Summary - Sujetos Del Aprendizaje PDF

SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Life-span The Historical Perspective Maximum span of human life is aprox. 120 years since the beginning of recorded history. Child development Changes in the concept of childhood through history. ❖ Medieval Europe: Laws did not distinguish between childhood offenses an...

SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Life-span The Historical Perspective Maximum span of human life is aprox. 120 years since the beginning of recorded history. Child development Changes in the concept of childhood through history. ❖ Medieval Europe: Laws did not distinguish between childhood offenses and adult offenses. Historian Phillippe Ariés examined European paintings and found that prior to 1600, children were often dressed in small versions of adult clothing. ❖ Original sin: Based on Christian doctrine, the view that children are born into the world corrupted with an inclination toward evil. ❖ Tabula rasa: Locke’s view that children are born as ‘’blank slates’’ and acquire their characteristics through experience. ❖ Innate goodness: Rosseau’s view that children are born inherently good. Today, we conceive of childhood as a highly eventful and unique period of life that lays an important foundation for the adult years and is highly differentiated from them. Life expectancy: the number of years an average person can expect to live when born in a particular year. The Life-Span Perspective Each of us develops partly like all other individuals, partly like some other individuals, and partly like no other individual. We have all travelled some common paths. Development: the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span. It involves growth and decline. Life-span perspective: The perspective that development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary and contextual. It involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and it is constructed through biological, sociocultural and individual factors working together. The importance of studying life-span development If you are a parent or teacher, responsibility for children is part of your everyday life. The more you learn about them, the better you can deal with them. It’s important to  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE understand how your experiences today will influence your development through the remainder of your adult years. Characteristics of the life-span perspective The traditional approach to the study of development emphasized extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in old age. The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood The upper boundary of the human life span is 122 years, this maximum of life span hasn’t changed. What has changed is life expectancy. Paul Baltes’ characteristics of life span ❖ Development is lifelong: No age period dominates development ❖ Development is multidimensional: No matter what your age might be, your body, mind, emotions, and relationships are changing and affecting each other. It has biological, socioemotional and cognitive dimensions. ❖ Development is multidirectional: Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others shrink. (capacity of acquiring languages ) ❖ Development is plastic: plasticity means the capacity for change. ❖ Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary: Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists , neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of developments through the life span. ❖ Development is contextual: All development occurs within a context. Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches, etc. As a result of changes, contexts exert three types of influences: Normative age-graded influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group(e.g. puberty- formal education) Normative history-graded influences are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances(e.g. war) Nonnormative or highly individualized life events are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the lives of individual people. ❖ Development involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss ❖ Development is a Co-construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual working together. Some contemporary concerns ❖ Health and Well-being: Health professionals today recognize the power of lifestyles and psychological states in health and well being. (addictions of substances) SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE ❖ Parenting and education: Child care, the effects of divorce, parenting styles, child maltreatment, early childhood education, new educational efforts. ❖ Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity: Health, parenting and education are all shaped by their sociocultural context. Culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender. Culture: behavior, patterns, beliefs and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed from generation to generation. Ethnicity: cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language. Socioeconomic status(SES): a person’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics. Gender: characteristics of people as males and females. ❖ Social policy: it is a government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens. Values, economics and politics all shape a nation’s social policy. The nature of Development Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes ❖ Biological processes: they produce changes in an individual’s physical nature. E.g. Genes, development of the brain, height and weight gains, changes in motor skills, nutrition, exercise, hormonal changes ❖ Cognitive processes: they refer to changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. E.g memorizing a poem, putting together a two- word sentence. ❖ Socioemotional processes: they involve changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. E.g aggressive attacks.. etc. Periods of development The interplay of biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes produces the periods of the human life-span. ❖ The prenatal period(conception to birth-9 months) It involves growth from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities. ❖ Infancy( birth to 18/24 months). It is a time of extreme dependence upon adults. Psychological activities-language, symbolic thought- are just beginning. ❖ Early childhood(3-5 years) preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, start reading and playing with their peers. 1st grade typically marks the end of this period. SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE ❖ Middle and late childhood(6-10/11) Elementary school years. Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and they are formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. ❖ Adolescence(10/12 to 18/21) transition to childhood to adulthood. Physical changes, development of sexual characteristics. The pursuit o independence and an identity are preeminent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. ❖ Early Adulthood(20s -30s) Establish personal and economic independence, advance in a career, selecting a mate, learning to live with that person. ❖ Middle adulthood(40 to 60) Expand personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assistance the next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals, reach and maintenance satisfaction in a career. ❖ Late adulthood: (60s to death) Life review, retirement, adjustment to new social roles and diminish strength and health. Four Ages Life span developmentalists describe the life span development in terms of 4 ages. ❖ First age: childhood and adolescence ❖ Second age: prime adulthood, ages 20 through 59 ❖ Third age approximately 60 to 79 years of age. ❖ Fourth age approximately 80 years and older. Developmental Issues Nature and Nurture issue: debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences. Stability-change issue: Debate about whether we become older renditions of our early experience(stability) or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development(change) Continuity-discontinuity issue: Debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change(continuity) or distinct stages(discontinuity) SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Theories of development Psychoanalitic theories Theories of Theorist Name Description More detailed information Critisism Contributions development People's problems were the result of Fiv e stages: Oral(pleasure center on the mouth- Lack of scientific An emphasis on a experiences early in life. He thought birth to 1,5 years) Anal(anus-1,5 to 3 years), support. Too much dev elopmental that as children grow up, their focus Phallic(genitals-3 to 6 years), Latency(repress emphasis on secual framework, family Freud Psychosexual of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts sexual interest and dev elop social and intellectual underpinnings. I mage and unconscious from the mouth to the anus. skills- 6 years to puberty), Genital(sexual pleasure- of people that is too aspects of the puberty onward). negativ e. Patologies, mind. Dev elopmental change occurs Eight stages: Trust vs. Mistrust(infancy, 1st year), clinical Psychoanalitic throughout the life span. He autonomy vs. Shame and doubt(infancy 1-3years), circumstances. emphasizes in early and later Initiative vs. Guilt(early childhood 3-5 years), experiences. He proposed 8 stages, Industry vs. Inferioriority(middle and late childhood Erikson Psychosocial each one has acrisis that must be 6 years to puberty), identity vs. Identity resolv ed to dev elop. confusion(Adolescense 10 to 20 years), intimacy vs. Isolation(early adulthood 20s,30s), generativity vs. Stagnation(middle adulthood, 40s,50s), integrity vs despair(late adulthood 60s onward). Cognitive theories Children go through four stages of Four stages Sensorimotor stage(birth to 2 years), Skepticism about the A positiv e v iew of cognitiv e dev elopment as they preoperatinal stage(2 to 7 years), concrete pureness of piaget's dev elopment and activ ely construct their understanding operational stage(7 to 11 years) and formal stages and too little an emphasis on Cognitive Piaget developmental of the world. 2 processes organization operational stage(11 years through adulthood) attention to indiv idual the activ e and adaption. We organize our v ariations. consruction of experiences to make sense of the understanding. world and we adapt adjusting to new Children construct theirknowledge. Cognitiv e dev elopment is inseparable from social Sociocultural Social interaction and culture are and cultural activ ities. Through interaction children Cognitive Vigotsky Cognitive important factors in cognitiv e learn to use the tools that will help them adapt dev elopment. and be successful in their culture. I ndiv iduals manipulate information, Thinking is information processing, in other words, monitor it and strategize about it. when indiv iduals perceiv e, encode, represent, I ndiv idualds dev elop a gradually sote and retriev e information they are thinking. Information- Siegler increasing capacity for processing Learning good strategies for processing processing information. I ndiv iduals need to learn information is an important aspect of good strategies for processing dev elopment. information because it is important for Behavioural and social cognitive theories Rewards and punishments shape Development consists of the pattern of Too little emphasizes An emphasis on Operant development. Aspect of behavioral changes that are broght about by on cognition in scientific research Skinner conditioning development is behavior, not rewards and punishments. Skinner's view and and Behavioral and thoughts and feelings. inadequate attention environmental social Behavior, environment and cognition People acquire a wide range of behaviors, paid to determinants of cognitive are the key factors in development. thoughts and feeling through observing others' developmental behavior Bandura Social cognitive Cognitive processes have important behavior and that these observations form an stages. links with the environment and important part of life span development. People behavior. Observational cognitively represent the behavior of others and Ethological theory He separated the eggs layd by one The rapid, innate learning that inv olv es Too much emphasis A focus on the goose into two groups. One returned attachment to the first mov ing object seen. I t on biological biological and to the goose and the other one was needs to take place in a v ery early time in the life foundations and a ev olutionary basis Konrad Lorenz hatched in an incubator. The first of the animal. belief that the critical of dev elopment group followed their mother, the and sensitiv e period and the use of second group followed him because concepts might be careful Ethological Attachment to a caregiv er ov er the I f the attachment is positiv e and secure, the too rigid. observ ations in first year of life has important indiv idual will likely dev elop positiv ely in naturalistic setting. consequences during life-span. childhood and adulthood. I f attachment is Bowlby negativ e and insecure, life-span dev elopment will likely not be optimal. Attachment should occur in order to promote optimal dev elopment of social relationship.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Ecological theory This theory holds thatdev elopment Macrosystem(the setting in which the indiv idual Giv ing inadequate A systematic reflects the influence of sev eral liv es), mesosystem(relations between attention to examination of env ironmental systems. There are fiv e microsystems or connections between contexts, biological factors and macro and micro env ironmental systems. experiences), exosystem(liks between a social too little enphasis on dimensions of setting in which the indiv idual does not hav e an cognitiv e factors. env ironmantal Ecological Bonfrenbrenner activ e role and the indiv idual's immediate systems and context), macrosystem(the culture in which the attention to indiv iduals liv e), chronosystem(the patterning of connections env ironmental ev ents and transitions ov er the life between course, sociohistorical circumstances). env ironmental systems. The family The family is the child’s first, and longest-lasting, context for development. Human children develop slowly, requiring years of protection, support and teaching before they are ready to be independent. Within the family, children learn the language, skills, and social and moral values of their culture. It’s a social system with many interacting influences on the child. Origins and functions of the family Family in its form- an enduring commitment between a man and a woman who feed, shelter and nurture their children until they reach maturity. – arose tens of thousands years ago among our hunting-and-gathering ancestors. Evolutionary perspective→ the human family enhanced survival by ensuring a relatively even balance of male hunters, and female gatherers within a social group, providing protection for starvation. An extended relationship between a man and a woman also increased male certainty about heritance(offspring), motivating him to care and provide for mother and child and to invest in child rearing in order to increase the odds of the child survival. Vital services for society(functions of the family before) ❖ Reproduction: replacing dying members ❖ Economic services: producing and distributing goods and services. ❖ Social order; devising procedures for reducing conflict and maintaining order. ❖ Socialization: Training the young to become competent, participating members of society. ❖ Emotional support: helping others surmount emotional crises and fostering in each person a sense of commitment and purpose. Societies became more complex so the demands on the family were too much for sustaining alone. So, institutions were developed to assist with some functions of the family. ❖ Legal and political institutions assumed responsibility for ensuring societal order  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE ❖ Schools and religious institutions extended family’s socialization function Family became linked to larger social structures. Family function: ❖ Reproduction ❖ Socialization ❖ Emotional support The family as a complex ser of interacting influenced by the larger social context (from a social systems perspective) The family as a social system Family system theorists recognize that parents do nor mechanically shape their children. Bidirectional influences exist, whereby family member mutually influence one another. ❖ Direct influences: Parents are firm but warm, children tend to comply their requests. Children cooperate, their parents are likely to be warm and gentle in the future. In contrast, parents who discipline with harshness and impatience tend to have children who resist and rebel. ❖ Indirect influences: The impact of family relationships on child development becomes more complicated when we consider that interaction between any two family members is affected by others present in the setting. (effect of third parties). e.g. When parents’ marital relationship is warm and considerate, mothers and fathers are more likely to engage in effective coparenting, mutually supporting each other’s parenting behaviours. Such parents have more secure attachment relationships with their babies. In contrast, parents whose marriage is tense and hostile interfere with one another’s child reading efforts, are less responsive to children’s needs consistent in discipline practices and more likely to criticize, express anger and punish. Adapting to change The interplay of forces within the family is dynamic and ever-changing, as each member adapts to the development of other members. This imbalance produce friction and the members of a family resolve by accommodating to changes in each other. The family system in context Connections to the neighbourhood and the larger community influence parent- child relationships.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE A study shows that low-SES family living in a better context improve their mental and physical hearth and school achievement. How do links between family and community reduce stress and promote child development? →social support ❖ Parental self-worth: when a parent is concerned by the self-esteem if they feel listened to. ❖ Parental access to valuable information and services: Someone helps parents, such as a friend, giving them information about housing, job and child care. ❖ Child-rearing controls and role models: The community encourage and demonstrate effective parenting practices and discourage ineffective ones. ❖ Direct assistance with child-rearing: Influence children directly through stimulation, warmth, and exposure to a wider array of competent models. Socialization within the family Styles of child rearing Child rearing styles are combinations of parenting behaviours that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate. Characteristics of an effective style of child rearing: ❖ Acceptance of the child and involvement in the child’s life(to establish emotional connection with the child) ❖ Behavioural control of the child through expectations, rules and supervision(to promote more mature behaviour) ❖ Autonomy granting which encourages self-reliance. Authoritative child rearing Parents insist on appropriate maturity, give reasons for their expectations, use disciplinary encounters as ‘’teaching models’’ to promote the child’s self-regulation and monitor their child’s whereabouts and activities. Communication and expressing feelings are important factors. When there are disagreements parents and child make decisions. Authoritarian child rearing Parents make decisions for their child and expect them to accept their word unquestioningly. Children are more likely to be anxious, unhappy and low in self-esteem and ser- reliance. They tend to react with hostility and with violence. Boys show high rates of anger and defiance. Girls are more dependent and lacking interest in exploration and overwhelmed by challenging tasks. They achieve poorly at school.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Parents engage In psychological control, manipulating their verbal expressions, individuality and attachments to parents. Permissive child rearing Children of permissive parents tend to be impulsive, disobedient and rebellious. They showed reduced task persistence, poorer academic achievement and antisocial behaviour. Uninvolved child rearing Children and adolescents display many problems including school achievement difficulties, depression, anger, and antisocial behaviour. Acceptance Behavioral control Autonomy-granting Parents are.. and Parent-child Style involvement relationship Warm, attentiv e, Authoritative High Adaptativ e control Appropiate- firm sensitiv e to their Enjoyable, techniques childrens needs emotional, Commandin Authoritarian Low High in coerciv e Low g, threaten, Cold, rejected criticize W arm Ov erindulgent,in Permissive acceptance but Little High Free uninv olv ed attentiv e. Uninvolved Dettached and Low - Neglect Little I ndifferent depressiv e Neglect What makes the authoritative style effective? The relationship between the authoritative style and children’s competence is open to interpretation. Parents of well-adjusted children are authoritative because their youngsters have especially cooperative dispositions. Positive emotional context for parental influence(authoritative): ❖ Warm, involved parents who are secure in the standards they hold for their children provide models of caring concern as well as confident, self- controlled behaviour. ❖ Children are far more likely to comply with and internalize behavioural control that appears fair and reasonable, not arbitrary and excessive. ❖ Parents who combine warmth with rational and reasonable behavioural control are likely to be more effective reinforcing agents, praising children for striving to meet their expectations and making good use of disapproval, which works best when applied by and adult who has been warm and caring. ❖ By making demands and engaging in autonomy granting that fit with children’s ability to take responsibility for their own behaviour, authoritative parents let children know that they are competent individuals who can do things successfully for themselves. In this way, parents foster favourable self- esteem and cognitive and social maturity.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE ❖ Supportive features of the authoritative style are a powerful source of resilience, protecting children from the negative effects of family stress and poverty. Adapting child rearing to children’s development Parenting in middle childhood: Coregulation In middle childhood, the amount of time children send with parents declines. Children’s growing independence means that parents must deal with new issues. Coregulation; a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making. Parenting in adolescence : Fostering Autonomy During adolescence, striving for autonomy, a sense of oneself as a separate, self- governing individual- becomes a silent task. Autonomy has two vital aspects: ❖ Emotional component: relying more on oneself and less on parents for support and guidance. ❖ Behavioural component: making decisions independently by carefully weighing one’s own judgement and the suggestions of others to arrive at a well-reasoned course of action. Take into account the contexts in which the adolescent is in. Because, it affects their development.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Socioeconomic and Ethnic Variations in Child Rearing Socioeconomic status Lower SES parents Higher SES parents Personal qualities Personal qualities ❖ They tend to emphasize external ❖ They tend to emphasize characteristics (obedience, psychological traits(curiosity, politeness, neatness, cleanliness) happiness, self-direction, cognitive and social maturity) Family interaction Family interaction ❖ Commands, criticism and ❖ They talk to, read to, and physical punishment. stimulate their babies and pre- schoolers. With older children and adolescents they use mor warmth, explanations, inductive discipline and verbal praise. Set academic and developmental goals. They allow their children to make more decisions. Education Education ❖ High level of stress sparkled by ❖ Their interest in providing verbal economic insecurity contribute stimulation and nurturing inner to low-SES parent’s reduced traits is supported by years of provision of stimulation schooling. interaction and activities and as ❖ They invest in their children’s well as greater use of coercive cognitive and social discipline. development. ❖ Their greater economic security enables them to devote more time, energy and material resources to nurturing their children’s psychological characteristics. Power Power ❖ They feel powerless in their ❖ They have more control over relationships beyond the home. their own lives. At work, they are used to making independent decisions and convincing others of their point of view. At home, they teach these skills to their children. Poverty Poverty gradually weaken the family system. Poor families have many daily hassles. When daily crises arise, parents become depressed, irritable and distracted; hostile interaction increase; and children’s development suffers. In families who must live in poor housing and dangerous neighbourhoods, and in homeless families-conditions that make everyday existence even more difficult.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Affluence Despite their advanced education and greater material wealth, affluent parents too often fail to engage in family interaction and parenting that promote favourable development. Among affluent teenagers substance use was correlated with anxiety and depression, suggesting that wealthy youths took drugs to self-medicate. Young people report less emotional closeness and supervision from their parents, who lead professionally and socially demanding lives. Wealthy parents are as physically and emotionally unavailable to their youngsters as parents coping with serious financial strain. Adolescents whose parents value their accomplishments more than their character and emotional well-being are more likely to have academic and emotional problems. Ethnicity Authoritative parenting is advantageous, ethnic minority parents have distinct child- rearing beliefs and practices that reflect cultural values and family context. ❖ Chinese parents describe their parenting as less warm and more controlling. Directive in teaching and scheduling their children’s time. They express affection and concerned and using induction and other reasoning-oriented discipline. Chinese children display negative outcomes: poor academic achievement, anxiety, depression and aggressive behaviour. ❖ Hispanic families, Asian Pacific Island families and Caribbean families of African and East Indian origin, firm insistence or a combination suited to promoting competence and strong feelings of family loyalty. ❖ Caribbean families(immigrated to USA) fathers’ authoritativeness predicted pre-schoolers’ literacy and math skills, probably because Caribbean fathers take a larger role in guiding their children’s academic progress. ❖ African-American parents tend to expect immediate obedience. Black parents use firm control for broader reasons – to promote self-reliance, self- regulation and a watchful attitude in risky surroundings, which protects children from becoming victims of crime. Family structure and child-rearing customs of many minorities buffer the stress and disorganization caused by poverty. Extended-family household in which one or more adult relatives live with the parent-child nuclear family unit, is a vital feature of ethnic minority life that has enabled many families to rear children successfully, despite severe economic deprivation and prejudice.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Piaget’s theory of cognitive development He thought that as our physical bodies have structures that enable us to adapt to the world, we build our mental structures that helps us to adapt to the world. Adaptation involves adjusting to new environmental demands. Processes of development ⚫ Schemes To construct an understanding of the world, the developing brain creates schemes. These are actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. -Behavioral schemes(physical activities) characterize infancy. -Mental schemes(cognitive activities) develop in childhood. ⚫ Assimilation and Accommodation To explain how children use and adapt their schemes, Piaget offered two concepts; they operate in very young infants. -Assimilation: occurs when children incorporate new information into their existing schemes. -Accommodation: occurs when children adjust their schemes to fit new information and experiences. ⚫ Organization It is Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors into a higher-order system. Items are grouped into categories. ⚫ Equilibrium and equilibration Equilibration is a mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance or equilibrium, of thought. Motivation for change in an internal search for equilibrium.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Stages of Development Stage Age Range Description Sensorimotor 0 to 2 years Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. Infants coordinate sensory experiences with these physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. Preoperational 2 to 7 years The child begins to use mental representations to understand the world. Symbolic thinking, reflected in the use of words and images, is used in this mental representation, which goes beyond the connection of sensory information with physical action. However, there are some constraints on the child’s thinking at this stage such as ego centrism. Concrete 7 to 11 years The child can now reason logically about operational concrete events, understands the concept of conservation organizes objects into hierarchical classes(classification) and places objects in ordered series(seriation) Formal operational 11 years The adolescent reasons in more abstract, through idealistic and logical(hypothetical- Adulthood deductive) ways. Each stage is age-related and consists of distinct ways of thinking.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Social development theory(Vygotsky) Vygostky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. Major themes of this theory; ⚫ Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Piaget’s understanding of child development (development precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: 1- On the social level (interpsychological, between people) 2- On the individual level(inside the child, intrapsychological) ⚫ The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process or concept. The MKO is thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adults but it could also be peers, a younger person or even computers. ⚫ The Zone of Proximal Development(ZPD)is the distance between a student’s ability to perfomr a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. Learning occurs in this zone. ⚫ Scaffolding: changing level of support over course of a teaching session to fit child’s current performance level. DIALOGUE IS IMPORTANT. ⚫ Language and thought: Use of language: plan, guide and monitor behavior. Language and thought initially develop independently then merge. ⚫ Private speech: lenguage of self regulation. Self talk(3-7 years) Inner speach(thought) Focus: Connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences. (Humans use tools that develop from a culture, speech, writing, to mediate their social environments) Children develop tools from a culture to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. The internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Application of the Vygotsky’s social development theory ⚫ Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are shifted. The teacher should collaborate with the students in order to help facilitate meaning construction. Learning becomes a reciprocal experience for students and teachers. PG.50 COGNITIVE THEORIES (VYGOTSKY AND PIAGET)  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE The information-processing approach What is the information-processing approach? Theories of cognitive development and the information processing approach rejected the behavioral approach that dominated psychology during the first half of the twentieth century. They focus on how people think. Computers inspired those cognitive psychologists who took an information processing approach. If computers can perform operations that are like mental operation performed by people, might people’s minds work like computers when they perform mental operations? If the computer is an analogy for the mind, the physical brain is like the computer’s hardware, cognition is like its software. This approach analyzes how individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies for deal with it. Effective information processing involves attention, memory and thinking. Stimulus Attention Memory Thinking Response The information processing approach - applied to Development A computer’s information processing is limited by its hardware and software. The hardware limitations include the computer’s basic capacity for processing information and how efficiently it executes operations. The software limitations include the strategies and knowledge available for specific tasks. According to this approach, children cognitive development results from their ability to overcome processing limitations by increasingly executing basic operations, expanding information-processing capacity and acquire new knowledge and strategies. Mechanisms of change ⚫ Encoding: mechanism by which information gets into memory. ⚫ Automaticity: The ability to process information with little or no effort ⚫ Strategy construction: Creation of a new procedure for processing information Children’s information processing is characterized by self-modification(children learn to use what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation. Comparison with Piaget’s theory ⚫ Both see children as directing their own cognitive development.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE ⚫ Identify cognitive capabilities and limitations at various points in development. ⚫ Describe ways in which individuals do and do not understand important concepts at different points in life and try to explain how more advanced understanding grows out of a less advanced one. ⚫ Emphasize the impact that existing understanding has on the ability to acquire a new understanding of something. Differences ⚫ Information processing approach doesn’t see development as occurring in distinct stages with a brief transition period from one stage to the next. Instead, individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge. ⚫ Focus on more precise analysis of change Speed of processing information It is a limitation of processing information. Changes in speed of processing, The speed with which such tasks are completed improves dramatically across the childhood years. Processing speed continues to improve in early adolescence. There is a controversy about whether the increase in processing speed is due to experience or biological maturation. Experience plays an important role. The role of biological maturation likely involves myelination. (a myelin sheath covers the axon and increases the speed of electrical impulses in the brain) It continues developing through childhood and adolescence. Does processing speed matter? How fast children can process information is linked with their competence in thinking. (e.g how fast children can articulate a series of words affects how many words they can store and remember) It’s unimportant. The strategies that people learn through experience may compensate for any decline in processing speed with age. When individuals are able to process information faster, it is linked with their ability to perform well on cognitive tasks. Slower processing or information might be responsible for the association of lower IQ and mortality.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Attention What is attention? It is the focusing/concentrating of mental resources. It improves cognitive processing for many tasks. Types of attention ⚫ Sustained attention: the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. ⚫ Selective attention: Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant. ⚫ Divided attention: Concentrating on more than one activity. Infancy If a stimulus is presented to infants several times in a row, they usually pay less attention to it each time. This suggests they are bored with it. Habituation: decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus. Dishabituation is the recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation. Habituation provides a measure of an infant’s maturity and well.being. Childhood and adolescence There are some developmental changes in attention during early childhood. Toddlers shift attention from one activity to another and seems to spend little time focused on any object or event.In contrast, the preschool child might watch television for half an hour at a time. Children’s experiences in their home and at child care can influence the development of their attention and memory. When children are 6 or 7 years they have a cognitive control of attention. Attention to relevant information increases through the elementary and secondary school years. Processing of irrelevant information decreases in adolescence. Adulthood ⚫ Young adults have between sustained attention ⚫ Older adults have a selective attention Memory What’s memory? It is the retention of information over time.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Processes of memory Encoding: getting information into memory Storage: retaining information over time Retrieval: taking information out of storage. Constructing memory Memories may also be inaccurate for a number of reasons. People construct and reconstruct their memories. According to schema theory, people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds. This process is guided by schemas, which are mental frameworks that organize concepts and information. Schemas influence the way people encode, make inferences about and retrieve information. False memories New information can also alter memories.  SUJETOS DEL APRENDIZAJE Metacognition It is the awareness and understanding of various aspects of thought. During early and middle childhood, metacognition expands greatly as children construct a naive theory of mind, a coherent understanding of people as mental beings, which they revise as they encounter new evidence. Metacognitive knowledge