Stylistics_Chapter-1 PDF

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO STYLISTICS To understand the meaning of stylistics, it is important to know first the meaning of style. Merriam Webster Dictionary defines style as “a distinctive manner of expression (as in writing or speech)” or “a distinctive manner or custom of behaving or conducting...

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO STYLISTICS To understand the meaning of stylistics, it is important to know first the meaning of style. Merriam Webster Dictionary defines style as “a distinctive manner of expression (as in writing or speech)” or “a distinctive manner or custom of behaving or conducting oneself” or “ a particular mode of living” or “a particular manner or technique by which something is done, created, or performed.” Hence, style means a way in which a thing is done or fashioned. Similarly in literature too writers consider style important. The following are some of the noted definitions of style by various writers Definitions of Style: 1. According to Goethe, “Generally speaking, an author’s style is a faithful copy of his mind. If you would write a lucid style, let there first be light in your mind; and if you would write a grand style, you ought to have a grand character” 2. For Buffon, “Style is a man’s own; it is a part of his nature….The style is the man himself” 3. Jonathan Swift opines that “Proper words in proper places make the true definition of style” 4. Gustave Flaubert says, “One arrives at style only with atrocious effort, with fanatical and devoted stubbornness.” 5. Edward Gibbon holds that “The style of an author should be the image of his mind, but the choice and command of language is the fruit of exercise” 6. “Where there is no style, there is in effect no point of view. There is, essentially, no anger, no conviction, no self. Style is opinion, hung washing, the caliber of a bullet, teething beads” says Alexander Theroux For all these writers, style is an image of writer’s minds or the writer himself or the organization and arrangements of words in a particular order is considered significant for style. For some it takes an effort to arrive at style. If there is no style then there is nothing. Hence, style is a significant feature of writing that helps in presenting one’s own feelings, thoughts, emotions and so on. There are various styles of writings and different authors have varied styles of writing. How do we arrive at meaning based on style? In this situation it is stylistics that helps one to analyse a literary piece and derive meaning. Definition and Meanings of Stylistics: 1. According to David Crystal, “Stylistics is a branch of Linguistics which studies the feature of situationally distinctive uses of language and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language” 2. Peter Barry says “Stylistics is a critical approach which uses the methods and findings of the science of linguistics in the analysis of literary texts. By ‘linguistics’ here is meant the scientific study of language and structures, rather than the learning of individual languages” In specific terms, stylistics means a scientific way of examining/interpreting the language of a literary text. It is one of the branches of applied linguistics like psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, etc. It does this by applying the insights of linguistics to arrive at an interpretation of a literary text. Unlike literary Begum, S. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistics and Phonetics: 34 Stylistics, https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/stylistics/  criticism where focus remains not only on the language but on various aspects like history and culture of a literary text, biography of an author, so on and so forth to arrive at the interpretation of a literary text. However, stylistics does this by the simple means of linguistic techniques. Stylistics traces its origin in the subject of antiquity, that is, rhetoric. According to Barry “Stylistics is, in a sense, the modern version of the ancient discipline known as ‘rhetoric’, which taught its students how to structure an argument, how to make effective use of figures of speech, and generally how to pattern and vary speech or piece of writing so as to produce the maximum impact” (Barry, 205). Rhetoric was one of the three subjects of ancient Greeks. The other two subjects were logic and grammar (Stylistics, Block-I, 05). Aristotle in his book Rhetoric says the ways to achieve the effective means of communication lies in the usage of vocabulary, syntax and figures of speech. These things help in creating an effect on the listeners/audiences. Hence, rhetoric becomes an art of persuasion. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Aristotle’s Rhetoric”) Initially rhetoric was an art of persuasion through speech but later on it also came to mean all forms of eloquence along with writing. (Stylistics: Block-I, 05) Hence, there is a close connection between rhetoric and stylistics. What Does Stylistics Do? Stylistic analysis is an objective and scientific commentary upon a literary text which is based on concrete quantifiable data and applied in a systematic way. Further, it emphasizes on the connections between literary and everyday language. While studying a literary text from a stylistic perspective, we should start reading the text to understand the overall picture. Then, we should start dissecting the text by looking at peculiar and eye-catching peculiarities. According to Dan Mclntyre (2010), here are a few points to consider (a set of questions to answer) while analyzing a text from a stylistic perspective: 1. Does the text contain some striking irregularities of form in comparison to traditional texts that are within the same genre? 2. Are there deviant grammatical or graphological elements? 3. Despite all deviant characteristics, is there order in the text? 4. How about the text’s phonological qualities? Are some sounds repeated? 5. Are there some sounds missing? 6. Semantic fields are especially important while analyzing a text stylistically. For example, can you categorize the words in different semantic fields? What kind of feeling do the verbs give? By looking at the verbs, do you get the feeling of the past or do they point at an ongoing activity? 7. In conclusion, are the linguistic features of the text directly related to the overall or particular meanings reached? STYLISTIC DEVICES Foregrounding Oxford online dictionary defines foreground as “The part of a view that is nearest to the observer, especially in a picture or photograph.” and as a verb it means to “Make (something) the most prominent or important feature.” Hence, foreground means to bring something into one’s attention by placing it in front and make it more prominent. It is generally used as a technique to highlight or underline the Begum, S. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistics and Phonetics: 34 Stylistics, https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/stylistics/  meaning of something in an artistic work as in photography, paintings, literature, stylistics and so on. It is done to attract the attention of the readers. Moreover, foregrounding is used to shift the attention of the reader from “what is said to how it is said”. “In systemic functional linguistics, foregrounding refers to a prominent portion of a text that contributes to the total meaning. (The background provides the relevant context for the foreground.)” Deviation In linguistic terms, deviation means to move away from the language rules. Another name of deviation in the traditional sense of meaning is the poetic license. Poetic license means “The liberty taken by an artist or writer in deviating from conventional form or fact to achieve a desired effect” or “license or liberty taken by a poet, prose writer, other artist in deviating from rule, conventional form, logic, or fact, in order to produce a desired effect”. Poets and writers seem to have this license to deviate from normal usage of language. On the other hand a common native language user adheres to/obeys the conventional language rules. However, deviation is an important device through which writers create or have a desired effect on their readers. The following are some of the language deviation techniques widely employed by the writers. Graphological Deviation: It means the moving away from the conventional form of arranging letters into words and words into lines (in verse) and into sentences (in prose or verse) For example see the E.E. Cummings poem “l(a” l(a le af fa ll s) one l Iness. The moment we look at it the first question would be, is this a poem or what kind of poem is it? If we look at it carefully for one or two minutes we will be able to see the only one complete word that is ‘one’. If we look at is once again then appears the word ‘leaf’ in it. Then we will see the ‘leaf’ now ‘falls’. Further we will see there is a bracket. If we remove that bracket and the words written in it then we will see the word ‘loneliness’. The poem through the symbol of falling leaf presents the idea of loneliness. Orthographic Deviation: Orthographic deviation means departure from the conventional form of spelling. For example: ‘kar’ instead of ‘car’ or ‘foto’ instead of ‘photo’ as we sometimes find it in shops signing boards especially in remote areas. These are though not consciously written in order to attract the people. However, they do attract our attention and make us laugh. Similarly we find such deviation in creative writings as well. Of course a writer deviates not just to attract the attention of her/his readers but her/his linguistic deviation is a conscious effort that points at something meaningful. It also helps in comprehending overall meaning of literary piece. For example: William Blake’s poem “The Tyger’. In it Blake uses the spelling of ‘tiger’ as ‘tyger’. ““Tyger” was indeed an older spelling but even by Blake’s time the modern spelling (“tiger”) had been standardized and so the poet was making a deliberate departure. The older spelling suggests an animal that is different more mysterious. The letter “y” in the middle also may represent a longer vowel or diphthong. (In one of the stories of A.A Milne, the boy calls his pet tiger Begum, S. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistics and Phonetics: 34 Stylistics, https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/stylistics/  “Tigger” (pronounced to rhyme with “snigger”), which takes away all terror from the animal!). Blake’s deviant spelling acquires significance in the context of the entire poem where the animal is represented as an object of awe, terror, wonder and mystery.” (Stylistics Block-I, 65) Thus, in artistic works every linguistic deviation that is made holds significance. Under-lexicalization: “It is a term invented by Fowler: it refers to cases where there is a ‘lack of an adequate set of words to express specific concepts’” (Barry, 215) For example: for a particular words like handle we do not say ‘handle’ rather use the word ‘the holding thing’ (Barry, 216) Collocation: Collocation is the habitual juxtaposition of two or more words together. It is the common feature of poetry. Poets generally “break the habitual collocation patterns, so that words not usually seen together suddenly occur” (Barry, 217). They provide us unusual patterns of words that we have never seen or imagined before. Cohesion: Cohesion means sticking together. Here, sentences that are joined into a single continuous utterance are known as cohesion. Syntactically or grammatically they are individual sentences. However, if they are put together side by side they make sense. In the absence of cohesion they read awkward. For example: This is Anita. Anita is my friend. Anita and I go to school together. The awkward sentences or repetition of proper noun is eliminated by using pronoun. In linguistic terminology it is called “Pronominalisation”. (Barry, 218) If the proper noun is removed from the sentences then they will be like this “This is Anita. She is my friend. We go to school together.” We can see that now these sentences are in cohesion. They make more sense and have flow. CHAPTER II: LANGUAGE AND STYLISTICS The Language of Poetry Poetic language is the use of unusual, structured, or elevated language to develop and convey a strong emotional impact to readers. It can take many forms and there is not just one way of using poetic language. This kind of language can be found in poems, songs, nursery rhymes, literary works, love letters, and even more ordinary pieces of writing like greeting cards. It is unlikely to be found in a textbook, a business email, or a spoken conversation. Poetic language often plays with the rules and expectations that surround language in order to produce a particular effect, often appealing to a reader's senses or emotions. Examples of Poetic Language Allegory: A representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning. Sometimes it can be a single word or phrase, such as the name of a character or place. Often, it is a symbolic narrative that has not only a literal meaning, but a larger one understood only after reading the entire story or poem. For example, Begum, S. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistics and Phonetics: 34 Stylistics, https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/stylistics/  Jose Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere is seen as an allegory of the oppressive Spanish colonial rule. Events and characters in the novel reflect the realities happening in the Philippines in Rizal’s time. Allusion: A brief reference to a well-known person, event, or place. Historical event, work of art, or Biblical or mythological situation or character. Ambiguity: A word or phrase that can mean more than one thing, even in its context. Poets often search out such words to add richness to their work. Often, one meaning seems quite readily apparent, but other, deeper and darker meanings, await those who contemplate the poem. Analogy: A comparison, usually something unfamiliar with something familiar. Example: The plumbing took a maze of turns where even water got lost. Apostrophe: Speaking directly to a real or imagined listener or inanimate object; addressing that person or thing by name. Example: O Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done Cliche: Any figure of speech that was once clever and original but through overuse has become outdated. If you have heard more than two or three other people say it more than two or three times, chances are the phrase is too timeworn to be useful in your writing. Example: busy as a bee. Connotation: The emotional, psychological or social overtones of a words; its implications and associations apart from its literal meaning. Often, this is what distinguishes the precisely correct word from one that is merely acceptable. Contrast: Closely arranged things with strikingly different characteristics. Example: He was dark, sinister and cruel; she was radiant, pleasant, and kind. Denotation: The dictionary definition of a word; its literal meaning apart from any associations or connotations. Students must exercise caution when beginning to use a thesaurus, since often the words that are clustered together may share a denotative meaning, but not a connotative one, and the substitution of a word can sometimes destroy the mood, and even the meaning, of a poem. Euphemism: An understatement, used to lessen the effect of statement; substituting something innocuous for something that might be offensive or hurtful. Example: She is at rest. (Meaning, she’s dead) Hyperbole: An outrageous exaggeration used for effect. Example: He weighs a ton. Irony: A contradictory statement or situation to reveal a reality different from what appears to be true. Example: Wow, thanks for expensive gift! Let’s see: did it come with a Fun Meal of the Burger King equivalent? Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unlike things, stating that one is the other or does the action of the other. Example: He’s a zero. Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a person, place or thing is referred to by something closely associated with it. Example: The White House stated today that. Example: The Crown reported today that... Oxymoron: A combination of two words that appear to contradict each other. Example: a pointless point of view; bittersweet. Paradox: A statement in which a seeming contradiction may reveal an unexpected truth. Example: The hurrier I go the be hinder I get. Personification: Attributing human characteristics to an inanimate object, animal, or abstract idea. Example: The days crept by slowly, sorrowfully. Pun: Word play in which words with totally different meanings have similar or identical sounds. Example: Like a firefly in the rain, I’m de-lighted. Begum, S. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistics and Phonetics: 34 Stylistics, https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/stylistics/  Simile: A direct comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as.” Example: He’s as dumb as an ox. Example: Her eyes are like comets. Symbol: An ordinary object, event, animal, or person to which we have attached extraordinary meaning and significance – a flag to represent a country, a lion to represent courage, a wall to symbolize separation. Example: A small cross by dangerous curve on the road reminded all of Johnny’s death. Synecdoche: Indicating a person, object, etc. by letting only a certain part represent the whole. Example: All hands on deck. Begum, S. (n.d.). Introduction to Linguistics and Phonetics: 34 Stylistics, https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/stylistics/