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CHAPTER Teaching Aptitude 1.1 Teaching Aptitude...

CHAPTER Teaching Aptitude 1.1 Teaching Aptitude 1 lEArning ObjEcTivEs After completing the chapter, you will be able to: Education: Basic Elements Methods of teaching in Institutions of higher Teaching: Concept, Objectives, Levels of teach- learning: Teacher centred vs. Learner centred ing (Memory, Understanding and Reflective), methods; Off-line vs. On-line methods (Swayam, Characteristics and basic requirements. Swayamprabha, MOOCs etc.). Learner’s characteristics: Characteristics Teaching Support System: Traditional, Modern of adolescent and adult learners (Academic, and ICT based. Social, Emotional and Cognitive), Individual Evaluation Systems: Elements and Types of differences. evaluation, Evaluation in Choice Based Credit Factors affecting teaching related to: Teacher, System in Higher education, Computer based Learner, Support material, Instructional facili- testing, Innovations in evaluation systems. ties, Learning environment and Institution. EducATiOn of man’s innate powers’. This definition means each human being has immense natural, inborn talent definitions and meaning of Education or talents in him. Education provides development The word ‘education’ has a wide meaning, and it is dif- conducive atmosphere to him or her. ficult to define it in precise terms. As per NTA Exam John Dewey defines education as the power by pattern, there are no direct question pertaining to defi- which man is able to control his environment and ful- nition, still some of the statements are here for better fill his possibilities. retention of concept of education. According to Frobel, ‘Education is a process by The terms education, teaching and learning are which the child develops its inner potential in a man- closely related. The objective of education is learning, ner so as to participate meaningfully in the external not teaching. Teaching is the way to make students environment’. ‘The purpose of education is to expand learn, but then, it is not the only way. Teaching is called the life of the individual in order to participate in its all as ‘facilitator of learning’. Education is the key to every- pervading spirit which manifests and realizes itself in thing that is good in our world today. Education is not and though the whole universe’. only about the past and present, but it is also the key to the future. Education not only teaches our children facts but also teaches them how to think and learn on major philosophies and Approaches in their own. Education Swami Vivekananda defines education as the mani- Philosophy is a vast subject. All aspects of education festation of perfection already in man. such as aims, objectives, curriculum, teaching meth- Aristotle defined education as a ‘creation of a sound ods, teacher, text books and discipline are influenced mind in a sound body’. by philosophy. Keeping in view that an examiner now According to Heinrich Pestalozzi, ‘Education is the tends to ask multidimensional aspects in a single ques- natural harmonious and progressive development tion, philosophies become important. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 1 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  1.2 CHAPTER 1 1. Three basis of education: The educational pro- 5. Constructivism: The learner actively constructs cess is decided on the basis of three questions – knowledge. Jean Piaget and J. S. Bruner believed ‘Why’, ‘How’, and ‘What’. Here, the question of that learning involves an active processing of infor- ‘Why’ is most important. This is answered by phi- mation and that each individual activity organizes losophy. The ‘How’ is decided by the psychology and constructs knowledge for itself. Educational and ‘What’ is decided by the social needs. Hence, psychology believes that there are developmental education is based on the basis of philosophical, stages for knowledge organization. psychological, and sociological basis.   According to Jean Piaget, ‘accommodation’ and   There are many philosophies of education, some ‘assimilation’ are basic to learning. A learner devel- of the important philosophies of education have ops new ‘schema’ through accommodation. New been mentioned below. experiences are assimilated into already existing 2. Idealism: The word ‘idealism’ has been derived schemas or they may be accommodated by creat- from ‘Ideal’. It is basically about ‘Mind and Self’, ing new schemas. that is actually spiritualism. The universal mind or 6. Humanism: It is a reasonable balance in life and God is central in understanding the world. God is regards humans as the centre and measure of all the source of all creation and knowledge, spirit and activities. Humanism believes in the interests and mind constitute reality. welfare of all human beings. Thus, the life of a   Values are absolute, eternal and unchanging. human being should be transformed so that the   Real knowledge is perceived in mind that is welfare of all becomes the goal. The form of learn- more important than knowledge gained through ing is on self-actualization. the senses.   It advocates cooperation, mutual tolerance and   Man has a superior nature that is expressed social understanding. in the form of intellectual culture, morality and 7. Rationalism: Rationalists claim that there are sig- religion. nificant ways in which our concepts and knowledge  Froebel, Kant, Plato, Swami Dayanand, are gained independently of sense experience. Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo are main propo- 8. Empiricists claim that sense experience is the ulti- nents of idealism. mate source of all our concepts and knowledge. 3. Naturalism: Contrary to idealism, naturalism 9. Existentialism: It is a philosophy that emphasizes is a philosophy with the belief that nature alone individual existence, freedom and choice. This represents the entire reality. Human life is a part emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of the of nature; it is a self sufficient entity having its individual experience in a hostile or in different own natural matter, natural force and natural universe, regards human existence as unexplain- laws. Its emphasis is on matter and the physi- able, and stresses freedom of choice and responsi- cal world. It does not believe in spirituality and bility for the consequences of one’s acts. supernaturalism. 10. Behaviourism: It assumes that learner is a passive   Our senses are the gateway to knowledge, and organism who may be conditioned to learn new nature is the source of all knowledge. Mind is sub- behaviour. ordinate to nature. The educative process must be   Therefore, learning could be explained by pleasurable and set in natural surroundings. change in observable behaviour. E. L. Thorndike   The main protagonists of naturalism are Tagore, postulated the law of exercise and the law of effect. Rousseau, and Herbert Spencer. (a) Law of exercise: Repeating a conditioned 4. Pragmatism: ‘Pragmatism’ is basically a greek response would strengthen the bond between word that means practice or action. Here, the key the stimulus and the response. In other words, word is ‘utility’, whatever is useful is good and practice makes a man perfect. whatever is good is useful. A pragmatist lives in a (b) Law of effect: Law of effect is the principle of world of facts. reinforcement and punishment. Pleasures and   Pragmatism focuses on activity or doing. There pains resulting from previous behavior decides are no absolute values of life. Truth is created dur- our future behaviour. ing the course of experience. Humans are active 11. Gestalt psychology: It believes that the whole is beings and have the ability to solve their problems greater than the sum of its parts. through the logic of experiments and scientific   For example, in the human body, there are cells, methods. tissues, organs, systems, etc., the sum of all these   The main thinkers are John Dewey, Kilpatrick, components (human body) is greater than the sum Mead are some of the exponents of this of its parts. This is because the parts are interre- philosophy. lated to each other. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 2 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.3   Further, Gestalt psychology demonstrated the 2. Informal education: The quote by George significance of perception. It also showed that com- Santayana, ‘A child educated only at school is an plex learning need not occur gradually through uneducated child’, amply reflects upon the impor- lengthy practice but may develop through insight. tance of informal education. 12. Eclectic philosophy: Eclecticism is nothing but   Informal education is not pre-planned or delib- fusion of knowledge from all sources. It is a peculiar erate, it is indirect and spontaneous. It takes place type of educational philosophy which combines all from day to day activities, experiences and living good ideas and principles from various philosophies. in the family or community. There are no formal   There are many more philosophies of education, goals. Pestalozzi believed parents are the first each of the philosophies have its contributions and informal teachers of every man or woman, family limitations. Not a single philosophy is complete in environment is the first learning environment. itself. Also, a single philosophy cannot be applied 3. Non-formal education: Education is a lifelong successfully in all situations because the world and process, it is integrated with life and work. its values are continuously changing. The educa-   It falls within the formal and informal types of tional system also changes from time to time. education. It is a flexible system. It is intentional, incidental and given outside the formal system of Table 1.1 I mportant Concepts in Education and its system. It is consciously and deliberately planned, Proponents organized and systematically implemented. It is an Concepts Main proponents open system of education without rigid rules, reg- ulations and fixed ages, stages or time schedule. Basic education (Wardha Education Mahatma Gandhi   Social or adult education, distance education System) are the examples of non-formal education. Learning to take place in nature and Rabindranath   All these three types of education, such as for- from nature Tagore mal, informal and non-formal, have their due Integral education Sri Aurobindo place in the modern system of education. Each has its own merits and demerits. There is need to inte- Focus on spiritual aspects of Indian Dr. Sarvepalli grate the three forms and make education holistic philosophy Radhakrishnan and comprehensive. Education to transform human mind J. Krishnamurti   Thus we can see that above three components Experiential learning John Dewey are mixed up in actual life situations. Active agen- cies like family, schools and colleges work through Self-education through development Maria Montessori human interaction. Cinemas, radios, newspapers of individuality and magazines are counted as passive agencies Kindergarten focus on self-activity, Froebel where education is mostly seen as one way inter- creativeness, and social cooperation action but some feedback mechanism and panel No formal learning nature is the only Rousseau discussions may also exist. teacher Aims and Objectives of Education Forms of Education In today’s situation, no nation can think of social or Though there are no clear-cut forms of education, we economic development without an abundant supply of can discuss about the three types that are as follows. highly educated and skilled people. The issue of func- 1. Formal tion and objectives of education is of utmost impor- 2. Informal tance because all other aspects of education, like the 3. Non-formal content (subject matter), method (of teaching and instruction), discipline and evaluation are integrated 1. Formal education: It is pre-planned direct, orga- with it. nized and given in specific educational institu- Most of the functions of education become clear to tions, such as schools and colleges. It is limited to a us through various definitions given above. specific period and it has well-defined curriculum. Havighurst and Neugarten have given two impor-   It is given by qualified and trained teachers. tant functions of education system: Formal Education observes strict discipline. It occurs at different levels, such as in primary, middle, sec- 1. A mirror that reflects society as it is or to be stabi- ondary, higher secondary, graduate, post graduate, lizer of the society. doctorate, post doctorate. It can be in humanities, 2. An agent of social change or a force directed science, technical and professional areas. towards implementing the ideas of society. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 3 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  1.4 CHAPTER 1 George Payne, a sociologist, has given three main 8. Self-actualization and total development: ­functions: Education should help a person to become what he has to become according to his or her individual 1. Assimilation of traditions potentials. 2. Development of new social patterns   The education aims at total development of an 3. Creative and constructive role individual and it includes physical, mental, emo- Emile Durkheim established ideas on transmission of tional, social and spiritual developments. society’s norms and values as the major function of 9. Harmonious development: Mahatma Gandhi society. He also acknowledged education as a training emphasized this aim of education very much when for specialized roles including adopting some occupa- he said ‘By education, we mean an all round draw- tion for livelihood. Education is required to perform ing out of the best in child and man-body, mind the function of cultural transmission and enrichment, and spirit’. acceptance and reformulation, change and reconstruc- 10. Moral and character development: Some edu- tion. The process why the young generation learns the cationalists consider these as the supreme aim of traditional ways of society is called enculturation and education. it differs from society to society. Through education,   Herbert Spencer emphasized that education enculturation is formalized. must enable the child to cultivate moral values Acculturation is a process through which a person and virtues, such as truthfulness, goodness, purity, or group from one culture comes to adopt the practices courage, reverence and honesty. and values of another culture, while still retaining their 11. Citizenship: As a member of the society, a student own distinct culture. This concept has become impor- should be conscious about his or her duties, func- tant in an increasingly globalized society. tions and obligations towards society. 12. Education for leisure: Leisure is the time which Factors Determining Educational Aims is utilized for enjoyment and recreation. It is needed to keep up rest and regain energy. Leisure, Education is mostly a planned and purposeful activity. if wisely used, gives birth to physical and mental Educational aims are necessary in giving direction to balance. Artistic, moral and aesthetic develop- unique activities which are determined by the follow- ments can be inspired through the beneficial use ing factors. of leisure time. 1. Philosophy: Philosophy and education are the Some specified aims of education in Indian two sides of a coin. Philosophy is the main factor ­context: When India became free there was a need that determines the aim of education. Education for ­re-orientation and restructuring of all our exist- is termed to be the best means for propagation of ing social, political and educational systems, in order philosophy. to meet the socio-economic, political and educational 2. Human nature: It is closely linked with philoso- needs of the country. phy. For example, idealists regard unfolding of the Since independence, various committees and com- divine in man as the aim of education. missions were appointed to lay down the aims and 3. Socio-cultural factors and problems: Education objectives of education in India. has to preserve and transmit the cultural heritage and traditions from one generation to another. 1. University Education Commission of 1948 was 4. Religious factors: In ancient India, Buddhism chaired by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. emphasized the inculcation of the ideals of 2. Secondary Education Commissions of 1952–53. ­religion, such as ahimsa and truth into the prevail- was headed by Dr. Murlidhar as its chairman. ing educational system. 3. National Education Committee was set up under 5. Political ideologies: The educational aims of a Dr. S. Radhakrishnan as its chairman. democratic political system can be quite different 4. Kothari Education Commission of 1964–66. from that of an autocratic political set up. National Educational Policy (1986) specified the 6. Exploration of knowledge: Knowledge is must ­following aims and objectives of our education: for good interpersonal relationships, healthy adjustment in life, modification of behaviour, self- 1. All round material and spiritual development of all awareness and for social growth, it is also a source people. of happiness. 2. Cultural orientations and development of interest 7. Vocational: Education should prepare the child in Indian culture. to earn his livelihood and make him self-sufficient 3. Scientific temper and efficient in both economic and social factors. 4. National cohesion M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 4 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.5 5. Independence of mind and spirit. Furthering the Basic Teaching Models goals of socialism, secularism and democracy. 6. Man-power development for different levels of There is no basic model of teaching that augurs well economy. for all the situations. Two contrasting models are dis- 7. Fostering research in all areas of development. cussed here; these models separately or in combina- 8. Education for equality. tion could be used for different courses. Pedagogy Model Teaching Concept Pedagogy is a conventional approach. In this method, ‘Educationists should build the capacities of the the instructor, more or less, controls the material to spirit of inquiry, creativity, entrepreneurial and be learned and the pace of learning while presenting moral leadership among students and become their the course content to the students. The purpose of this role model’ method of learning is to acquire and memorize new knowledge or learn new skills. —Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Instructor-centred teaching can also be described as ‘pedagogical approach’. Pedagogy is the art and The main objective of effective teaching is learning. science of teaching. It determines ‘how the teaching As per NTA-UGC-NET syllabus, our current focus is to occurs, the approach to teaching and learning, the way imbibe the concept of teaching. The experiences we the content is delivered, and what the students learn as resort to for learning can take different forms that have a result of the process’. been explained under the concept of learning. In pedagogical approach, the learner is dependent These words reflect the whole idea of what it upon the instructor for all learning, and the teacher means to be a teacher. The progress and prosperity of assumes full responsibility for what is taught and how a nation depends upon the development of its human it is learned. The teacher or instructor evaluates the resources. For this purpose, we need highly competent learning processes of the students. teachers. Teaching aptitude is all about evaluating candidates who want to enter teaching profession on the basis of Table 1.2 Major Shifts in Teaching their knowledge and skills. It refers to basic qualities required to become a successful teacher. This includes From Pedagogy To Andragogy qualification, intelligence, attitude and many other Teacher centered, Learner centered, qualities expected from a person who wants to become fixed designs flexible process a successful teacher. Teaching can be defined in the following ways: Teacher’s direction and Learner’s autonomy decisions 1. Teaching is the purposeful direction and manage- ment of the learning process. Teacher’s guidance and Teacher’s facilitation, 2. Teaching is a process of providing opportunities for monitoring of learning support and students to produce relatively permanent change encouragement for learning through engagement in ­experiences provided by Passive reception in Active participation in the teachers. learning learning 3. Teaching is a skilful application of knowledge, Learning within the four Learning in the wider social experience and scientific principles with an objec- walls of the classrooms context tive to set up an environment to facilitate learning. 4. Teaching is a planned activity and effective teach- Knowledge as ‘given’ and Knowledge as it evolves and ing depends on the following factors. ‘fixed’ is created (a) How clearly the students understand what Disciplinary focus Multidisciplinary, they are expected to learn. educational focus (b) How accurately their learning can be measured. 5. Teaching is a process in which the learner, teacher Linear exposure Multiple and divergent and other variables are organized in a systematic exposure way to attain some predetermined goals. Assessment short, Few Assessment multifarious, 6. Teaching is an activity that influences a child to continuous learn and acquire desired knowledge and skills and also their desired ways of living in the society. Source: NCERT Pedagogy M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 5 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  1.6 CHAPTER 1 Andragogical Model 4. It is essentially an intellectual activity. In this model, the learner is mostly self-directed and is 5. It is an art as well as science. responsible for his or her own learning. The students 6. It tends towards self-organization. learn best not only by receiving knowledge but also by 7. It is a social service. interpreting it, i.e., learning through discovery and, at 8. It includes lengthy period of study and training. the same time, setting the pace of their own learning. 9. It has high degree of autonomy. In this method, the instructors facilitate the learning 10. It is a continuous process. of participants and help them by offering opportuni- 11. Teaching is a profession. ties to learn themselves and acquire new knowledge These characteristic features have been discussed in and develop new skills. This type of teaching is also the coming pages. referred to as andragogical approach. Self-evaluation is also the characteristic of this Levels of Teaching approach. Andragogical approach is also identified with ‘adult learning.’ We all know that teaching is a purposeful activity. Development of all-round personality of the learner is the final goal of teaching and learning. During teaching Nature or Characteristic an interaction takes place between an experienced per- son (teacher) and an inexperienced person (student). Features of Teaching Here the main aim is to bring change in the behavior of The characteristic features of teaching includes the the student. ­following: Let’s first look at the different levels of psychology during the lifespan of a learner. The levels of teach- 1. It has different levels of teaching. ing move from left hand side to right according to the 2. It takes place in a dynamic environment. diagram. 3. It is closely related to education, learning, instruc- tion and training. The 5 pillars of psychology Biological Cognitive Developmental Social and Mental and personality physical health Biopsychology/ Perception Learning Social Abnormal Neuroscience Thinking Lifespan Personality Therapies Sensation development Intelligence Emotion Stress, Consciousness lifestyle and Memory Motivation health Figure 1.1 Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to achieved. These three levels have been shown below in keep in mind about the developmental stage of the a pyramid and explained as well. learners so that desired educational objectives can be M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 6 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.7 5. Simple memorable things are taught to students. 6. The subject material is well organized and simple in nature. The subject matter is simple. 7. The knowledge delivered is definite, structured and observable. Reflective level (Most thoughtful) Teaching Method - by Herbart The teaching is subject-centered so are the teach- ing methods - drill, review, and revision, and asking Understanding level questions. Drill (and practice) means repetition or ­ (Thoughtful) practice to attain proficiency in memorizing. - by Morrison Review or revising the elements relates learners to new experiences and to form new associations. Question technique is used to examine whether or Memory level (Least thoughtful) not knowledge level objectives of teaching have been - by Hunt achieved. Teacher’s Role Figure 1.2 The teacher usually plays a dominating and authori- tarian role. Teacher is the stage setter and resource 1. It is the initial stage of teaching. manager of class room. He evaluates also. 2. It induces the habit of rote memorization of facts So, in this level of teaching right from the selection and bites of information. of the subject matter to its evaluation, the key process 3. It enables the learner to retain and also to repro- of teaching and learning remains with the teacher. duce the learnt material whenever required. 4. The evaluation system mainly includes oral, Role of Learner ­written and essay-type examination. The role of the learner is a passive one as the subject contents, teaching techniques and teaching methods Memory Level of Teaching (MLT) are decided by the teacher. The characteristics of the learner should be taken Herbart is the main proponent of memory level of care of while framing objectives and curriculum, and teaching. Good memory includes rapidity in learning, selecting teaching-learning activities and methods of stability of retention, rapidity in recalling and the abil- teaching and evaluation. ity to bring only desirable contents to the conscious level. Here, the teaching–learning process is basically Teaching Equipment a ‘Stimulus–Response’ (S–R). Different kinds of teaching aids like visual, audio and It is initial stage of teaching. Teaching and learning audio-visual aids - models, charts, maps, pictures, T.V., at memory level are basically about committing factual radio etc. develop a curiosity of the learners towards material to our memory. the learning process. The three major aspects are: Nature of Motivation 1. Learning of the material Motivation drives students to learn better, it should be 2. Retention of the material and an intrinsic feeling, not a forced one. 3. Reproduction of the material as and when required. In memory level of teaching the teacher forces the Objectives of Memory Level Teaching students to learn the syllabus content through the pro- cess of memorization. 1. The main objective is imparting knowledge and Hence the nature of motivation at this level of teach- information to the learner. ing is purely extrinsic. 2. Knowledge gained by the learner is basically ­factual that is acquired through memorization or Evaluation System for Learners rote learning. The evaluation system mainly includes oral, written 3. It covers only the knowledge-based objectives of and essay-type examination. Bloom’s Taxonomy. The evaluation is being done on predetermined 4. The teaching is subject centered. objectives. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 7 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  1.8 CHAPTER 1 Here both oral and written tests are conducted to 4. Systematic and organised way of presentation of check the memory power of students. subject matter. In the written test, short type, recall type, recog- 5. Scope for continuous evaluation to measure nition type, multiple choice, and matching type test improvement in the memory power of students. items are used. 6. The retention of the material in memory of students Here the learners are required to attempt the maxi- can be increased by more practice and exercise. mum number of questions. 7. There should be scope for continuous reinforce- ment during the course of instruction. Psychological Bases of Memory Level of Teaching Understanding Level of Teaching According to Jean Piaget, it Memory level is meant for starters. The learners are at the pre-operational level (ULT) of cognitive development in the school. They cannot Morrison is the main proponent of understanding level operate upon abstract concepts. As per their mental of teaching. development, they can learn simple concepts without It is ‘memory plus insight’ as it goes beyond just mem- analyzing their true meaning and nature. Normally, orizing of facts. It focuses on mastery of the subject. they are not expected to reflect upon the learnt facts. It makes pupil understand the generalizations, prin- Herbartian theory of apperception suggests that ciples, facts and some application part also. the young pupil mind gets ready at this stage for per- It provides more and more opportunities for the stu- ceiving themselves and world around them. Brain gets dents to develop ‘intellectual behaviour’. ready for a big mass of factual information. It includes The teaching at this level stands at higher level in concepts, elements, structures, models and theo- comparison to that at understanding level. It is more ries. They can acquire and retain information about a thoughtful. large number of things, objects, and material through Cognitive abilities or mental development of the memorization. learners is more developed. They become more capable Pavlov and Skinner advocated the Conditioning to think, present the facts in a more logical manner, ana- Theory that underlies the concept that correct response lyze them properly, drawing inferences. They are able made by the individual is strengthened by reinforce- to evaluate the relationships between the principles and ment to retain the learned subject-matter longer and facts and also provide space for the assimilation of facts. to facilitate ease in further learning. The concept of Pavlov’s Classical conditioning con- Objectives: According to revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, siders the mechanical process as is applied at memory Understanding level teaching aims at the following level teaching; and thorough review or retrieval, cor- objectives. rect learning by the student is rewarded and retained Primarily, it is the understanding of instructional mes- for future use. sages by means of interpretation, exemplification, classi- fication, comparison, inference of instructional messages. Overall Thoughts on Memory Level Then application objectives include the use of a proper procedure for executing and implementing the Teaching use of principle/ rules in practical life situations. It is not worthwhile to say that memory level teaching The subject matter is wide and more detailed in is totally meaningless and useless. It is very useful for comparison to the memory level teaching. The content young children, under the conditions that their mental also includes the application of the principle/general- ability and cognitive levels are at low levels. Such chil- izations in due real life situations. dren still need to reason out and reflect upon teaching material, concepts, contents, elements etc. They still Teaching Methods and equipments: They include have to broaden their view point that depends upon the following: the age also. 1. Lecture (cum demonstration) 2. Discussion method Suggestions for Memory Level Teaching 3. Inductive-deductive 1. The teaching material should be objective and 4. Exemplification and explanation useful. 2. The teaching material should be finite and also it Classroom climate is more motivational. Learners are should be simple to complex. actively engaged in the learning process. Motivation at 3. Teaching aids should be adequate, and parts of the understanding level of teaching is extrinsic as well as content should be integrated and well sequenced. intrinsic in nature. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 8 7/13/2019 1:35:22 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.9 Teaching equipment includes the following: 7. The student’s original thinking and capabilities develop at this level. 1. Models 8. The teacher needs to be democratic. The knowl- 2. Charts edge is not enforced. 3. Flash cards 9. The students becomes active, they need to become 4. Pictures innovative and imaginative. The learners can comprehend the concepts more eas- 10. Essay-type test is used for evaluation. Attitude, ily with help from teaching aids. The teacher must use belief and involvement are also evaluated the right aid and equipment as per the need and level of students. Merits of Reflective Level Teaching 1. The teaching at this level is leaner-centered. Evaluation 2. There is more interaction between the teacher and The evaluation system mainly includes both essay and the learner. objective-type questions. 3. This level of teaching is appropriate for the higher Understanding level needs more comprehensive class. evaluation. The tests and tools need proper planning. Planned Demerits of Reflective Level Teaching tests could evaluate the student’s ability to compre- 1. It’s mostly suitable for mentally matured children hend, gasp, analyze, synthesize and discriminate. 2. The study material is neither organised nor pre- These abilities can be examined using oral and writ- planned or systematic. ten tests. There should be some scope for testing prac- tical knowledge. Dynamic Environment Role of the Teacher Teaching is dominated by communication, which is very dynamic in nature. Teaching changes according to The teacher plays a significant role. He presents time and place. Its environment consists of interaction learning material and generate interest in them. The among three variables, namely, independent, depend- sequence of presentation of contents, mode of instruc- ent and intervening variables. tion, methods used in evaluation all remains with is As students depend upon teachers for learning, the powers of the teacher. students are assumed to be dependent variables. The role of learner is more active and s/he has to Teachers are in a position to manipulate the behav- work hard at this level. The participants at this level are iours of students and hence, teachers are considered secondary learners. They may make more initiatives to as independent variables. Teaching methods, teach- know the contents further. Both the teacher and learner ing instructional facilities and motivational techniques interact within the framework set by the teacher. which also facilitate the teaching–learning process are termed as intervening variables. Reflective Level of Teaching (RLT) In case we want to look at teacher, learner, curriculum, physical conditions (climate), the fol- ­ This level is the highest and the most practical level of lowing scenarios emerge, starting from bipolar to teaching. Society expects that a person should be able quadrilateral. to understand the whole scenario and apply his knowl- edge. This is also termed as the ‘introspective level’. It 1. It is a bipolar process also means thinking deeply about something. Teacher Learner 1. It is the highly thoughtful and useful. The pupils occupy the primary place and teachers assume the Figure 1.3 Bipolar Process secondary place. 2. A learner can achieve this level only after memory 2. It is a tripolar process level and understanding level. 3. The reflective level makes the learners to solve the Teacher real problems situations of the life. 4. At this level, the student is made to face a real Teaching problematic situation. Learning 5. Classroom environment is to be sufficiently ‘open Process Learner Curriculum and independent’. 6. Here, the problem is identified, defined, and then Figure 1.4 Tripolar Process a solution is found. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 9 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  1.10 CHAPTER 1 3. It is a quadri polar process Teaching may be Planned or Unplanned Traditionally, teachers plan for instruction before they Teacher go to the classroom for teaching - content analysis, task analysis, decide the techniques and methods to be used for teaching, and then evaluation. However, with the coming of active leaning Teaching Physical ­methods, no strict planning is possible as one is not Learning Curriculum climate Process clear in advance what could be the possible way of organizing teaching learning activities. Closely Related to Education, Learning, Learner Instruction and Training Teaching is basically a method to influence the learn- Figure 1.5 Quadripolar Process ing process. Nothing is assumed to be taught unless it is learnt by the students. Thus, learning and teaching According to the modern concept, education is more go hand in hand. Teaching is the main tool to educate of a tripolar process that involves pupil, teacher and a person. social environment. There are other variables that make teaching dynamic. Important Concepts Related to Teaching Teaching is Complex Teaching makes use of all sorts of techniques, methods, Teaching and Training: The main purpose of and media and also entails skills such as questioning, imparting training is to equip candidates with probing, exemplifying, etc. Then teaching also makes use specific or job-related or technical skills. of such media as audio-visual media, human interaction Teaching is assumed to be a wider concept than media, print media, realia, electronic media, etc. Success training. While teaching deals mainly with theo- in teaching, to a great extent, depends upon selection retical aspects and training is the practical appli- and use of appropriate techniques, methods, and media. cation of theoretical knowledge. Also, teaching seeks to impart new knowl- Teaching Visualizes Change in Behavior edge while training equips and enhances the These changes are tentatively permanent – cognitive already knowledgeable concepts with tools and (knowledge), psycho-motor (skills), and affective (atti- techniques to develop a specific skill set. One of tudes) values of the learners. The changes that occur teaching’s goals is to enrich the mind while train- in learners need not be performative but be potential ing’s end is to mould habits or performance. ability of the learners. Teaching is usually within the context of the academic world while training is generally asso- Teaching can be Direct or Indirect ciated with the commercial realm. Another dif- Under direct methods, Teachers use methods such ference is found between thought and action. as lecture, demonstration, etc and engages students Indoctrination: Indoctrination can be termed as in face – to – face interaction. Conversely, in indirect the highest order of teaching. In indoctrination, teaching, active methods such as role-play, project, the beliefs and ideas are impressed upon others assignment, inquiry or other such activities are used. and can be included in teaching. Teaching can be Indirect methods are basically Learner centred meth- done without indoctrination but no indoctrina- ods where the students are actively involved in the tion is possible without teaching. teaching-learning process. Teaching can be Vertical or Horizontal Intellectual Activity In vertical teaching, teachers may lead students deep Teaching is essentially an intellectual activity. It is into the topic. They teach learners higher order thinking not merely talking or expressing one’s ideas, whereas skills like analysis, synthesis, evaluation and c­ reating. it requires conscious and continuous organization of Conversely, in horizontal teaching more areas learning activities. It entails the creation of a conduc- spreading over several topics instead of going deeper tive and supportive learning environment. A teacher into one topic are covered. has to evolve a suitable plan of action to achieve M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 10 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.11 desired changes in the behaviour of a group of learn- Objectives of Teaching ers. In teaching–learning process, learners constitute the raw material. Learners are prepared to teach in An objective describes an intended result of instruction continuous involvements in the society with varied rather than the process of instruction itself. A good expectations. objective should be specific, outcome based (i.e., it should emphasize on the output rather than the pro- Teaching Is a Science as well as an Art cess of instruction) and measurable. The objectives of teaching and learning must inte- The teaching profession is based upon a systematic grate at the end of the instruction. body of knowledge, which has been derived from There are two main ways of classifying instructional social, psychological, historical, political and economi- objectives. One classification is given by Bloom, whereas cal spheres of life. It is also influenced by the religious, another classification is given by Gagne and Briggs. spiritual and ethical beliefs of the society. Teaching techniques are systematic, it has definite steps to be followed, and are easily communicable. On the basis Bloom’s Classification of Teaching and Instructional of assumptions of science, a teacher can be trained. Objectives There are definite steps that are followed in training According to this classification, instructional objectives a teacher. fall under one of the following three categories: Teaching is an art as well. It takes places in a dynamic environment. The teacher has to deal with individual 1. Cognitive domain: It is related to the development differences in a class in a tactful manner, it needs a lot of intellectual capability (i.e., thinking or knowl- of individualized approach and discretion. edge) and it is the core learning domain. The other domains (i.e., affective and psychomotor) require at least some cognitive components. It functions at Self organization six levels, which are as follows. The people in teaching profession are sensitive (a) Knowledge: It is basically about recalling towards growth and development because it is self- information or contents. organized. They evolve a definite mechanism to sustain (b) Comprehension: It is the ability to grasp the and promote the standards of teaching profession. meaning of a material. The growth in teaching profession is organic in nature, (c) Application: It converts abstract knowledge i.e., the growth happens in a spontaneous manner. into practice. Social Service (d) Analysis: It involves breaking down a com- munication into its constituent parts in such It has been accepted that education is a potent tool a manner that relationship of ideas is under- to bring about changes in any nation. It is useful to stood better. develop the society. (e) Synthesis: It is basically about combining the constituent parts to make it a whole. It is the High Degree of Autonomy antonym of analysis. There is a high degree of autonomy in the teaching pro- (f) Evaluation: It involves judgement made about fession right from curriculum development, planning the value of methods and materials for particu- activities of a year, identifying instructional objectives, lar purposes. deciding upon the method of teaching, media, evalu-   Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and ation criteria and techniques to divide the admission David Krathwohl rearranged the levels as and promotion rules, and autonomy in planning and following: execution of co-curricular activities.   (i) Remembering: Recall or retrieve previ- ous learned information. Teaching as a Profession   (ii)  Understanding: Comprehending the Teaching is the profession that makes other professions meaning, translation, interpolation possible. There are many courses, such as B.Ed, M.Ed, and interpretation of instructions and etc., which impart knowledge and skills that establish ­problems. State a problem in one’s own the foundation for a successful pathway to a teaching words. career. It entails a number of years of study and inter- (iii) Applying: Use a concept in a new situa- mittent training periods. A teacher has to improve his tion or unprompted use of an abstraction. or her qualification for advancements in the teaching Applies what was learned in the classroom career. into novel situations in the work place. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 11 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  1.12 CHAPTER 1   (iv)  Analysing: It separates a material or enables the individual to deal intelligently with vari- concepts into component parts so that its ous social problems that one faces in life situations. organizational structure may be under-   An individual’s affective behaviour or learning is stood. It distinguishes between facts and influenced by both emotional intelligence and cog- inferences. nitive learning.   (v) Evaluating: Make judgments about the   Therefore, the implication for the educational value of ideas or materials. process is that cognitive learning and affective   (vi)  Creating: Builds a structure or pattern learning should be planned to go hand in hand. from diverse elements. Put parts together 3. Psychomotor domain: It is mainly concerned with to form a whole, with emphasis on creat- the acquisition of technical skills. Following are the ing a new meaning or structure. five different levels of instructional objectives in psy- 2. Affective domain: Man is a rational animal being chomotor domain. endowed with human qualities of love, sympathy, (a) Imitation: It includes demonstration of a skill tolerance, co-operation, fellow-feeling and similar by a skilled person and the learner tries to fol- things. The term ‘affects’ has a literary meaning of low the same. feeling, emotion and having preference for some (b) Manipulation: A learner tries to experiment object, issue, notion and etc. Affect is also treated various aspects, like manipulating machinery, as a response to different social, political and eco- equipment, etc. nomic issues in the form of attitudes. (c) Precision: Accuracy in performing various   An individual has to develop and nurture desir- acts increases with practice. able positive attitudes and interests for his or her (d) Articulation: Achieving a desired level of effi- better adjustment in the society. ciency and effectiveness through practice.   Thus, sffective domain deals with attitude, moti- (e) Naturalization: Skill is internalized and an vation, willingness to participate, valuing what is individual is able to adapt, modify or design being learned and ultimately incorporating the new techniques, methods or procedures values of discipline into a way of life. It asks for bet- according to the requirements of a situation. ter student participation. It includes the following levels: Thus, we can see that learning takes place through (a) Receiving: Willingness to listen. three different channels cognitive, psychomotor and (b) Responding: Willingness to participate. affective, it takes place as one process. (c) Valuing: Willingness to be involved. The three types of learning are not mutually exclu- (d) Organizing: Willingness to be an advocate of sive, the differentiation among them is warranted an idea. because of the nature of the behavioural outcomes. (e) Characterization: Willingness to change one’s It is clear that cognitive as well as affective learning behaviour or way of life. takes place simultaneously and with the same content   Affective education takes a long time to achieve of learning. the objectives. For example, any desirable change in Gagne and Briggs Classification of Teaching and the learner’s affective behaviour cannot be accom- Instructional Objectives plished through a singular learning situation.   As per one finding, an individual’s emotional and According to this classification, the learning outcomes rational components of the brain are somewhat fall under one of the following categories. independent of each other and operate s­ eparately. 1. Intellectual skills: These skills are crucial for deal- But there are times when both the components ing with the environment. They include concept work in harmony with each other. learning, rule learning and problem solving.   When the individual is faced with a problem or 2. Cognitive strategies: These include methods and dilemma and is required to make a decision, the techniques for one’s own learning, remembering emotional center of the brain functions first while and thinking skills. the rational brain is yet to start functioning. 3. Verbal information: It refers to organized bodies   This implies that the educational process should of knowledge that an individual acquires. provide the individual with adequate knowledge 4. Motor skills: They are basically about motions about the situation to enable him or her to use rea- carried out when the brain, nervous system and soning to mould the emotional behaviour in a desir- muscles work together. able form. Daniel Golemann (1995) calls this type of 5. Attitudes: They refer to an internal state of an mental functioning ‘Emotional Intelligence’, which individual. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 12 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.13 Objectives can be put in the following forms also: 7. From indefinite to definite: The teacher should help to transform indefinite knowledge into defi- nite one and aim to clarify the doubts of students. Cultural context 8. From psychological to logical: During initial stages, psychological order is more important, Philosophy of people whereas for grown-up learners, logical order is emphasized more. 9. From analysis to synthesis: Initially, the students National goals have little or vague knowledge about the topics. Analysis means dividing problems into its constituent Aims of education parts, and then, these are studied.   Synthesis means to understand by connecting Objectives of content the knowledge acquired through analysing the parts. A teacher should use analytic–synthetic Translated into behaviours method. 10. Follow nature: It means to regulate the education Figure 1.6 Hierarchy of Formulation of Objectives of a pupil according to his nature. 11. Training of senses: The types of sense, like sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch are gateways to Effective Teaching Practices knowledge. It is better if all or maximum of these senses can be applied in teaching. Montessori and Maxims of Teaching Froebel are the main proponents of this maxim. A maxim is a ground rule or fundamental principle 12. Encouragement to self-study: Dalton’s system is that has evolved over a period of time. It is a guide for based on self-study. future action or behaviour. Teaching has also its own set of maxims, which have been discussed below. Principles of Teaching 1. From simple to complex: The teacher should start They are closely related to maxims. Teaching methods with simple things and ideas, and these can be done are based on two types of principles, such as general with day-to-day examples, if possible. Then gradu- principles and psychological principles. ally, a teacher can move towards concepts and tech- General Principles nical terms. This creates interest among learners to acquire new knowledge. This is helpful in better 1. Principle of motivation: It creates curiosity retention. among students to learn new things. 2. From known to unknown: This is related to first 2. Principle of activity (learning by doing): maxim. Retention is always better if new knowl- Froebel’s Kindergarten (KG) system is based on edge can be linked with the known one. this principle. It includes both physical and mental 3. From seen to unseen: The students should be activities. For example, students are asked to make imparted knowledge about the present and then charts and models. they can understand the past and the future better. 3. Principle of interest: By generating genuine interest 4. From concrete to abstract: The mental develop- among the learner’s community, the effectiveness of ment of students happen better with the concrete the teaching-learning process can be increased. objects, they become familiar with and define 4. Principle of linking with life: Life is a continu- micro-words for them at a later stage. ous experience and learning linked with life can be 5. From particular to general: The students should more enduring. be presented with examples first and then general 5. Principle of definite aim: This is important for laws and their derivations can be explained to optimum utilization of teaching resources and them. The experiments and demonstrations serve making learning more focused. this purpose. 6. Principle of recognizing individual differences: 6. From whole to part: Gestalt psychologists have Every student is unique in terms of intelligence, proved that we first see the whole object and then attitude, abilities and potentialities, and socio-eco- its parts. For example, we first perceive the tree nomic background. The teaching method should and then its trunk, branches, leaves, etc. Thus, the be devised in such a manner to make all the stu- introduction or overview of the topics is important. dents to avail equal opportunities in life. M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 13 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  1.14 CHAPTER 1 7. Principle of selection: The horizon of knowledge is subjects, such as mathematics and in learning expanding every single day. The teacher should be languages. able to pick contents that can be more relevant and 5. Principle of sympathy and cooperation: This updated to the learners’ objectives. principle is required for the motivation of students. 8. Principle of planning: Every teacher has certain 6. Principle of reinforcement: Students should be time-bound objectives, and hence, teaching should suitably rewarded for their desired behaviour. be systematic to make optimum use of resources 7. Principle of imparting training to senses: The within the time limit. use of multimedia makes many senses get involved 9. Principle of division: To make learning easier, the simultaneously, which is crucial for enduring subject matter should be divided into units and there learning. should be links between the units. 8. Principle of remedial teaching: This principle is 10. Principle of revision: To make learning enduring, necessary for the teacher to identify mistakes and the acquired knowledge should be revised immedi- suggest better answers to the problems. ately and repeatedly. 11. Principle of creation and recreation: This prin- Microteaching ciple is a must to make the classroom environment humorous and creative. Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs real teach- 12. Principle of democratic dealing: It entails ing situation for developing teaching skills and students in planning and executing different ­ helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art ­activities; it helps in developing self-confidence of teaching. This Stanford technique involves the and self-respect among the learners. steps of ‘plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re-teach, Psychological Principles and re-observe’. Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use microteaching, 1. Principle of motivation and interest: A teacher and it is a proven method to attain gross improve- needs to understand that every student is a unique ment in the instructional experiences. Effective psychological entity and a student can be motivated student teaching should be the prime quality of after identifying his or her motives and needs. a teacher. As an innovative method of equipping 2. Principle of recreation: Recreation is necessary teachers to be effective, skills and practices of to tackle fatigue after attending lengthy classes. microteaching have been implemented. This breaks monotony and prepares students for learning again. 3. Principle of repetition and exercise: This is spe- cifically true in case of small children. Effective Teaching Behaviour 4. Principle of encouraging creativity and self- The following four dimensions have been identified for expression: This is specifically applicable in effective teaching behaviour: Clarity Variety Task orientation, mostly Engagement in learning (For Effective Teaching) (Newness, Motivation, in class task Sustaining attention) (approach towards (self directed goals and practical and better life) draw new experiences) Objectives Intensity of stimulus – Goal directed Make learning a Knowledge speech pattern/bright light Action directed developmental activity Individual Differences Contrast - sudden change Achievement/completion Develop concentration Integration of Facts Teacher’s bodily gestures In-built motivation Complete specified Teacher’ Movement in assigned homework or task Pinpointedness Need fulfillment class Reinforce the process of Levels of Teaching Relaxation development of conceptual Self activity of participants Techniques of Evaluation Example: Karma Yoga understanding and Audio visual aids application Reflection Teacher’s personal Balance behavior/interaction Sharpness Pausing M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 14 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  Teaching Aptitude 1.15 Broadly teaching has been divided into the following: In this method, a teacher attempts to explain facts, principles or relationships to help learners understand. 1. Pre-instructional skills Here, the teacher is an active participant, the students 2. Instructional skills are assumed to be passive listeners. Usually, the stu- 3. Post-instructional skills dents do not converse with the teacher during lecture From the training point of view, we classify teaching by the teacher. That way, it is one way communica- s’kills into three broad categories. These are: tion. The teacher talks more or less continuously to the class. The class listens, writes and notes facts and the 1. Core teaching Skills - common for all subjects. ideas for remembering and to think them over later. It 2. Specific teaching skills - for specific subject areas can be made a two way communication, if the teacher like language, Social Science, Science, Maths, etc. allows students to ask few questions to clarify a point 3. Target group specific skills - for exceptional children but no discussion is usually held. Methods of Teaching Basic Features 1. It is formal and narrative in nature. ‘If a child can’t learn the way we teach, we should 2. It presents a series of events or facts. teach the way they learn’ 3. It explores problem.  —Ignacio Estrada Advantages Once the instructional objectives are specified, the next 1. It is economical and a single teacher can teach a step is to select an appropriate instructional method to large number of students at a time which is not achieve them. The teacher has a number of methods at possible by using other methods. It saves much his disposal to select from. These methods are as ­follows. time and the syllabus can be very easily covered As per NTA-NET syllabus, we have the following two within a limited time. extreme set of methods for institutes of higher learning: 2. It simplifies the task of the teacher. 1. Teacher centred methods 3. It is useful for imparting factual information and 2. Learner centred methods drawing attention to its important points. 4. During lecture, interruptions and distractions are These can be assumed to be two extreme approaches. usually avoided. In between we can have a third method approach, that is called as mixed approach. Limitations Teacher-centred Teaching Methods 1. It provides very little opportunity for student ­activity, the teacher takes special care to make the Lecture Method class interesting. Lecture method is the most conventional and dominat- 2. It usually does not provide opportunities to ing teaching method and is preferred by many ­teachers. ­learners to solve problems. Table 1.3 Important Methods of Instruction Teacher-centred strategy Mixed strategy Learner-centred strategy Large group methods Small group methods Individualized methods 1. Lectures 1. Group discussion 1. Tutorials 2. Team teaching 2. Seminar 2. Assignments 3. TV or video presentation 3. Panel discussion 3. Project work 4. Brainstorming 4. Case study 5. Project method or work 5. Programmed instruction 6. Tutorials 6. Computer-assisted learning 7. Case study 7. Interactive video 8. Role play 8. Open learning 9. Simulation 9. Personalized system of instruction (PSI) 10. Demonstration 10. Heuristic method M01_UGC-NET_XXXX_CH01.indd 15 7/13/2019 1:35:23 PM  1.16 CHAPTER 1 3. It offers limited opportunities for checking learning Advantages progress, whether the students are attending and 1. Many important personalities and experts understanding all that the teacher is explaining. are brought to the classroom through video 4. The interests, abilities and intelligence of students presentation. are not taken care of. 2. Specifically useful for adult learners. 5. It does not allow individual pace of learning. 3. Illustrated lectures and demonstrations can be Suggestions to make lecture method more effective: supplemented by other teaching instructional facilities, such as slides, models, specimens, etc. 1. The teacher should avoid the tendency to read 4. Easily accessible for learners in remote areas. from the lecture notes word by word. 5. Specifically useful for subjects, such as geography, 2. The teacher should maintain eye to eye contact astronomy, etc. with the students so as to seek their continuous attention. Limitations 3. Good lesson planning with introductory remarks, main headings, sub-headings, figures and impor- 1. Less possibility for two-way communication. tant data and concluding remarks. The students 2. There can be difficulty in adjusting to complicated should get opportunity to make notes. schedules to telecast period. 4. Use of simple language so that students are able to understand. The main points should be repeated in Mixed Group Teaching Methods alternative language. Most of the methods of instructional delivery for the 5. Make effective use of audio-visual instructional learning of smaller groups numbering between 3 and facilities to improve communication of ideas. 12 trainees lean towards trainee-centred approach. 6. Make appropriate use of illustration and examples. Some of these methods are group discussion, semi- There is a need to ensure fair presentation of dif- nar, project work, tutorials, role playing, etc. These are ferent views and theories. briefly discussed below. 7. Provide short breaks during the lecture period for Group Discussion (GD) asking thought provoking, stimulating and prob- lem solving questions. Leave time at the end for This may be counted under small as large group teach- clarifications and questions. ing methods. It is one of the oldest methods used by Greek scholars and scholars from Nalanda University. Team Teaching Method A discussion method of teaching is a democratic Team teaching is an innovative approach in teach- method used to develop better understanding among ing large groups in which two or more teachers are students, for supplementing a lecture, in connection involved in planning, executing and evaluating the with an observation visit or case presentation and for learning experiences for a group of students. sharing information. In this method of considering various facts about Advantages the topic under consideration, understanding of these 1. Sharing the best faculty by more students. facts by studying their relationships and drawing out 2. Optimum use of multiple teaching techniques and conclusions of the facts and their relationships are devices. studied. It stimulates students’ thinking process to 3. Improvement of teaching quality. analyse and integrate facts and help in developing their abilities in prese