Study Of Human Development PDF

CHAPTER 1 STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? A process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. An event or incident which has recentl...

CHAPTER 1 STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? A process that creates growth, progress, positive change or the addition of physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic components. An event or incident which has recently happened and is likely to have an effect on the present situation. Human Development Scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout the human life span. Life-Span Development Concept of human development as a lifelong process, which can be studied scientifically. “womb to tomb” BASIC CONCEPTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT Physical Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. Cognitive Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial Emotions, personality, and social relationships. INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT What makes each person unique? PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN Individual differences Differences in characteristics, influences, or developmental outcomes. INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Heredity Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from the biological parents. Environment Totality of nonhereditary, or experiential, influences on development Maturation Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes CONTEXTS OF DEVELOPMENT FAMILY A group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or Nuclear family national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared Two-generational kinship, economic, and identity. household unit consisting of one or two parents Ethnic minorities and their biological children, adopted children, or Ethnic groups with national or cultural traditions stepchildren. different from the majority of the population. Extended family Race Multigenerational kinship network of parents, A grouping of humans distinguished by their outward children, and other relatives, sometimes living physical characteristics or social qualities from other together in an extended-family household. groups. Not a biological construct. Polygamy Ethnic gloss Family structure in which one spouse, most Overgeneralization about an ethnic or cultural group commonly a man, is married to more than one that obscures differences within the group. partner. NORMATIVE INFLUENCES Socioeconomic Status (SES) Normative Based on family income and the educational and Characteristic of an event that occurs in a similar way occupational levels of the adults in the for most people in a group. household. Normative Age-Graded COVID-19 – A novel coronavirus disease causing highly similar for people in a particular age group. The fatigue, loss of sense of smell, fever, and timing of biological events is fairly predictable within a respiratory distress; the source of the 2019 normal range. pandemic. Normative History-Graded significant events (such as World War II or the COVID-19 Risk Factors pandemic) that shape the behavior and attitudes of a Conditions that increase the likelihood of a historical generation. negative developmental outcome. Historical generation - A group of people strongly influenced by a major historical event during their Culture formative period. A society’s or group’s total way of life, including Cohort - A group of people born at about the same time. customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products—all learned behavior, NON-NORMATIVE INFLUENCES passed on from parents to children. Non-normative Individualistic unusual events that have a major impact on individual o A culture in which people tend to lives because they disturb the expected sequence of the prioritize personal goals ahead of life cycle. They are either typical events that happen at collective goals and to view themselves an atypical time of life (such as the death of a parent as distinct individuals. when a child is young) or atypical events (such as Collectivistic surviving a plane crash). o A culture in which people tend to prioritize collaborative social goals ahead of individual goals and to view themselves in the context of their social TIMING OF INFLUENCES relationships. Imprinting Instinctive form of learning in which, during a critical period in early development, a young animal forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees, usually the ETHNICITY AND RACE mother. Ethnic group Critical period Specific time when a given event or its absence has a specific impact on development. Sensitive Periods Coherent set of logically Times in development when a person is related concepts that seeks to organize, explain, and particularly open to certain kinds of experiences. predict data. Hypotheses LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH Possible explanations for phenomena, used to predict 1. Development is lifelong. the outcome of research. Development is a lifelong process of change. Each period of the life span is affected by what BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES happened before and will affect what is to come. ISSUE 1: Is Development Active or Reactive? 2. Development is multidimensional. Mechanistic Model - Model that views human It occurs along multiple interacting dimensions— development as a series of predictable responses to biological, psychological, and social—each of stimuli. which may develop at varying rates. People are like machines that react to environmental 3. Development is multidirectional. input. As people gain in one area, they may lose in It results from the operation of biological parts in another, sometimes at the same time. response to external or internal stimuli. 4. Relative influences of biology and culture shift Organismic Model- Model that views human over the life span. development as internally initiated by an active The process of development is influenced by organism and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively both biology and culture, but the balance different stages. between these influences changes. They initiate events; they do not just react. Thus, the 5. Development involves changing resource driving force for change is internal. allocations. Environmental influences do not cause development, Individuals choose to invest their resources of though they can speed or slow it. time, energy, talent, money, and social support ISSUE 2: Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? in varying ways. Continuity- gradual and incremental 6. Development shows plasticity. o Favored by mechanists It describes the permanent behavioral, o Quantitative change- in number or amount, anatomical, or physiological changes in the such as in height, weight, size of vocabulary, or developmental trajectory adopted by an frequency of communication. organism during the life span, influenced by o Development is always governed by the same external environmental factors or other internal processes and involves the gradual refinement physiological factors, and that occurs through and extension of early skills into later abilities, gene–environment interactions. allowing one to make predictions about future characteristics on the basis of past performance. Discontinuity- abrupt and uneven 7. Development is influenced by the historical and o Qualitative change- Discontinuous change in cultural context. kind, structure, or organization Each person develops within multiple contexts o Marked by the emergence of new phenomena circumstances or conditions defined in part by that could not be easily predicted on the basis maturation and in part by time and place. Human of past functioning. beings not only influence but also are influenced by their historical-cultural context. CHAPTER 2 THEORY AND RESEARCH Theory  opposite sex and a concomitant sense of rivalry with the parent of the same sex. o Castration Anxiety- describes a boy's fear of loss of or damage to the genital organ as punishment for incestuous wishes toward the mother and murderous fantasies toward the rival father. Latency (6 to puberty)- Time of relative calm between more turbulent stages. Genital (puberty to adulthood)- Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage, channeled into mature adult THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES sexuality. PERSPECTIVE 1: Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic Perspective- View of human Psychosocial Development - (1) Pattern of change in development as shaped by unconscious forces emotions, personality, and social relationships. (2) In that motivate human behavior. Erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally o Sigmund Freud- a Viennese physician influenced process of development of the ego, or self. and the originator of the psychoanalytic o Erik Erikson- modified and extended Freudian perspective. He believed in reactive theory by emphasizing the influence of society development, as well as qualitative on the developing personality. Erikson also was changes over time. a pioneer in taking a life-span perspective. o Psychosexual Development- In Freudian o Psychosocial Crisis- Internal conflicts linked to theory, an unvarying sequence of stages life’s key stages which help to define his or her of childhood personality development in growth and personality. which gratification shifts from the mouth o Maladaptation- overly adopting positive to the anus and then to the genitals. extreme; “can be changed” o Libido- psychic drive or energy, usually o Malignant- adopting the negative extreme; conceived as sexual in nature, but “hard to be changed” sometimes conceived as including other o Both the positive disposition and negative forms of desire. disposition in each crises should be balanced. o Erogenous zone- an area of the human body that has heightened sensitivity, the Note: The table of Psychosocial Development stimulation of which may generate a sexual response, such as relaxation, PERSPECTIVE 2: Learning sexual fantasies, sexual arousal and Learning Perspective- View of human development that orgasm. holds that changes in behavior result from experience or PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT from adaptation to the environment. Oral (birth to 12-18 months)- Baby’s chief source o Behaviorism- Learning theory that emphasizes of pleasure involves mouth-oriented activities the predictable role of environment in causing (sucking and feeding). observable behavior. Anal (12-18 months to 3 years)- Child derives o Tabula Rasa- a “blank slate” upon which sensual gratification from withholding and experience could write. expelling feces. Zone of gratification is anal o Classical Conditioning- Learning based on region, and toilet training is important activity. associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily Phallic (3-6 years)- child becomes attached to elicit a response with another stimulus that parent of the other sex and later identifies with does elicit the response. same-sex parent. Superego develops. Zone of gratification shifts to genital region. o Oedipus Complex- a desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the  in a series of four stages involving qualitatively distinct types of mental operations. o Organization – (1) Piaget’s term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge. (2) Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material to be remembered. o Schemes- organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular o Adaptation- adjustment to new information about the environment, o Operant Conditioning- (1) Learning achieved through processes of based on association of behavior with its assimilation and accommodation. consequences. (2) Learning based on ▪ Assimilation- incorporation of reinforcement or punishment. new information into an ▪ Reinforcement- The process by existing cognitive structure. which a behavior is ▪ Accommodation- changes in a strengthened, increasing the cognitive structure to include likelihood that the behavior will new information. be repeated. ▪ Equilibration- tendency to seek ▪ Punishment- The process by a stable balance among which a behavior is weakened, cognitive elements; achieved decreasing the likelihood of through a balance between repetition. assimilation and accommodation. COGNITIVE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Social Learning Theory- Theory proposed by Albert Bandura stating that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models. Also PERSPECTIVE 3: Cognitive called social cognitive theory. Sociocultural Theory- Lev Vygotsky’s theory of how o Reciprocal Determinism- The person contextual factors affect children’s development acts on the world as the world acts on Zone Of Proximal Development (ZPD)- difference the person. between what a child can do alone and what the child o Observational Learning- Learning can do with help. through watching the behavior of others. Scaffolding- Temporary support to help a child master a o Self-Efficacy- Sense of one’s capability to task. master challenges and achieve goals. Information-Processing Approach 1) Approach to the study of cognitive development by PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE observing and analyzing the mental processes Cognitive-Stage Theory- Jean Piaget’s theory involved in perceiving and handling information. that children’s cognitive development advances  2) Approach to the study of cognitive Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective- View of development that analyzes processes human development that focuses on evolutionary and involved in perceiving and handling biological bases of behavior. information. o Ethology- Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. o Evolutionary Psychology- Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and PERSPECTIVE 4: Contextual survival of the fittest to individual behavior. Contextual Perspective- View of human development that sees the individual as Research Issues and Ethics inseparable from the social context. Psychologists are increasingly concerned with Bioecological Theory- Urie Bronfenbrenner’s incorporating diversity into scientific research. approach to understanding processes and The open science movement calls for increased contexts of human development that identifies integrity, reproducibility, and accessibility of scientific five levels of environmental influence. work. Researchers seek to resolve ethical issues on the basis BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY of principles of beneficence, respect, and justice. Microsystem- consists of the everyday o Beneficence- obligation to maximize potential environment of home, work, school, or benefits to participants and to minimize neighborhood. potential harm. Mesosystem- interlocking influence of o Respect- respecting participants’ autonomy and microsystems. protection of those who are unable to exercise Exosystem- interactions between a microsystem their own judgment. and an outside system or institution. o Justice- inclusion of diverse groups together Macrosystem- consists of overarching cultural with sensitivity to any special impact the patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, research may have on them. and economic and political systems. Chronosystem- represents the dimension of time. CHAPTER 3 & 4 PRENATAL AND INFANCY DEVELOPMENT Fertilization- the process by which sperm and ovum—the male and female gametes, or sex cells—combine to create a single cell called a zygote. Gestation- period of development between conception and birth. Gestation Age- age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle. Artificial Reproductive Technologies Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)- conception through artificial means, it provides couples having difficulty conceiving naturally with a means to augment their fertility. o Artificial Insemination- sperm is injected into a PERSPECTIVE 5: Evolutionary/Sociobiological woman’s vagina, cervix, or uterus.  o In-vitro Fertilization- a woman’s ova are First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by surgically removed, fertilized in a rapid cell division in the wall of the uterus. laboratory dish, and implanted in the Embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks) woman’s uterus. characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. Multiple Birth o Organogenesis- Process by which the organs Dizygotic Twins and major body systems develop rapidly; a ▪ twins conceived by the union of two different critical period where the embryo is most ova (or a single ovum that has split) with two vulnerable to destructive influences. different sperm cells; also called fraternal twins; o Spontaneous Abortion- Natural expulsion from they are no more alike genetically than any other the uterus of an embryo that cannot survive siblings. outside the womb; also called miscarriage. Monozygotic Twins Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth) ▪ twins resulting from the division of a single Final stage of gestation, characterized by increased zygote after fertilization; also called identical differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body twins; they are genetically similar. size. Mechanisms of Heredity Genetic Code sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; governs the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) chemical that carries inherited instructions for the development of all cellular forms of life. Chromosomes coils of DNA that consist of genes. Environmental Influences: Maternal Factors Genes Teratogens- Environmental agents, such as virus, a drug, small segments of DNA located in definite or radiation, that can interfere with normal prenatal positions on particular chromosomes; functional development and cause developmental abnormalities. units of heredity Nutrition and Maternal Weight- Either too much or too Human Genome little weight gain can be risky and may have long-range complete sequence of genes in the human body. effects; some research shown that the maternal calorie Mutations restriction during pregnancy might put children at risk permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes for later obesity. that may produce harmful characteristics. Drug and/or Substance Intake o Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) – combination of Sex Determination mental, motor, and developmental Autosomes abnormalities affecting the offspring of some in humans, the 22 pairs of chromosomes not women who drink heavily during pregnancy. related to sexual expression. o Caffeine- four or more cups of coffee a day Sex chromosomes during pregnancy may increase the risk of pair of chromosomes that determines sex. sudden death in infancy. o XX in the normal human female. o Marijuana, Cocaine, and Methamphetamine- o XY in the normal human male. Marijuana use can lead to birth defects, and cocaine has been associated with spontaneous Stages of Prenatal Development abortion. Germinal Stage (Fertilization – 2 weeks) Maternal Illness- both prospective parents should try to avoid all infections – common colds, flu, urinary tract  and vaginal infections, as well as sexually Labor- an apt term for the process of giving birth. transmitted diseases. Parturition- another term for labor; the act or process o Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome of giving birth; typically begins about 2 weeks before (AIDS)- a viral disease caused by human delivery, when sharply rising estrogen levels stimulate immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that the uterus to contract and the cervix to become more undermines effective functioning of the flexible. immune system. o Rubella (German Measles)- If contracted by a woman, can cause deafness and Stages of Childbirth heart defects in her baby STAGE 1: Dilation of the Cervix Maternal Anxiety, Stress, And Depression- The longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for a woman Moderate maternal anxiety may spur having her first child. organization of the developing brain The baby positions itself. Maternal Age- Higher risk of premature delivery, STAGE 2: Descent and Emergence of the Baby retarded fetal growth, birth defects, and During the second stage, the baby’s head moves down chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down the birth canal and emerges from the vagina. Syndrome. STAGE 3: Expulsion of the Placenta Outside Environmental Hazard- Air pollution, Lasts between 10 minutes to 1 hour. chemicals, radiation, extremes of heat and During the brief third stage, the placenta and umbilical humidity, and other environmental hazards can cord are expelled from the womb. affect prenatal development. A man’s exposure to lead, marijuana, or tobacco Delivery Methods smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, Vaginal Delivery pesticides, or high ozone levels may result in the usual method of childbirth where the baby is abnormal or poor-quality sperm. delivered through the vagina. Cesarean Delivery Monitoring and Promoting Prenatal Development delivery of a baby by surgical removal from the uterus. Maternal Blood Test Breech Position the mother’s blood is tested for hormone levels o the baby is positioned with the feet or buttocks associated with fetal abnormalities. first. Prenatal Cell-Free DNA Scan fetal DNA is extracted from the mother’s blood The Newborn Baby and tested. Anoxia Amniocentesis The complete lack of oxygen delivery to an organ. a procedure in which a sample of amniotic fluid Hypoxia is withdrawn for analysis. When an organ experiences oxygen delivery that is insufficient to meet the metabolic needs of the tissue. Neonatal Jaundice Chorionic Villus Sampling Condition, in many newborn babies, caused by tissue from the membrane surrounding the fetus immaturity of liver and evidenced by yellowish is removed and analyzed. appearance; can cause brain damage if not treated Embryoscopy promptly. the insertion of a tiny viewing scope into the mother’s uterus through the abdominal wall for Medical and Behavioral Assessment a direct look at the embryo. Apgar Scale Umbilical Cord Sampling Standard measurement of newborn’s condition; it allows direct access to fetal DNA in the blood assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and vessels of the umbilical cord for diagnosis. respiration. Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale Birth And Physical Development During the First 3 Years Neurological and behavioral test to measure neonate’s Birth Process responses to the environment.  Principle that development proceeds from within to Complications of Childbirth without, that is, that parts of the body near the center Low Birth-Weight Babies develop before the extremities. Weight of less 5 ½ pounds (2,500 grams) at birth because of prematurity or being small-for-date. Early Sensory Capacities Preterm (Premature) Infants Touch and Pain Infants born before completing the 37th week of Touch is the first to develop, and for the first several gestation. months, it is the most mature sensory system. Small-For-Date Infants Smell and Taste Infants whose birth weight is less than that of 90 Senses of smell and taste also begin to develop in the percent of babies of the same gestational age, as womb. a result of slow fetal growth. Vision Vision is the least developed sense at birth perhaps Who is likely to have a low-birth-weight baby? because there is so little to see in the womb. Factors include: 1) demographic and socioeconomic factors; Early Reflexes 2) medical factors predating the pregnancy; Reflex 3) prenatal behavioral and environmental factors; Automatic, involuntary, innate responses to stimulation. 4) medical conditions associated with the pregnancy The Newborn Baby Kangaroo Care Method of skin-to-skin contact in which a newborn is laid face down between the mother’s breasts for an hour or so at a time after birth. Protective Factors Influences that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes. Postmature A fetus not yet born as of 2 weeks after due date or 42 weeks after the mother’s last menstrual period. Stillbirth Milestones of Motor Development Denver Developmental Screening Test Death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of gestation. A screening test given to children who are 1 month to 6 Infant Mortality Rate years old to determine whether they are developing normally. Proportion of babies born alive who die within Gross Motor Skills the 1st year. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Physical skills that involve the large muscles. Fine Motor Skills Sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant; sometimes called crib death. Physical skills that involve small muscles and eye-hand coordination. Early Physical Development Cephalocaudal Principle CHAPTER 5 PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY Principle that development proceeds in a head- CHILDHOOD to-tail direction that is, that upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk. Physical Development Proximodistal Principle Bodily Growth and Change  o Children grow rapidly between ages 3 o Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night terrors and 6 but less quickly than before. share many characteristics. They all occur during o Both boys and girls typically grow about slow wave sleep and are more common when 2 to 3 inches a year during early children are sleep deprived, have a fever or are childhood and gain approximately 4 to 6 on medications, or when conditions are noisy. pounds annually. o Sleepwalking and sleeptalking are generally o Boys’ slight edge in height and weight harmless, and their frequency declines as continues until growth spurt of puberty. children age. o Muscular and skeletal growth o It is best not to interrupt sleepwalking or night progresses, making children stronger. terrors because interruptions may confuse and further frighten the child. Nightmare o A bad dream, sometimes brought on by staying up too late, eating a heavy meal close to bedtime, or overexcitement. Sleep o Common during early childhood, peaking o Sleep patterns change throughout the between 6 to 10 years of age. growing-up years. o An occasional bad dream is no cause for alarm, o Cultural factors shaping the variations in but frequent or persistent nightmares, sleep patterns differ from each other. especially those that make a child fearful or The processes are complex and not all anxious during waking hours, may signal variables important to one country are excessive stress and are correlated with important in other countries. emotional, attentional, and conduct problems. o Almost half of children experience problems with getting or staying asleep, Bed-wetting and about a third of parents or ENURESIS caregivers report sleep problems in their o Repeated urination in clothing or in bed. young child. o Most children stay dry, day and night, by age 3 to 5, but enuresis, repeated involuntary Sleep Disturbances urination at night by children old enough to be Night terror expected to have bladder control, is not o Abrupt awakening from a deep sleep in a unusual. state of agitation, generally occurs in o About 15% of 5-year-olds, more commonly young children. boys, wet the bed regularly, often while o The child may scream and sit up in bed, sleeping deeply. breathing rapidly and staring or o Children and their parents need to be reassured thrashing about, yet they are not really that enuresis is common and not serious. The awake. child is not to blame and should not be o Generally peak at about 1 ½ years of age punished. and are common between 2 ½ and 4 years of age and decline thereafter. Brain development Sleepwalking During the first few years of life, brain development is o Also called somnambulism; walking rapid and profound. around and sometimes performing other From 3 to 6, the most rapid brain growth occurs in the functions while asleep. frontal areas that regulate planning and goal setting, Sleeptalking and the density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex o Also called somniloquy; talking while peaks at age 4. asleep. By age 6, the brain has attained about 90% of its peak volume. From 6 – 11, rapid brain growth occurs in areas  that support associative thinking, language, and o the preference for using one hand over the spatial relations. other. Corpus Callosum- o Usually evident by age 3. o a thick band of nerve fibers that o Because the left hemisphere of the brain, which connects both hemispheres of the brain controls the right side of the body, is usually and allows them to communicate more dominant, 90 of people favor their right side. rapidly and effectively with each other. o Boys are more likely to be left-handed than are o The corpus callosum continues to be girls. For every 100 left-handed girls, there are myelinated throughout childhood and 123 left-handed boys. adolescence, with peak volume occurring later in boys than in girls. Health and safety Obesity and Overweight Motor Skills o Worldwide, an estimated 39 million under age 5 Gross Motor Skills were obese in 2020. o Physical skills that involve the large o Children who come from families lower on the muscles. (Examples: Jumping, walking, socioeconomic ladder are more likely to be crawling) obese, Fine Motor Skills o A tendency toward obesity can be hereditary, o Physical skills that involve the small but the main factors driving the obesity muscles and eye-hand coordination. epidemic are environmental. (Examples: drawing, writing, holding o A key to preventing obesity may be to make hands together, brushing teeth) sure older preschoolers are served appropriate Motor coordination in childhood tends to be portions of healthy, high-nutrient foods. Eating relatively stable over time. family meals together, getting adequate amount Systems Of Action of sleep, and watching less than 2 hours of o Increasingly complex combinations of television a day are also associated with motor skills, which permit a wider or decreased risk. more precise range of movement and o A key to preventing obesity may be to make more control of the environment. sure older preschoolers are served appropriate portions of healthy, high-nutrient foods. Eating family meals together, getting adequate amount of sleep, and watching less than 2 hours of television a day are also associated with decreased risk. Undernutrition o Food insecurity occurs when families do not have dependable access to adequate amounts of food to support healthy living. An estimated 15% of children lived in food-insecure households in 2019. As with gross motor skills, culture can influence o In early childhood, food insecurity and low- development. quality diet have been linked to vitamin and o A 4- to 6-year-old children from Hong mineral deficiencies, higher body weight, and Kong performed better on fine motor reduced cognitive and social-emotional skills. tasks than did American children, o In many developing countries, malnutrition presumably because of their use of rather than obesity is the primary concern. chopsticks and earlier practice with Malnutrition can take various forms. writing tools in preschool. o Stunted Children- children appear to be of o Alternatively, a lack of practice can lead normal weight but are shorter than they should to slower motor development. be for their age and may have cognitive and Handedness physical deficiencies.  o Wasted Children- children with risk of fatal car accidents increases. appropriate height for their age but are ▪ Other common causes for death in early thinner than they should be. childhood are drowning, fires, falls, Food Allergies poisoning, cancer, congenital o An abnormal immune system response abnormalities and chromosomal to a specific food. Reactions can range disorders, assault and homicide, heart from tingling in the mouth and hives to disease, respiratory diseases including more serious, life-threatening reactions both chronic respiratory disease as well such as shortness of breath and even as influenza and pneumonia), and death. septicemia (a bacterial infection that o Children who suffer from food allergies poisons the blood, leading to organ are, on average, smaller and shorter than failure). children without food allergies. o Changes in diet, how foods are ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES processed, the timing of the introduction Socioeconomic Status of foods, and decreased vitamin D based o The lower a family’s socioeconomic status, the upon less exposure to the sun have all greater a child’s risks of illness, injury, and been suggested as contributors to the death. increase in allergy rates o The shift toward telemedicine—in which Oral Health appointments and consultations with health o By age 3, all the primary (baby) teeth are care providers are conducted remotely—is likely in place, and the permanent teeth, which to further exacerbate existing inequities will begin to appear at about age 6, are between children from different socioeconomic developing. Thus, parents usually can levels. safely ignore the common habit of Race/Ethnicity thumbsucking in children under age 4. o Children from racial and ethnic minorities may o If children stop sucking thumbs or fingers experience stress-related health issues at higher by that age, their permanent teeth are rates due to cumulative effects of not likely to be affected. discrimination, stigma, and prejudice. ▪ Fluoride- a mineral essential for Homelessness the maintenance and o Homelessness results from circumstances that solidification of bones. force people to choose between food, shelter, ▪ DENTALCARIES- tooth decay, and other basic needs. cavities o Homeless children suffer more physical health At low levels, fluoride problems than poor children who have homes, has been shown to and they are more likely to have a low birth reduce the incidence of weight or be born premature. Homeless dental caries. children also tend to suffer from depression and Deaths and Accidental Injuries anxiety and to have academic and behavior o Accidents- leading cause of death in the problems. United States for children from 5 to 12 Environmental Pollutants years old. o Children exposed to parental smoke are at ▪ Fatal home injuries are the most increased risk of respiratory infections such as common cause of accidental bronchitis and pneumonia, ear problems, deaths in the United States and worsened asthma, and slowed lung growth. across multiple European o Air pollution is associated with increased risks of countries, at least in children death and of chronic respiratory disease. under the age of 5. Environmental contaminants also may play a ▪ After 5 years of age, the risk of role in certain childhood cancers, neurological home injuries decreases as the disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and intellectual disability.  o Children are also more vulnerable than adults to chronic pesticide damage. Pesticide exposure is greater in children in agricultural and inner-city families. o Lead poisoning can seriously interfere with cognitive development and can lead to neurological and behavioral problems. o Very high levels of lead concentration in the blood may cause headaches, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, agitation, or lethargy, and eventually vomiting, stupor, and convulsions. MEMORY COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Encoding o Process by which information is prepared for long-term storage and later retrieval. Storage o Retention of information in memory for future use. Retrieval o Process by which information is accessed or recalled from memory storage. Sensory Memory o Initial, brief, temporary storage of sensory information. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Working Memory Symbolic Function o Short-term storage of information being actively o Piaget’s term for the ability to use processed. mental representations (words, Long-Term Memory numbers, or images) to which a child has o Storage of virtually unlimited capacity that holds attached meaning. information for long periods. Pretend Play Central Executive o Play involving imaginary people and o Element of working memory that controls the situations; also called fantasy play, processing of information. dramatic play, or imaginative play. Recognition Transduction o Ability to identify a previously encountered o Piaget’s term for a preoperational child’s stimulus. tendency to mentally link particular Recall phenomena, whether or not there is o Ability to reproduce material from memory. logically a causal relationship. Metamemory Animism o Understanding of processes of memory o Tendency to attribute life to objects that Metacognition are not alive. o Thinking about thinking, or awareness of one’s Theory of mind own mental processes. o Awareness and understanding of mental Executive Function processes. o Conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems. Metamemory o Understanding of processes of memory Metacognition  o Thinking about thinking, or awareness of o Temporary support to help a child master a task. one’s own mental processes. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Executive Function Fast Mapping o Conscious control of thoughts, emotions, o process by which a child absorbs the meaning of and actions to accomplish goals or solve a new word after hearing it once or twice in problems. conversation. Generic Memory Syntax o Memory that produces scripts of familiar o a concept that involves the rules for putting routines to guide behavior. together sentences in a particular language. o Script - general remembered outline of a Pragmatics familiar, repeated event, used to guide o the practical knowledge needed to use language behavior. for communicative purposes; the social context Episodic Memory of language. o Long-term memory of specific Social Speech experiences or events, linked to time and o speech intended to be understood by a listener. place. o Episodic memories are temporary and if Private Speech they recur several times, they are o talking aloud to oneself with no intent to transferred to generic memory. communicate with others. o Piaget saw private speech – what he called AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY egocentric speech – as a sign of cognitive o Memory of specific events in one’s life. immaturity. o Social Interaction Model o Vygotsky viewed private speech as a special ▪ Model, based on Vygotsky’s form of communication: conversation with the sociocultural theory, that self. He believed private speech was part of the proposes children construct learning process. autobiographical memories through conversation with adults Emergent Literacy about shared events. o preschoolers’ development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes that underlie reading and writing. INTELLIGENCE o Reading to children is one of the most effective Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales paths to literacy o Individual intelligence tests for ages 2 and up used to measure fluid reasoning, EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION knowledge, quantitative reasoning, Montessori Method visual-spatial processing, and working based on the belief that children’s natural intelligence memory involves rational, spiritual, and empirical aspects. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale Of Montessori stresses the importance of children learning Intelligence, Revised (WPPSI-IV) independently at their own pace in multiage classrooms o Individual intelligence test for children, as they work with developmentally appropriate which yields verbal and performance materials and self-chosen tasks. Teachers serve as scores as well as a combined score. guides, and older children help younger ones. o The WPPSI-IV has been validated for Reggio Emilia Approach special populations, such as children with less formal model than Montessori. Teachers follow intellectual disabilities, developmental children’s interests and support them in exploring and delays, language disorders, and autistic investigating ideas and feelings through words, disorders. movement, dramatic play, and music. Teachers ask Zone of Proximal Development questions that draw out children’s ideas and then create o the difference between what a child can flexible plans to explore these ideas with the children. do alone and what the child can do with Classrooms are carefully constructed to offer help. complexity, beauty, organization, and a sense of well- Scaffolding being. Compensatory Programs o The self-evaluative part of the self-concept. require teachers to present material in a o Based on children’s growing cognitive ability to different format, providing students an describe and define themselves. alternative way to master a particular concept and demonstrate knowledge. EMOTIONS Compensatory preschool programs have had Regulating Emotions positive outcomes. Compensatory programs that o The ability to regulate, or control, one’s feelings start early may have better results. is one of the key advances of early childhood. Kindergarten o Emotional self-regulation helps children guide Many children today attend full-day their behavior and adjust their responses to kindergarten. Success in kindergarten depends meet social expectations. largely on emotional and social adjustment and prekindergarten preparation. EMOTIONS AND CULTURE Culture influences the way in which parents socialize their children’s emotion regulation. o Individualistic cultures tend to value the free expression of emotions. CHAPTER 6 o Cultures with collectivistic and interdependent PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD values tend to value group harmony and harmonious relationships. Parents from these The Developing Self cultures are more likely to encourage Self-Concept minimizing strong emotional expressions, Sense of self; descriptive and evaluative mental especially if those emotions are negative picture of one’s abilities and traits. Self-Definition EMOTIONS Cluster of characteristics used to describe Social Emotions- Emotions involved in the regulation of oneself. social behavior that require self-awareness and the Typically changes between about ages 5 to 7, understanding of other’s viewpoints. reflecting self-concept development and o By about 4 to 5 years, most children can advances in cognitive abilities. recognize the facial expressions of joy, sadness, Real Self fear, anger, surprise, and disgust, although girls The self one actually is. tend to outperform boys slightly. Ideal Self o By about 7 years of age, children start to The self one would like to be. understand that mental states can drive Children cannot acknowledge that their real self emotions. is not the same as his ideal self. o By about 9 years of age, children start to Disability and Self-Concept understand more complex aspects of emotion. Disability o Emotional understanding is important. One o Any mental or physical condition making meta-analysis of research showed children with it difficult for a person to do certain more advanced emotional understanding did activities and interact with the world better academically, were more accepted by around them. their peers, and were better adjusted in school. o Children with disabilities generally maintain a high global self-concept, INITIATIVE VS GUILT although they may feel less sure of Erikson’s third stage in psychosocial development, in themselves in areas affected by their which children balance the urge to pursue goals with disability. reservations about doing so. Self-Esteem The need to deal with conflicting feelings about the self o The judgment a person makes about is at the heart of the third stage – initiative vs guilt. their self-worth.  This conflict marks a split between two parts of Gender Stereotypes- Preconceived generalizations the personality: the part that remains a child, full about male or female role behavior. of exuberance and a desire to try new things and o The link between biological sex and gender — a test new powers, and the part that is becoming social and psychological construct — is complex an adult, constantly examining the propriety of and shaped by a myriad of influences. Five motives and actions. theoretical perspectives — biological, evolutionary developmental, psychoanalytic, GENDER cognitive, and social learning — contribute to Gender Identity- awareness, developed in early our understanding of gender childhood, of one’s gender. Sex Differences- psychological or behavioral differences between males and females. o Physically, among the larger sex differences are boys’ higher activity level, superior motor performance, especially after puberty, and greater propensity for physical aggression. o Cognitive sex differences are few and small and are affected by task characteristics Transgender- Individuals whose gender identity (a social Girls generally show a verbal advantage. Across and psychological construct) is different from their sex different languages, they tend to start using (a biological construct) language earlier, say more, and combine words Intersex- Individuals born with sexual or reproductive earlier. Boys are more likely to stutter or to have anatomical variations not typical for male or female a reading disability. bodies. In early childhood and again during Gender Dysphoria - The feeling of psychological distress preadolescence and adolescence, girls tend to experienced by individuals when there is a mismatch use more responsive language, such as praise, between gender identity and biological sex. agreement, acknowledgment, and elaboration o Although many young children play with their on what someone else has said. identity—for example, dressing up in different Girls also tend to show an advantage in school clothes or pretending to be something they are and tend to earn higher grades, especially in not—children, especially girls, who will later language classes. identify as transgender generally show strong and persistent gender dysphoria early in PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT childhood. Gender Roles- Behaviors, interests, attitudes, Theory of Sexual Selection – Darwin’s theory that skills, and traits that a culture considers gender roles developed in response to men’s and appropriate for each sex; differ for males and women’s differing reproductive needs. females. o Research suggests that men’s primary ancestral o Historically, in most cultures, women role was to provide for subsistence, whereas have been expected to devote most of women’s was to tend to the children, but this their time to caring for the household does not mean that we are bound to these and children, whereas men were roles. providers and protectors. Women were o Evolution has given us an evolved architecture expected to be compliant and nurturing; of the mind that pushes us in certain directions, men to be active, aggressive, and but it has also given us the ability to reflect competitive. Today, gender roles have upon our choices and make reasoned decisions. become more diverse and more flexible. Identification- In Freudian theory, the process by which Gender-Typing- Socialization process by which a young child adopts characteristics, beliefs, attitudes, children, at an early age, learn appropriate values, and behaviors of the parent of the same sex. gender roles.  Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory- gender knowledge (“I am a boy”) precedes GENDER AND PLAY gendered behavior (“so I like to do boy things”). Gender Segregation- Tendency to select playmates of o Children actively search for cues about one’s own gender. gender in their social world. As they o Boys’ tendency to be more active and physically realize which gender they belong to, they aggressive in their play as compared to girls’ adopt behaviors they perceive as more nurturing play styles are major consistent with being male or female. contributors. Generally, boys’ play is more Gender Identity- Awareness of one’s own gender strongly gender-stereotyped than girls’. Thus, and that of others typically occurs between ages when boys and girls do play together, their play 2 and 3. tends to revolve around traditionally masculine Gender Stability-Awareness that gender does activities. not change. However, children at this stage base In Western cultures such as the United States, some judgments about gender on superficial argue that adequate amounts of child-directed free play appearances (clothing or hairstyle) and are necessary for optimal development. stereotyped behaviors In other cultures, play may be viewed differently. For Gender Constancy- Awareness that one will example, in one study, parents from China, Korea, always be male or female; also called sex- Pakistan, Nepal, and India were asked about their category constancy. beliefs and reported they saw little developmental value Gender Consistency - The understanding that in play, preferring to encourage academics. one's own and other people's gender identity is The European parents in the same study, by contrast, fixed across situations. believed that play was important for development. Gender-Schema Theory- Theory, proposed by Sandra Bem, that children socialize themselves in PARENTING their gender roles by developing a mentally Discipline- Methods of molding children’s character and organized network of information about what it of teaching them to exercise self-control and engage in means to be male or female in a particular acceptable behavior. culture. o Corporal Punishment- Use of physical force Social Cognitive Theory- Albert Bandura’s with the intention of causing pain, but not expansion of social learning theory; holds that injury, so as to correct or control behavior. children learn gender roles through socialization. o A large body of evidence suggests that corporal punishment is often counterproductive and PLAY should be avoided. Apart from the risk of injury, Functional Play- Play involving repetitive large children who experience corporal punishment muscular movements; the simplest level, which may fail to internalize moral messages, develop begins during infancy; also called locomotor play. poor parent-child relationships, and show Constructive Play- Play involving use of objects increased physical aggressiveness or antisocial or materials to make something; also called behavior. object play. Inductive Techniques- Disciplinary techniques designed Dramatic Play- Play involving imaginary people to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child’s or situations; also called pretend play, fantasy sense of reason and fairness. play, or imaginative play. Power Assertion- Disciplinary strategy designed to Formal Games with Rules- Organized games discourage undesirable behavior through physical or with known procedures and penalties. verbal enforcement of parental control. Withdrawal of Love- Disciplinary strategy that involves ignoring, isolating, or showing dislike for a child. BAUMRIND’S MODEL OF PARENTING STYLES Authoritarian- parenting style emphasizing control and obedience.  Authoritative- parenting style blending respect for a child’s individuality with an effort to instill social values Permissive- parenting style emphasizing self- expression and self-regulation. Dental Health o Globally, about 560 million children have RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER CHILDREN untreated tooth decay in their permanent teeth Most sibling interactions are positive. Older o Although tooth decay is still a common siblings tend to initiate activities and younger untreated condition, children’s oral health has siblings to imitate. Same-sex siblings, especially improved dramatically from previous decades. girls, get along best. The improvements can be attributed to a variety Siblings tend to resolve disputes on the basis of of factors, including parental education, access moral principles. to dental care, fluoridated water supplies or the The kind of relationship children have with use of fluoride supplements, as well as the siblings often carries over into other peer increased use of adhesive sealants on rough relationships. chewing surfaces. Only children seem to develop at least as well as Nutrition children with siblings. o The recommended calories per day for Preschoolers choose playmates and friends who schoolchildren 9 to 13 years of age range from are like them and with whom they have positive 1,400 to 2,600, depending on gender and experiences. activity level. Aggressive children are less popular than o Research across 33 different countries has prosocial children. shown that skipping breakfast, which occurs in 10 to 30 percent of children and rises with age, is associated with an increased risk of CHAPTER 7 overweight, obesity, and cardiometabolic risk PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE factors. CHILDHOOD o Nutrition education in schools can be helpful when combined with parental education and PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT changes in school lunch menus, although they Height and Weight have been more successful in improving fruit o Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each intake than vegetable intake. year between ages 6 to 11 and Sleep approximately double their weight o Sleep needs decline from 10 to 13 hours a day during that period. for 3- to 5-year-olds to 9 to 11 hours a day for o Girls retain somewhat more fatty tissue ages 6 to 13. than boys, a characteristic that will o Obstructive Sleep Apnea- a severe form of persist through adulthood. sleep disordered breathing, is common in children and, because of the plastic nature of the brain in childhood, can result in permanent deficits in learning and behavior, as well as contribute to cardiovascular and metabolic morbidities. o Sleep quality, sleep duration, and daytime sleepiness have all been found to affect academic performance and seem to affect  younger children, particularly boys, to a Many children, mostly boys, engage in organized, greater degree. competitive sports. A sound physical education program o Short sleep duration in children is should aim at skill development and fitness for all associated with later risk of obesity. children. Brain Development Rough-and-Tumble Play - Vigorous play involving o The cognitive changes that occur in wrestling, hitting, and chasing, often accompanied by middle childhood can be characterized as laughing and screaming. resulting in faster, more efficient information processing and an increased PHYSICAL HEALTH ability to ignore distracting information. Overweight and Obesity o Grey Matter - includes the neurons o Overweight, a body mass index between the themselves, along with glial cells, 85th and 95th percentile, and obesity, a body dendrites, blood vessels and axons; mass index over the 95th percentile, have enables individuals to control become a major health issue for children movement, memory, and emotions worldwide. o White Matter - composed almost o While overweight and obesity were once exclusively of myelinated axons; helps considered to be problems of high-income and the body process information urban countries, they are now found in low- and The decline in gray matter volume is linearly middle-income countries as well. associated with age, particularly in the occipital o Boys are slightly more likely to be overweight and parietal lobes. In the temporal and frontal than girls. lobes, gray matter volume peaks earlier. Medical Conditions Gray matter volume in the parietal lobes, which o Acute- Conditions that last a short time. deal with spatial understanding, and in the o Chronic– Conditions or impairments that persist frontal lobes, which handle higher-order for at least 3 months. functions, peaks at age 11. o Asthma– A chronic respiratory disease Gray matter in the temporal lobes, which deal characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, with language, peaks at age 14, while that in the wheezing, and difficulty in breathing, cerebellum, which regulates motor movements, Diabetes – characterized by high levels of glucose in the takes longer. blood. Generally, gray matter volume peaks 1 to 2 years o Type 1 – result of an insulin deficiency that earlier in girls than in boys. occurs when insulin-producing cells in the In addition, changes in the density of the white pancreas are destroyed. matter in the corpus callosum may also underlie o Type 2 – characterized by insulin resistance and the advances seen in fine motor control in late used to be found mainly in overweight and childhood, such as the ability to write legibly, tie older adults. shoelaces, or play musical instruments. Hypertension- Chronically high blood pressure. Motor Development and Physical Activity o Although high blood pressure in childhood is not o In the United States, school-age children generally associated with mortality as it is in now spend less time on sports and other adulthood, it does put children at risk for later outdoor activities than in the early 1980s disease and is associated with damage to and more hours on schooling, organs. homework, and media activities. o Children with hypertension have lower o It is crucial for children ages 6 to 17 years neurocognitive test performance than their to participate in the recommended 60 unaffected peers minutes of physical activities daily. Accidental Injuries o Children become increasingly less active o Accidents are the leading cause of death in and more sedentary with age. middle childhood. Informal recess-time activities help develop o Use of helmets and other protective devices and physical and social skills. Boys’ games tend to be avoidance of dangerous sports can greatly more physical and girls’ games more verbal. reduce injuries.  like yoga, martial arts, and mindfulness COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (meditation) training. Seriation- Ability to order items along a Selective Attention dimension. o School-age children can concentrate longer than Transitive Inference- Understanding the younger children and can focus on the relationship between two objects by knowing the information they need and want while screening relationship of each to a third object. out irrelevant information. Class Inclusion- Understanding of the o The increasing capacity for selective attention is relationship between a whole and its parts. believed to be due to neurological maturation Inductive Reasoning- Type of logical reasoning and is one of the reasons memory improves that moves from particular observations about during middle childhood. members of a class to a general conclusion about Working Memory that class; specific to general o Working memory involves the short-term Deductive Reasoning- Type of logical reasoning storage of information that is being actively that moves from a general premise about a class processed, like a mental workspace. to a conclusion about a particular member or o The efficiency of working memory increases members of the class; general to specific. greatly in middle childhood, laying the HORIZONTAL DÉCALAGE- Piaget’s term for an foundation for a wide range of cognitive skills. inability to transfer learning about one type of o Training programs can improve working problem to other types of problems sharing the memory capacity, and indeed training programs same conceptual underpinnings. have been shown to be associated with changes o The inconsistency in the development of in brain activity in frontal and parietal cortices different types of conservation. and basal ganglia, and increased dopamine o Children cannot readily transfer what receptor density. they have learned about one type of Mnemonic Device- Strategy to aid memory. conservation to another type, even o External Memory Aids- Mnemonic strategies though the underlying principles are the using something outside the person. same. o Rehearsal- Mnemonic strategy to keep an item in working memory through conscious repetition. o External Memory Aids- Mnemonic strategies using something outside the person. o Organization- Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material to be remembered. o Elaboration- Mnemonic strategy of making mental associations involving items to be remembered. o Metamemory- Understanding of processes of memory. INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH Executive Function- Conscious control of PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish Measuring Intelligence goals or solve problems. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale Of Intelligence, o Prefrontal Cortex- the region that Revised (WPPSI-IV) - Individual intelligence test for enables planning, judgment, and children, which yields verbal and performance scores as decision making, shows significant well as a combined score. development during middle childhood. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales- Individual o Illustrating the plasticity of the brain, intelligence tests for ages 2 and up used to measure children—particularly those with poor fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, executive control—benefit from training visual-spatial processing, and working memory.  Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT8) - helps people solve problems, monitor solutions, Group intelligence test for kindergarten through and evaluate the results. 12th grade. o Experiential- insightful or creative; it Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-