M in the cytoplasm Transports materials through the cell; contains enzymes & produces digest lipids & membrane protein Rough ER M in the cytoplasm Transports materials through the cell and produces proteins Ribosomes NM Attached to membranes or scattered in the cytoplasm Synthesize proteins Cilia NM Extensions of cell to exterior Act collectively to move substances across cell surface in one direction Microtubules NM Internal structure of centrioles; part of the cytoskeleton Important in cell shape, suspend organelles Peroxisomes NM throughout cytoplasm detoxifies and break down hydrogen peroxide/alcohol and free radicals accumulating from normal metabolism microfilaments NM throughout cytoplasm Contractile protein (actin); moves cell or cell parts; core of microvilli Intermediate filaments NM Part of cytoskeleton Act as internal "guy wires" help form desmosomes Inclusions NM Part of cytoskeleton storage of nutrients, wastes, and cell products * M = Membranes, NM = Non Membranous Long answer for Question 6: Protein Synthesis Protein synthesis is the decoding of DNA to produce proteins…DNA is used almost exclusively to produce protein! Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 A GENE is a DNA segment that provides instructions for the synthesis of one polypeptide chain. There are three steps to PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: 1. Transcription (making a copy of the DNA strand) 2. Editing (the copy is long…have to edit and delete portions) 3. Translation (have to translate into the correct language) STEP 1: TRANSCRIPTION is the process of making a copy of the DNA strand…it involves RNA polymerase. o RNA polymerase binds to and unwinds segments of the DNA strand (helicase is not needed) o RNA polymerase only replicates one strand of the DNA o As it moves along, it inserts and polymerases complementary RNA bases (Adenine binds with uracil, instead of thymine) o This short segment is called mRNA…it is a complimentary copy of the segment of DNA STEP 2: EDITING Pre-mRNA contains segments of “nonsense”…these are INTRONS. Spliceosomes excise introns and put the “good” pieces together. The rejoined segments are EXONS. STEP 3: TRANSLATION Nucleic acids are the language of DNA/RNA. This language must be translated into the “amino acid language” of proteins. Nucleic acids are composed of combinations of 4 letters (ACGU). Proteins contain 20 “letters”, which are the 20 common amino acids. Nucleic acids are used in groups of three to code for amino acids…this is called a CODON. There are 64 possible codons (43 ). It is important to note that there is redundancy in the code…several codons will code for the same amino acid. This helps to reduce errors. For example, GUU, GUC, GUA and GUG all code for valine. 11 There are a few “special codes”… AUG is the universal start signal, and the stop signals are UAA, UAG and UGA. The process of translation First, mRNA leaves the nucleas via the nuclear pores and then binds to the large ribosomal subunit at a unique leader sequence of bases. The tRNA is a clover-leaf shaped molecule with a stem region that binds to a specific AA. The anticodon is the codon that is complementary to the code (AGC—UCG). Protein synthesis is initiated when an mRNA, a ribosome, and the first tRNA molecule (carrying its Methionine amino acid) come together. Messenger RNA (mRNA) provides the template of instructions from the cellular DNA for building a specific protein. Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the protein building blocks, amino acids, to the ribosome. tTRA binds to the large ribosomal subunit. Once the Ribosome is complete (both subunits together), it starts scanning the mRNA for the START CODON (AUG=methionine). Mext. The tRNA binds the correct amino acid in place. The ribosome enzyme forms a peptide bond between the first two amino acids and the protein has begun. The ribosome them shifts down along the mRNA, bringing the next codon into the ACTIVE SITE. The first tRNA leaves and the process repeats. It stops when it comes across a STOP codon on mRNA (UAA, UAG or UGA). The ribosome then disassembles and our protein is complete. It then goes to the ER then the Golgi body for export, or it hangs out in the cytoplasm to do something for that particular cell. DNA Replication There are three stages to DNA replication 1. Uncoiling 2. Polymerization 3. Ligation Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 In UNCOILING the DNA uncoils from the nucleosomes with the aid of DNA helicase which unzips the strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds that hold them together. As helicase moves along the strand it forms a replication bubble, and the strands meet at a replication fork. In POLYMERIZATION a group of enzymes converge on a single DNA strand, forming a replisome. One of these enzymes is primerase. Primerase creates an RNA primer, which is temporary. Next, DNA polymerase III (the molecule which does the actual polymerization) starts pulling in nucleotides and binding them to complementary nucleotides, moving in a 5 to 3 direction only. (A with T, G with C). In LIGATION, there is a leading strand and a lagging strand. The leading strand is created by polymerase moving in the same direction as the helicase. It is formed continuously. The lagging strand is created by polymerase moving in the opposite direction as the helicase. It is formed in segments which are spliced together by DNA ligase. Cardiovascular part 1 Review Super 7 (using Lecture slides and notes to guide.) Review heart structuresAtria - 2 superior chambers of the heart "the receiving chambers". Contract minimally and push blood down to ventricles. The inter- atrial septum separates the atria. Blood enters right atrium from 3 veins -superior vena cava (blood from superior region) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 -inferior vena cava (blood from inferior region) -coronary sinus (drainage from myocardium) The left atrium receives blood from the lungs Ventricles - 2 inferior ventricles. "Discharging chambers". Propel blood out of the heart into circulation. Separated by interventricular septum. Left ventricle forms the APEX of the heart. Right ventricle pumps blood to pulmonary trunk which routes blood to lungs where gas exchange can occur. Left ventricle ejects blood through aorta (the largest artery in the body). Directional flow- In order to properly function blood can only flow in one direction. This is ensured by valves (discussed in detail further down) Apex/Base- The base is the top of the heart formed by the left atrium, into which the four pulmonary veins drain. The apex is formed by the left ventricle can be palpated at fifth intercostal space. Pericardium - Sac that encloses and protects the heart - Outer layer is the Fibrous pericardium made of fibrous connective tissue, anchors the heart -Inner layer is the Serous Pericardium, which is also divided into two layers; the outer parietal layer and the inner visceral layer. Functions to lubricate heart with pericardial fluid located between parietal and visceral layer. Prevents friction rub. Wall Layers- Epicardium is a thin layer of connective tissue and fat, and serves as an additional layer of protection for the heart, under the pericardium. Myocardium-muscle tissue of the heart, composed of cardiac muscle cells called cardiomyocytes, which contract like other muscle cells, but also conduct electricity to coordinate contraction Larger in left ventricle than right. Endocardium-composed of endothelial cells which provide a smooth, non-adherent surface for blood collection and pumping and may help regulate contractility. Valves-AV Valves (Mitral *lt side and Tricuspid*rt side valves) separate the atria from the ventricles and prevent backflow of blood. Mitral valve has 2 cusps. Tricuspid has 3 flex cusps. Papillary muscles from the wall of the ventricles, connect the chordae tendineae to the cusps of the atrioventricular valves. Open and close based on pressure gradients. AV valves open when the atrial pressure is greater than the ventricular pressure. Blood returning to atria put pressure on av valves forcing them open. Ventricles then contract forcing blood against AV valves. The chordae tendinae tightens and papillary muscles contract preventing valves from opening. Semi lunar valves- prevent backflow of blood from arteries to ventricles during ventricular systole, help maintain pressure in arteries.Have no papillary muscles and are controlled by pressures only. Aortic semi lunar valve separates left ventricle from aorta, Pulmonary valve separates right ventricle from the pulmonary artery. As ventricles contract, intraventricular pressure rises blood pushes against SL valves and forces them open. As ventricles relax blood flows back from ateries and pushes against SL valves forcing them closed. Coronary Circulation- Circulation of blood in the vessels of the heart. Coronary arteries carry blood to heart muscle (myocardium) cardiac veins carry away. Remove metabolic waste and provide nutrients to Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 the heart. Shortest circulation in the body. Blood is delivered to the heart by the coronary arteries when the heart is relaxed. They begin in the epicardium and branch into the myocardium. Coronary arteries *see heart diagram#1 at bottom of doc.          Superior vena cava Right coronary artery Right marginal artery (supplies myocardium of lateral rt side of heart) Posterior interventricular artery (runs to apex and supplies posterior ventricular walls) Anterior interventricular artery (supplies interventricular septum, anterior walls of both ventricles) Circumflex artery ( supplies lt atrium and posterior walls of lt ventricle) Left coronary artery Pulmonary trunk Aorta Coronary veins (Veins join to form large vessel coronary sinus.) Path of veins roughly follows that of the arteries.       Superior vena cava Anterior cardiac veins Great Cardiac vein Middle cardiac vein Small cardiac veins Coronary sinus (empties into rt atrium) Anastomoses are secondary channels (vessels) usually start forming after 50. Anatomy of the heart wall * see diagram at bottom of document #2 Heart wall in order from outer to inner        Fibrous pericardium Parietal serous pericardium Pericardial cavity Epicardium (visceral (fatty) layer of serous pericardium) Myocardium (muscle) Endocardium (white sheet of endothelium that lines chambers of the heart and covers fibrous skeleton of valves. Heart chamber *Connective tissue of collagen and elastic fibers form dense network called the cardiac skeleton. Rope like rings to support vessels and stop them from becoming stretched out. Cardiac cycle * see diagram in text to better understand Phase 1- Ventricular filling (mid to late diastole) , atria contracting. Av valves open, SL valves closed. Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Phase 2 a - isovolumetric contraction (Phase one occurs, then av valves close, ventricles start to contract, papillary muscles are contracted, but there is not enough pressure to open SL valves YET so there is no change in volume.) Phase 2 b- ventricular ejection, SL valves open (atria in diastole) Phase 3- Isovolumetric relaxation (ventricles relaxed, all valves closed.) early diastole. Ventricular filling starts again. EDV- end diastolic volume. Amount of blood at end of diastole when chamber full. ESV- end systolic volume. Amount left at end of systole, after chambers empty. SV- stroke volume. Difference between EDV and ESV. Preload- amount ventricles are stretched by contained blood just before contraction Contractility- cardiac cell contractile force due to factors other than EDV. Inotropic state of the myocardium. Ability of cardiac muscle to shorten when electrically stimulated. Afterload- back pressure exerted by blood in the large arteries leaving the heart Cardiac Output - The amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle in 1 minute. Influenced by; exercise, ^sympathetic activity, epinephrine, thyroxine, excess CA, CNS output (fright, anxiety, decrease BP. CO= SV X HR Cardiac Reserve- Difference between resting and max cardiac output. Frank starling law The more muscle is stretched the greater the force of contraction. Increase blood means greater contraction. SV = EDV - ESV The relationship between Preload and stroke volume is the basis of the Frank Starling Law. Increase preload = increase Stroke volume. Increased venous return (ie- from exercise) = increase EDV = increase SV = Increase CO ELECTRICAL REGULATION AND PATHWAYS** (There were several diagrams at the end of her slides that are helpful to understand all this better :s ) See diagram 3 for physiology of contraction Heart muscle Is stimulated by nerves, and is also self excitable. AV node and SA node create their own depolarization. Acetylcholine decreases contraction, epinephrine increases contraction. Contracts as a unit. 250 ms refractory period. (much longer than skeletal muscle.) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Pacemakers - autorhythmic cells; initiate action potential, have unstable resting potentials (pacemaker potentials), use calcium influx rather than sodium influx for rising phase. Pacemaker potential - never a flat line, slow depolarization due to opening of na+ channels and closing of k+ channels. Depolarization - action potential begins when pacemaker potential reaches threshold. Depolarization due to ca2+ influx through ca2+ channels. Repolarization - due to ca2+ channels inactivating and k+ channels opeing. K+ efflux brings membrane potential back to its most negative voltage. Emotional or physical stressors activate sympathetic response. Sympathetic nerve fibres release norepinephrine at the cardiac synapses, then binds to B adrenergic receptors and cause the threshold to be reached more quickly. The SA node then fires rapidly and heart beats faster. Enhances contractility and speeds relaxation. Parasympathetic opposes sympathetic response. Acetylcholine released hyper polarizes membrane of effector by opening k+ channels. Little effect on cardiac contractility. SA node generates action potential electrical impulse that initiates contraction. SA excites the right atrium, travels through bachmann's bundle, to excite left atrium. The impulse travels through internodal pathways in the right atrium to the AV node. From the AV node impulse travels through bundle of his and down bundle of branches. Both bundle branches terminate in the purkinje fibers. Purkinje fibers- between the left and right atrium. Millions of small fibers projecting through the myocardium. SA node - 60-100 bpm AV node - 40- 60 bpm Bundle of branches- 30-40 bpm Purkinje fibers- 30-40 bpm ECG1ST SM P WAVE- Results from depolarization wave from SA node through atria. (0.08 s) 0.1s after at ria contract. LG QRS Complex results from ventricular depolarization, and precedes ventricular contraction (0.08s). T wave caused by repolarization lasts 0.16s. PVR interval is the time from beginning atrial excitation and ventricular excitation #1 Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 #2 #3 Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Cardiovascular Circulation and Muscle Contraction (CV II) Cardiac Muscle: Is striated and contracts via the sliding filament mechanism. The cells are short, fat, branched and interconnected with each fiber containing one or two (MAX) of centrally located nuclei.  Cardiac cells (myocytes) interlock at junctions called intercalated discs which contain desmosomes and gap junctions. o Desmosomes prevent adjacent cells from separating during contraction o Gap Junctions allow ions to pass from cell to cell, allowing the myocardium to act as a function syncytium (single coordinated unit).  Large mitochondria account for 25-35% of volume of cardiac muscle cells helping to make them more resistant to fatigue. Other than that the volume of the heart is made up of myofibrils (elongated contractile threads found in striated muscle cells) each individual myofibril is composed of sarcomeres (1 myofibril may contain about 10,00 sarcomeres). o Sarcomeres (Muscle segment) are the functional unit of cardiac muscle found between two successive Z discs. Also contains markers such as A bands and I bands – these reflect the arrangement of the contractile proteins (Thick = MYOSIN and Thin = ACTIN).  Z Discs: Formed from cross striated muscle  I Bands: Area surrounding Z discs representing unbound thin filaments (ACTIN) – Appears light  Actin: globular protein arrange as a chain of units.  A Bands: Contains the entire length of a single thick filament (MYOSIN) Appears dark.  Myosin: Each myosin contains two heads that act as the site of cross bridge formation with actin.  The interaction between actin in myosin at the outer edge of this area is what is responsible for muscle contraction (sliding filament theory) Note: Fewer and wider T tubules that enter once per sarcomere  Sliding Filament Theory: Refers to the shortening or the activation of the myosin’s cross bridges (shortening occurs only when the cross bridges generate enough tension on the thin filaments to overcome opposing forces). Contraction ends when the cross bridges become inactive. o In a relaxed muscle fiber the actin and myosin only overlap at the END of the A bands. During contraction:  Myosin heads of thick filaments latch onto myosin binding sites on the actin, beginning the sliding  Cross bridge attachments break and reform several times to propel the thin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere (like tiny ratchets)  Through these actions the sarcomeres begin to shorten (Z discs pulled towards the M line) o At rest a sarcolemma is polarized – it must be stimulated so that a change in membrane potential can occur – A muscle contraction is preceded by depolarization.  Ability of the heart to depolarize and contract requires no nerves (it is intrinsic). However it is supplied with autonomic nerve fibers that may alter its basic rhythm. Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Independent but coordinated activity of the heart is mainted through gap junctions and the intrinsic cardiac conduction system (non-contractile cells that initiate impulses so that the heart may contract – AKA – Pacemaker cells)  Pacemaker cells are part of intrinsic conduction system and have an unstable resting potential that continuously depolarizes, initiating action potentials that spread through the heart to trigger its contractions.  Pacemaker Potential: Due to the special properties of the ion channels in the sarcolemma – hyperpolarization at the end of an action potential closes K+ channels and opens slow Na+ channels. o Na+ influx alters balance between K+ loss and Na+ entry and the membrane interior becomes more positive (less negative is how the text book phrases it?).  Depolarization: At threshold (-40mV) Ca2+ channels open – allowing sudden entry of Ca2+ from extracellular space. o Therefore in pacemaker cells it is influx of Ca2+ that produces rising action potential (Not Na+ as it normally is) and reverses membrane potential.  Repolarization: Ca2+ channels inactivate. o Once repolarization is complete K+ channels close, K+ efflux declines and the slow depolarization to threshold begins again. Troponins are key in allowing actin and myosin to bind and initiate the sliding filament/contraction. o At rest tropomyosin is blocking/covering myosin binding sites. To move the tropomyosin the troponins that are holding the tropomyosin in place (like sticky tack) need to change their shape/composition. o This happens if there is a high Ca2+ concentration – Ca2+ binds to troponin causing it to change composition, which in turn moves tropomyosin out of the way – exposing the area where myosin can bind to the actin and begin sliding/walking the filaments up the actin chain. o When Ca2+ levels drop, the troponin goes back to its ‘standard’ conformation and tropomyosin falls back into place blocking the myosin from binding to the actin.  Troponin T: Binds the troponin components to tropomyosin  Tropomyosin: Rope like protein that is wrapped around actin, and blocks myosin heads from grabbing/binding to actin.  Troponin I: Inhibits the interaction of myosin and actin cross bridge.  Troponin C: Contains binding sites for Ca2+ and therefore helps initiate contraction  Creatine Kinase (CK) AKA Creatine Phosphokinase (CPK) is an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of creatine and uses ATP to create phosphocreatine (PCr) and ADP – which is a reversible process. o CK test is used to detect inflammation of muscles (myositis). o Has since been replaced by troponin testing. (https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/circulatory-system/heart-musclecontraction/v/tropomyosin-and-troponin-and-their-role-in-regulating-muscle-contraction) Great source with really clear explanations. NB: Troponins are normally undetectable in healthy patients, but in the case of cardiac injury the troponin molecules in the cytosol of the cardiac muscle diffuse across the sarcolemma into the o  Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 surrounding lymphatics and blood vessels – becoming detectable in blood. Can be detected 6-12 hours after onset and peak at 24hours, with a gradual decline over several days. Structure and Function of Blood Vessels: There are three major types of blood vessels, arteries, capillaries, and veins. All blood vessels (except for the very smallest) have three distinct layers. (Layers are inner most to outer most)  Arteries: carry blood away from the heart, under high pressure. o Tunica Intima (Interna): Inner most tunic (nice and intimate with that blood, ooh yeah)  Endothelium: continuous with endocardial lining of the heart. Made of flat squamous cells that are fit closely together to form a slick surface to decrease friction  Basement membrane (Subendothelial layer): supports endothelium  Internal elastic lamina: Separates tunica intima from tunica media o Tunica Media: Made of smooth muscle cells (regulated by sympathetic vasomotor nerve fibers of autonomic nervous system = this is what is controlled in vasoconstriction/vasodilation) and elastin. Usually the thickest layer with the most responsibility.  Smooth muscle  External elastic lamina o Tunica Externa (Adventitia): is composed of loosely woven collagen fibers to protect and reinforce the vessel.  Veins: Carry blood towards the heart. Under lower pressure, have valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards. Usually thinner with larger lumens compared to arteries. Appear collapsed and slit like. Also known as reservoirs because they can hold up to 65% of the body’s blood supply. o Tunica Intima (Interna)  Endothelium  Basement membrane o Tunica media: Very little elastin and smooth muscle – very thin layer in veins  Smooth muscle o Tunica Externa (Adventitia): Heaviest wall layer, with thick bundles of collagen fibers and elastic networks.  NB: Varicose veins: twisted and dilated superficial veins o Caused by leaky venous valves and allow backflow and pooling of blood  Deeper veins are not susceptible to this because of the support of surrounding muscles that help to ‘milk’ blood up through the venous system. **Pericytes: contractile stem cells that wrap around the endothelial cells and can generate new vessels or scar tissue.  Capillaries: Smallest blood vessels and have very thin walls, made of just tunica intima. Contain shunts (short vessel that directly connects the arteriole and venule at opposite ends of the bed) and thoroughfares (blood can bypasses true capillaries and flow only through metarteriolethoroughfare). Three types of capillaries: o Continuous: Least permeable and most common  Found in skin, muscles, lungs and CNS.  Have pericytes. Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 o o  Pinocytotic vesicles carry fluid across the endothelial cell.  Found in the blood brain barrier Fenestrated: have large pores that have increased permeability  Found in areas of active filtration (kidney) or absorption (small intestine) and areas of hormone secretion.  Fenestrations tunnel through endothelial cells (like swiss cheese – yum) Sinusoid: most permeable and occur limited locations  Found in liver, bone marrow, spleen and adrenal medulla  Incomplete basement membranes  Irregularly shaped with larger lumens that other capillaries  Allow large molecules and even cells to pass across their walls. There are several processes through which exchange or transport of fluids may occur (Covered in Cell Physiology as per Super 7 but she had it in with CV Part 2 slides).  Passive processes: require no energy o Diffusion: always occurs along a concentration gradient – each substance moving from high to low concentration.  Simple: Nonpolar/lipid soluble substances (O2, CO2, fat soluble vitamins) diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer/membrane  Facilitated: Certain molecules (glucose and sugars) transported through the membrane by  Carrier mediated: binding to protein carriers in the membrane to be escorted across  Channel: move through water filled protein channels o Osmosis: Diffusion of a solvent (water) through selectively permeable membrane to try and equalize water concentration. Moves from high water concentration (low solute) to area of low water concentration (high solute).  Active Processes: Requires carrier proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported substances – able to move ions against a concentration gradient through the use of energy. o Active Transport  Primary Active Transport: energy to do work comes directly from ATP  Secondary Active Transport: Driven indirectly by energy stored in concentration gradients of ions – move more than one substance at a time o Vesicular Transport  Exocytosis  Endocytosis  Phagocytosis  Pinocytosis  Transcytosis Exchange/Transport/Fluid Exchange: To sustain life blood must always continue to circulate, factors that affect blood circulation are:  Blood flow: volume of blood flowing through a vessel – it is equivalent to CO.  Blood pressure: The fore per unit area exerted on a vessel wall by the contained blood. (Systemic arterial pressure) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463  Resistance: Opposition to flow – the amount of friction blood encounters as it passes through the vessels. There are three main factors that affect resistance  Most resistance is encountered in the peripheries  Resistance is far more important than blood pressure at influencing local BP because it can be easily changed (dilation). o Blood Viscosity: Thickness or stickiness of blood o Total Blood Vessel Length: The longer the vessel the greater the resistance.  Infants blood vessels lengthen as he or she grows to adulthood and so both peripheral resistance and blood pressure increase. o Blood Vessel Diameter: Changes frequently and alters peripheral resistance. Fluid close to the wall of a tube is slowed by friction as it passes along the wall. However fluid in the centre of the tube flows more freely. Net Filtration Pressure: Maintains balance of capillary pressures. Two pressures promote filtration. And one main affects reabsorption.  Filtration: Processes that tend to force fluid through the capillary walls, leaving behind cells and most proteins. o Blood hydrostatic pressure (HPc): The force exerted by a fluid pressing against a wall.  HPc is higher at the arterial end of the capillary bed as blood pressure drops as it flows along the capillary bed.  Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (HPif): Opposes HPc, pushing fluid outside the capillaries in.  Usually very little fluid in the interstitial space because the lymph vessels constantly withdraw it.  Net Hydrostatic Pressure: Difference between HPc and HPif  HPc- HPif = net pressure o Interstitial fluid osmotic pressure (OPif): Opposes OPc.  Reabsorption: o Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (OPc): Pulls fluid from the interstitial spaces back into capillary  NB: Osmotic Pressure in general: is created by large non diffusible molecules (plasma proteins) that are unable to cross the capillary wall and draw water towards themselves.  All this gives us: NET FILTRATION EQUATION (the equation of fun – obviously) o Net Filtration Pressure (NFP): (HPc – HPif) – (OPc – OPif)  Example: Netfiltration at arteriolar end of capillary (outward pressures minus inward pressures) (diagram pg. 725 of text):  NFP = (HPc + OPif) – (HPif + OPc)  NFP = (35+1) – (0+26)  = 10 mmHg of net outward pressure  Example: Net filtration at venous end of capillary (inward pressure minus outward pressure)  NFP = (HPc + OPif) – (HPif + OPc)  NFP = (17+1) – (0+26)  = -8mmHg of new inward pressure o If the NFP is negative it is indicative of reabsorption which happens at the venous Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 end – fluid moving from interstitial space into the capillary. Control of Blood Pressure (This is really messy as her slides at this point made just about no sense in how they were laid out...I did my best if you have any suggestions on how to look at it let me know sorry ladies): Blood flow is involved in delivering O2 and nutrients to tissue cells and removing wastes, exchanging gases in the lungs, absorbing nutrients from the digestive tract and forming uring in the kidneys. The rate of flow to each of these areas needs to be exactly the right amount in order to provide proper function. This is achieved through several mechanisims  Cardiovascular Center: Controls BP and Blood Flow o Medulla oblongata:  Cardio-stimulatory effects  Cardio-inhibitory effects  Vasomotor center  Vasoconstrictor center  Acts in ANS via: o Sympathetic (Adrenergic)  Alpha – affects arterioles  Beta 1&2 – heart and lungs  One heart, two lungs o Parasympathetic (Cholinergic)  Heart  Lungs  GI o Baroreceptors: Stretch receptors found in the heart and blood vessels. o Cardiopulmonary Receptors o Chemoreceptors: Sensory receptors that monitor chemical composition of blood. o Hormonal Regulation:  Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone  Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)  Epinephrine and Norepinephrine  Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Lymphatic Vessels in Microcirculation (She only had 3 diagrams here…so I’m not quite sure what else I should look at) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Respiratory I Chapter 22: Respiratory Physiology Part 1 (15 Multiple Choice and 5 Matching) Key Concepts 1. Review function and lung anatomy: focus on pleura, lobes, and major airways Function of the Respiratory System: - Exchange of gases between atmosphere and the blood - Homeostatic regulation of body pH - Protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances - Vocalization - Olfactory Lung Anatomy: Pleura: - Form a thin, double-layered serosa - .ivide thoracic cavity into three chambers – central mediastinum and the two lateral pleural compartments, each containing a lung - Parietal pleura: - - o Covers the thoracic wall and superior face of the diaphragm o Continues around the heart and between the lungs, forming the lateral walls of the mediastinal enclosure and snugly enclosing the lung root Visceral pleura: o Part that extends from the parietal pleura o Covers the external lung surface, dipping into and lining its fissures Pleural fluid: o Lubricates lungs to glide easily over thorax wall during movements involved in breathing Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Lobes: Left Lung: (by oblique fissures) - Has 8 to 10 segments served by its own artery and vein and receives air from an individual segmental bronchus - Lobes: o Superior o Inferior Right Lung: (by oblique and horizontal fissures) - Has 10 bronchopulmonary segments - Lobes: o Superior o Middle o Inferior Major Airways: 2. Anatomical and histological differences between types of airways 3. Lung ventilation: how does it happen? Think pressures and Gas laws!! Pulmonary Ventilation: - Consists of inspiration and expiration – is a mechanical process that depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity - Keep in mind: Volume changes lead to pressure changes and pressure changes lead to the flow of gases to equalize the pressure. - Boyle’s Law: o Relationship between the pressure and the volume of gas: At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume o P1V1 = P2V2 Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 -  P = Pressure of gas  V= Volume  1 and 2 represent initial and resulting conditions Inspiration: 1. Inspiratory muscles contract (diaphragm descends; rib cage rises) 2. Thoracic cavity volume increases 3. Lungs are stretched; intrapulmonary volume increases 4. Intrapulmonary pressure drops (to -1mm Hg) 5. Air (gases) flows into the lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is zero (equal to atmospheric pressure) - Expiration: 1. Inspiratory muscles relax (diaphragm rises; rib cage descends due to recoil of costal cartilages) 2. Thoracic cavity volume decreases 3. Elastic lungs recoil passively; intrapulmonary volume decreases 4. Intrapulmonary pressure rises (to + 1mm Hg) 5. Air (gases) flows out of lungs down its pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is zero Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Page 826 Figure 22.16: Changes in intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures during inspiration and expiration: Notice that normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) is given a value of 0 on the scale Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 4. Lung volumes: remember those definitions and what they mean Tidal: - Tidal volume (TV) is the volume of air (about 500mL) that moves into and out of the lungs with each breath, during normal quiet breathing. Inspiratory Reserve: - Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) is the amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume (2100 to 3200 ml). Expiratory Reserve: - Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) is the amount of air – normally 1000 to 1200 ml – that can be expelled from the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration. Residual: - Residual volume (RV) is the amount of air that remains in the lungs after even the most strenuous expiration (about 1200 ml) Page 829 Figure 22.18 Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 5. Factors regulating lung recoil: compliance, elasticity and surface tension Compliance: - Change in lung volume in relation to intrapulmonary pressure (Inspiration) Elasticity: - Tendency of lung to return to their initial size after distension (Expiration) Surface Tension: - The force of attraction between water molecules at an air-water surface, which draws water molecules closer together - The force acting to resist lung distension 6. Lung ventilation: how is it regulated? Role of the neurological system? Control of Ventilation: - Respiratory Center: o Medullary rhythmicity area in medulla oblongata  Function both inspiratory and expiratory  Ventral respiratory group (VRG)  .orsal respiratory group (.RG) o Pneumotaxic area in pons or pontine respiratory center (upper) o Apneustic area in pons (lower) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 Practice Questions for Chapter 22: 1. During inspiration, air moves into the lungs because __________. - the gas pressure in the lungs becomes lower than the outside pressure as the diaphragm contracts Boyle’s law states that volume changes lead to pressure changes. 2. Alveolar ventilation rate is __________. - the movement of air into and out of the alveoli during a particular time AVR = breaths per minute × (TV – dead space) Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 3. Hemoglobin has a tendency to release oxygen where __________. - pH is more acidic The Bohr effect states that CO2 loading and lower pH enhance O2 release. 4. In the alveoli, the partial pressure of oxygen is __________. - approximately 104 millimeters of mercury The partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli is approximately104 millimeters of mercury, which is about 35% less than that of the atmospheric PO2. 5. Most of the carbon dioxide transported by the blood is __________. - converted to bicarbonate ions and transported in plasma Seventy percent of CO2 is converted to bicarbonate ions and transported in plasma. 6. The elastic cartilage that shields the opening to the larynx during swallowing is the __________. - epiglottis The epiglottis shields the opening to the larynx during swallowing. This prevents aspiration of food and drink. 7. The movement of air into and out of the lungs is called __________. - pulmonary ventilation Both inspiration and expiration are components of pulmonary ventilation. 8. Which tissue lines the trachea? Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 - pseudostratified columnar epithelium The cilia of pseudostratified columnar epithelium move mucus to the pharynx. 9. Of the respiratory measurements listed, which one normally has the greatest value? - vital capacity Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory event. 10. Which respiratory structure has the smallest diameter? - bronchiole The bronchioles are air passages under 1 millimeter in diameter. 11. Involuntary hyperventilation during an anxiety attack can cause a person to become faint because of __________. - lowered CO2 levels in the blood and consequent constriction of cerebral blood vessels Lowered CO2 levels in the blood cause cerebral blood vessels to constrict, reducing brain perfusion and causing ischemia. 12. Which of the following gases has NO effect in the blood until hyperbaric conditions occur, such as in scuba diving, and can form bubbles in blood when an individual surfaces too quickly? - nitrogen Nitrogen makes up approximately 79% of atmospheric gas and has no effect at normal atmospheric pressures; however, hyperbaric conditions can cause nitrogen to form bubbles in blood when an individual surfaces too quickly. Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 13. Which of the following terms describes the increase in depth and force of breathing that occurs during vigorous exercise? - hyperpnea .uring vigorous exercise, breathing becomes deeper and more vigorous, but the respiratory rate might not change significantly. This is called hyperpnea. 14. Approximately 20% of carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as __________. - carbaminohemoglobin Just over 20% of carbon dioxide binds chemically to the amino acids of hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin. 15. Which of the following control(s) the respiratory rate? - medulla The VRG in the medulla generates the basic respiratory rhythm. 16. Which of the following is NOT a function of the conducting zone of the respiratory tract? - gas exchange The walls of the conducting zone are too thick to allow gas exchange. 17. Which of the following statements about voice production is INCORRECT? - Loudness of voice depends on the size of the vocal cords. Loudness of voice depends on the force with which the air stream rushes over the vocal cords. Distributing Downloaded prohibitedby | Downloaded Ju Won Lee by ([email protected]) jane nando ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|30849388 lOMoARcPSD|2659463 18. Which of the following is NOT a function of the trachealis muscle? - It prevents the trachea from collapsing and keeps it patent despite the pressure changes that take place during breathing. The C-shaped cartilage rings in the trachea wall, not the trachealis muscle, prevent the trachea from collapsing and keeps it patent despite the pressure changes that take place during breathing. 19. What enzyme, which is ideally located in the lung capillary membrane of the pulmonary circuit, acts on material in the blood, thereby activating an important blood pressure hormone? - angiotensin converting enzyme The angiotensin converting enzyme is located in the lung capillary membrane and acts on material in the blood, thereby a