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The key features of representative democracy include: Periodic elections: regular elections to ensure that those elected remain true to the will of the people. Multiple parties: different parties represent different perspectives and watch each other with a critical eye. Separation of powers: diffe...

The key features of representative democracy include: Periodic elections: regular elections to ensure that those elected remain true to the will of the people. Multiple parties: different parties represent different perspectives and watch each other with a critical eye. Separation of powers: different branches of government have separate powers to prevent abuse. Independent media: a free press to hold those in power accountable. Independent judiciary: a separate and independent judiciary to interpret the law. Rule of law: a set of rules that apply to everyone, including those in power. Responsible government The executive branch is accountable to the legislative branch Parliamentary vote of non-confidence A vote that can force the government to resign or call an election Single-member constituency system/FPTP Each constituency sends a single representative to the House of Commons Like many government systems, Canada has a bicameral (two- chamber) legislature to provide two different legislative bodies, each based on a different form of representation. Canada’s 105-member Senate is based on representation by region Proportional Representation System A proportional representation system is a system where the number of seats won by each party is proportional to the number of votes they receive. To calculate the number of seats each party would receive under this system, multiply the total number of seats (308) by the percentage of the popular vote. Advantages and Disadvantages of Proportional Representation The advantages of proportional representation include: More accurate representation of the popular vote Encourages participation by minority or marginal parties The disadvantages of proportional representation include: Can lead to coalition governments, which may be unstable Can result in minority governments, which may not be effective Mandatory Voting Mandatory voting is a system where citizens are required by law to vote. This system is used in countries such as Australia, where voter turnout is generally high. Advantages of mandatory voting: Increased voter turnout More representative government Disadvantages of mandatory voting: Potential for victimless crime if the law is not enforced Additional resources required to enforce the law Mandatory Voting The concept of mandatory voting is discussed, where citizens are required to participate in the electoral process. This raises questions about the effectiveness of such a system, particularly in countries like Australia, where compulsory voting is enforced. Some argue that mandatory voting could lead to a higher voter turnout, but others point out that it may also result in a higher number of spoiled ballots. Elite Theories of Democracy The elite theory of democracy suggests that a small group of well-informed and qualified individuals should make decisions for society. This theory is based on the idea that individual votes have little weight in a large group of decision makers, and therefore, individuals may not feel responsible for their decisions. Lobbying by Interest Groups Lobbying is the attempt to influence government policy by groups that represent a particular interest or perspective. These groups often donate money to election campaigns and may have a significant impact on public policy. Some examples of interest groups include: Unions Business and development groups Farmers groups Environmental groups Cultural groups Ethics and the Common Good Governments often face the question of whether to follow public opinion on a specific issue. However, the will of the people may not always be consistent with the values and principles of a liberal democracy. The will of the people is generally taken to refer to the majority opinion, but this may not always be the best or most ethical course of action. Tyranny of the Majority The tyranny of the majority refers to the potential problem in a democracy where the will of the majority is imposed on minorities to the detriment of other liberal principles. This concept is illustrated by examples such as: Practicality versus Popular Opinion Sometimes, governments make decisions based on practicality or necessity, despite contradicting the wishes of the people. Examples include: Establishing shelters for the homeless in neighborhoods where residents may resist the idea Replacing the Canadian $1 bill with a coin (the loonie) for economic reasons Key Concepts Liberal rights: negative rights that require individuals to be left alone Responsibilities: duties that come with liberal rights, such as paying taxes Mandatory voting: a system where citizens are required to participate in the electoral process Elite theory of democracy: a theory that suggests a small group of well-informed individuals should make decisions for society Lobbying: the attempt to influence government policy by interest groups Tyranny of the majority: the potential problem in a democracy where the will of the majority is imposed on minorities Practicality: making decisions based on necessity or usefulness, rather than popular opinion## Introduction to Consensus Decision Making Consensus decision making is a process where a group of individuals share ideas, solutions, and concerns to find a resolution to a problem that all members of the group can accept. This process is used in various forms of government, including the governments of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories. Consensus refers to a collective agreement or opinion reached by a group of individuals, where all members of the group have had an opportunity to contribute and agree to the decision. The Consensus Decision Making Process The consensus decision making process typically involves the following steps: The question for consideration is presented to the group All members of the group contribute their opinions on the question A response to the question is proposed, and the members of the group come to some agreement on the response If all the members do not agree to the response, those who disagree present their concerns to the group The proposed response to the question is modified to address the concerns of those who disagree Another round of discussion is held on the newly modified response Benefits of Consensus Decision Making The benefits of consensus decision making include: Egalitarian decision making, where everyone has an equal say Inclusive decision making, where all members of the group are involved Higher quality decisions, as all members of the group are invested in the decision Increased commitment to the decision, as all members of the group have agreed to it Challenges of Consensus Decision Making Despite the benefits, consensus decision making also has its challenges, including: Time-consuming and difficult discussions Lack of representation, as voters may not be able to vote based on competing sets of policies Inadequate consultation, as ministers may not be willing to share critical information The Role of Citizens in Consensus Decision Making Citizens play a crucial role in consensus decision making, as they are the ones who elect the representatives who make decisions on their behalf. However, some argue that citizens may not be informed enough to make decisions, or that they may not be rational in their decision making. The Miracle of Aggregation The miracle of aggregation refers to the idea that, even if most voters are uninformed, the errors in their voting decisions will cancel each other out, leading to a rational outcome. However, this only works if the errors are random, and not systematic. Systematic Mistakes Systematic mistakes refer to errors that are consistent and predictable, rather than random. These mistakes can lead to irrational outcomes, even if the majority of voters are in favor of a particular decision. Democracies face several challenges, including: Reflecting the will of the people Balancing individual rights with the greater good Addressing global issues such as HIV/AIDS Authoritarian Political Systems Authoritarian regimes use various techniques to gain and maintain power, including: Suppressing opposition Controlling the media Limiting individual freedoms Strengths and Weaknesses of Authoritarian Systems The strengths of authoritarian systems include: Ability to make quick decisions Stability and order The weaknesses include: Lack of individual freedoms Potential for human rights abuses Bill 101 Made French the official language of the state and the courts in Quebec. Court rulings modified this law to allow both French and English in the legislature and courts Bill 178 Decreed that only French could be used on exterior signs. United Nations Human Rights Committee ruled that Quebec's sign laws broke an international covenant on civil and political rights Bill 86 Public signs and posters and commercial advertising must be in French. Made the Charte de la langue francaise constitutionally acceptable as it now complied with the Charter of Rights and Freedoms Case Study: Stoney Point The Stoney Point case is an example of how government action can impact the collective rights of Aboriginal peoples. In 1942, the federal government took Indian Reserve land at Stoney Point to establish a military base, despite the opposition of the Aazhoodena (Stoney Point First Nation). Key Issues The War Measures Act was used to justify the taking of the land The Aazhoodena were not consulted or compensated for the loss of their land The land has not been returned to the Aazhoodena despite the closure of the military base Section 25 of the Charter Protects Aboriginal and treaty rights Section 35 of the Constitution Act Recognizes and affirms Aboriginal and treaty rights Royal Proclamation of 1763 Recognizes Aboriginal rights to their land international Perspectives The United Nations has recognized the collective rights of Aboriginal peoples around the world. Many Aboriginal groups have taken their cases to the UN, seeking recognition and support for their rights.## Introduction to Aboriginal Land Claims The Government of Canada is making progress on addressing Aboriginal land claims and is attempting to speed up the process. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples On June 29, 2006, the Human Rights Council of the UN passed a resolution, with 30 countries voting in favor, 2 against, and 12 abstaining. Canada was one of the two countries to vote against the declaration. Key Provisions of the Declaration The declaration includes the following key provisions: Right to self-determination: Indigenous peoples have the right to freely determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development Right to be free from discrimination: Indigenous peoples have the right to be free from any kind of discrimination, in particular that based on their Indigenous origin or identity. Right to maintain and strengthen distinct institutions: Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinct political, legal, economic, social, and cultural institutions. Aboriginal Land Claims in Canada Aboriginal land claims in Canada fall into two categories.ts. Types of Land Claims There are two main categories of land claims: Comprehensive land claims: involve territory and issues that are not yet affected by any existing treaty or other legal agreement Specific land claims: involve disputes over the fulfillment or interpretation of existing treaties or other legal agreements, such as the Indian Act or historical treaties signed between the Canadian government and various First Nations The War Measures Act The War Measures Act is a law that allows the Canadian government to suspend certain rights and freedoms during times of war or emergency. This law has been used three times in Canadian history, and has raised questions about the balance between national security and individual rights. National Security The government may invoke the War Measures Act to protect national security during times of war or emergency Public Safety The government may invoke the War Measures Act to protect public safety during times of emergency Protection of Rights The government may invoke the War Measures Act to protect certain rights and freedoms during times of war or emergency Censorship and Secrecy Censorship and secrecy can be used by governments to restrict the flow of information during times of war or emergency. This can raise questions about the balance between national security and individual rights. Some examples of censorship and secrecy include: The Canadian government's restrictions on the use of social media by soldiers during times of war The use of censorship to restrict the flow of information during times of emergency The Anti-Terrorism Act is a legislation that gives police new powers to arrest and detain individuals suspected of planning a terrorist act, and allows for the use of electronic surveillance during investigations. The act has been controversial, with some arguing that it infringes on civil liberties and others believing it is necessary to protect national security. Key Provisions of the Anti-Terrorism Act Some key provisions of the act include: The ability to arrest and detain individuals without charge for up to 72 hours The power to make preventative arrests Easier access to electronic surveillance during investigations The First World War and Enemy Aliens During the First World War, the War Measures Act was used to intern individuals of enemy alien status, including those from Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. These individuals were required to register with the government and carry identification cards at all times. Enemy Aliens Required to register with the government, carry identification cards, and restricted from publishing or reading materials in languages other than English or French Internment Camps Used to detain enemy aliens, with conditions often being harsh and unsanitary The Second World War and Japanese Internment During the Second World War, the War Measures Act was used to intern Japanese-Canadians, with over 23,000 individuals being detained in internment camps. The conditions in these camps were often poor, with individuals being forced to live in communal buildings and work camps. Japanese-Canadians Required to relocate from the west coast, with males being separated from their families and sent to work camps Internment Camps Used to detain Japanese-Canadians, with conditions often being harsh and unsanitary The Quiet Revolution The Quiet Revolution (la Revolution tranquille) was a time of rapid social, economic, and political modernization in Quebec. It was a revolution without violence, force, or direct conflict, aimed at enhancing opportunities for Francophone Quebecois within Quebec society. The Front de liberation du Quebec (FLQ) The Front de liberation du Quebec (FLQ), founded in 1963, was a group that sought independence for Quebec. They were willing to resort to terrorism to achieve their goals, including bombings and armed robberies. The October Crisis On October 5, 1970, the FLQ abducted James Cross, a British trade commissioner, and later kidnapped and murdered Pierre Laporte, a Quebec cabinet minister. These events led to the invocation of the War Measures Act on October 16, 1970, which suspended civil liberties and allowed for the arrest of individuals without warrants. Liberalism: a philosophical school of thought that emphasizes individualism, economic freedom, and political freedom Modernism: a philosophical school of thought that emphasizes reason, truth, and progress science provides eternal and universal truth; knowledge will lead to progress; obedience to laws based on reason will lead to freedom; reason and rational thinking will lead to what is true. Postmodernism: a philosophical school of thought that calls into question enlightenment values such as rationality, truth, and progress Postmodernism is another ideological school of thought that challenges liberalism, and is the period that follows modernism in the fields of art, literature, and philosophy in Western societies. Postmodernism rejects principles of modernism and liberalism Some recurrent themes in postmodernist thinking: o There is no set of moral or political ideas that can dominate cultural, ethnic, and gender differences. o Skepticism about the modern liberal idea that society can be “improved” and that there can be “progress” in society. o Critique of the nature of knowledge: knowledge claims are relative to linguistic, social and historical contexts (ie, when Columbus “discovered” the new world). o Concerns for the issues of gender, race, and other parts of culture previously marginalized by the “grand governing narrative” (mainstream thinking in our society) – those marginalized have their own legitimate ways of making sense of the world (and may make more sense than liberal traditions). Postmodernist Thinkers Jean Baudrillard is a major postmodern thinker who believed that there is no true reality in Western liberal culture. He argued that: We are in a universe where there is more and more information, and less and less meaning. Peter Berkowitz suggests that the postmodern challenge to the authority of liberal values is an inevitable outcome of liberalism itself. He argues that: Liberalism contains the seeds of its own destruction, as the spread of freedom emboldens the liberal spirit's inclination to expose and overthrow the claims of arbitrary authority. Criticisms of Postmodernism Francis Fukuyama raises the concern that the idea of valuelessness associated with postmodernism will challenge the grand governing narrative of liberalism. He argues that: The rise of relativism has made it impossible for postmodern people to assert positive values for which they stand, and therefore the kinds of shared beliefs they demand as a condition for citizenship. Economic Extremism Economic extremism refers to economic activities that strictly adhere to a set of principles despite their perceived adverse effects on a population. Examples include: The economic practices of communist countries during the Cold War The free-market policies of the Chicago School of Economics, supported by the American government Consumerism and Liberalism Consumerism poses another challenge to liberal principles, as the values and beliefs of liberalism may not necessarily lead to reasonable outcomes. The principles of liberalism may have contributed to the disparity in consumption patterns, and liberal governments may need to address this issue to ensure that the values of liberalism are upheld. Unanticipated Consequences of Liberalism The pursuit of economic freedom in liberal democracies has brought increased personal choice for consumers in some countries, but not in all. Within most countries, these benefits are not equally distributed. Effects on Less Developed Countries The wealth and resource development produced by economic liberalism did not benefit many people in former colonies in Asia, Africa, and South America to the same degree as they benefited people in more industrialized countries. Many colonized countries were forced to reduce their own food production in order to grow cash crops such as coffee and bananas for export. The term cash crops refers to crops that are grown for the purpose of selling them for profit, rather than for personal consumption or subsistence. Some of the unanticipated consequences of economic freedom and development include: Greater debt and poverty on a large scale for less developed countries Differential laws governing ownership of property and land, access to education and healthcare, and other aspects of life, which restricted the pace of development in these countries Negative sentiments within these countries between members of various races or ethnic groups, leading to a legacy of racism, alienation, instability, and anger Environmental Change and Activism In response to environmental change, many individuals and groups have resorted to activism to focus media attention on problems caused by industry and societal practices. Interconnectedness of the Environment The environment is a shared system, and changes in one part of the world affect all other parts. The interconnections between human health, water, air, vegetation, animal life, and climate mean that each region of the earth is dependent on all others. Principles of Liberalism and Environmentalism The principles of liberalism, such as economic and personal freedom, must be balanced with the need to promote a high quality of life for all members of society. This includes addressing environmental issues and promoting sustainability. The term sustainability refers to the ability to maintain or support a process without depleting natural resources or causing harm to the environment. Some ways to balance green choices with economic sustainability and convenience include: Implementing the 3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle Promoting environmental stewardship and conservation Encouraging individual action and community involvement in environmental issues Perspectives on Environmental Issues Different perspectives on environmental issues include: Politicians: often focused on balancing economic and environmental concerns Ecologists: focused on the scientific study of the environment and the impact of human activities Environmental activists: advocating for change and promoting environmental awareness Critics: questioning the effectiveness of environmental policies and the impact of environmentalism on economic development Introduction to Environmentalism and Liberalism The principles of liberalism are being challenged by the growing awareness of environmentalism. According to Michael Crichton, we need to stop mythic fantasies and doomsday predictions and focus on hard science instead. This shift in thinking is similar to the one that occurred around the first Earth Day in 1970. The Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It was signed in 1997 and came into effect in 2005. The protocol sets specific targets for individual countries to reduce their emissions. The Kyoto Protocol is a binding international agreement that includes specific goals for individual countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Economic Liberalism Sophisticated economic liberalism considers the total picture of real costs, including: Environmental cleanups Additional healthcare costs due to pollution Economic benefits of cleaner power generation Economic liberalism is an economic system in which private enterprise and the creation of goods and services for profit are allowed to thrive with minimal government interference. Peak Oil and Energy Crisis The world is facing an energy crisis, with oil prices tripling in the last four years. Alberta is being looked to as a new source of oil, but its oil production is more energy-intensive and expensive than traditional oil wells. The US is seeking new sources of oil to sustain its economy, but this is putting pressure on the environment. Proposed Solutions Some proposed solutions to the energy crisis and climate change include: Carbon taxes Cap and trade systems Renewable energy sources Energy efficiency measures China and India: Economic Miracles China and India are experiencing rapid economic growth, with China becoming a center for low-wage manufacturing and India focusing on providing services such as call centers and data processing. However, this growth has come at a cost, with both countries facing: Environmental degradation Air pollution Loss of farmland and traditional ways of life Environmental Impact China and India are experiencing rapid economic growth, but at a significant environmental cost Sustainable development practices are necessary to meet human needs while preserving the environment for future generations China and India: 21st Century Economic Miracles China and India are rapidly modernizing and have recently experienced massive growth in their economies, including reductions in poverty, and increasing numbers of middle class individuals. China has decided to industrialize quickly, and become a centre for low-wage manufacturing of clothing, toys, electronics and other goods. India’s well-educated English speaking population has led it to focus more on services, such as call centres and data-processing operations. India’s SEZs (Special Economic Zones) provide tax incentives to foreign companies that create export products using Indian workers – as a result, worldwide, only China’s economic growth outpaces India. Both countries have experienced social and environmental problems as a result of their accelerated economic expansion, including loss of farmland, urban air pollution, exploitation of underpaid workers, and environmental issues.  Vehicles are now the primary source of pollution in China (having 7 of the worlds 10 most polluted cities), but India is moving towards nuclear power and away from “dirty” coal-powered thermal plants. Both countries face conflicts between environmental protection and economic growth. Sustainable growth is a luxury that these two countries do not think they can afford – but it has come at the expense of the environment and will continue to be a challenge. Canada's Response to SARS In 2003, Canada faced a potential pandemic with the outbreak of SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) in Toronto. The response of health-care professionals and their preparedness illustrate the challenges pandemics pose to liberal societies. Some of the steps taken by the Canadian government include: Isolating individuals with the disease Issuing public announcements about preventative measures Establishing strict rules in hospitals and medical facilities to minimize the risk of further spreading the disease Progress Since SARS Since the SARS outbreak in 2003, there has been significant progress in public health in Canada, particularly in the areas of: Networks and collaboration Increased partnerships and collaboration between health organizations Planning and emergency preparedness Development of better emergency preparedness plans Infectious disease surveillance and response Improved surveillance and response systems Laboratory capacity Causes of Water Scarcity The main causes of water scarcity include: Increased demand for water due to population growth and urbanization Climate change, leading to changing precipitation patterns and droughts Pollution of water sources, such as the contamination of the Athabasca River in Alberta, Canada Overuse of water for industrial and agricultural purposes, such as the oil sands development in Northern Alberta Effects of Water Scarcity The effects of water scarcity are far-reaching and can have significant impacts on the environment, human health, and the economy. Some of the effects include: Decreased water quality, leading to the contamination of water sources and the spread of waterborne diseases Loss of biodiversity, as plants and animals that rely on water sources are affected by the scarcity Economic impacts, such as the loss of livelihoods for people who rely on water for their income Liberal Principles and Water Scarcity The principles of liberalism can be applied to address the issue of water scarcity. Some of the ways in which liberal principles can be used to address water scarcity include: Private property rights, which can be used to manage water resources and prevent overuse Free market mechanisms, which can be used to allocate water resources efficiently and effectively Government regulation, which can be used to protect water sources and prevent pollution Water Management Water management is critical to addressing the issue of water scarcity. Some of the ways in which water can be managed include: Water conservation, which involves reducing water waste and increasing water efficiency Water recycling, which involves treating and reusing water for non-potable purposes Water storage, which involves storing water in reservoirs and other storage facilities to meet future demand Water Pollution Water pollution is a significant concern, with many water sources around the world being contaminated with pollutants such as mercury, arsenic, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The effects of water pollution can be significant, including the contamination of water sources, the spread of waterborne diseases, and the loss of biodiversity. Contemporary Issues Challenging Liberalism Some of the contemporary issues that challenge the principles of liberalism include: Water scarcity: The limited supply of water in the Middle East and other regions, which is further complicated by the flow of underground water that crosses national boundaries. Global financial crisis: The crisis that started in 2007 and 2008, which was caused by the greed of Wall Street and the failure of major financial institutions. Environmental problems: The major environmental problems caused by liberalism, such as pollution and climate change. Solutions Proposed by Liberalism Liberalism proposes various solutions to these issues, including: Nationalization of failing banks to restore confidence in the financial system. Bailout packages to rescue troubled financial institutions. Free market principles to promote economic growth and individual rights. The free market is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit, with minimal government intervention. Criticisms of Liberalism Liberalism has been criticized for: Failing to address social and environmental problems: Liberalism has been criticized for prioritizing economic growth over social and environmental welfare. Creating inequality: Liberalism has been criticized for creating inequality by favoring the interests of the wealthy and powerful over those of the poor and marginalized.