Stylistics and Discourse - Session 3 PDF

Overview of Stylistics (a continuation) Session 3 September 21, 2024 For today: What is Style? Denotative vs. Connotative Lexical vs. Stylistic meaning Types of Context: Linguistic vs. Extralingual contexts Expressiveness vs. Emotiveness Expressive means and Stylistic Device...

Overview of Stylistics (a continuation) Session 3 September 21, 2024 For today: What is Style? Denotative vs. Connotative Lexical vs. Stylistic meaning Types of Context: Linguistic vs. Extralingual contexts Expressiveness vs. Emotiveness Expressive means and Stylistic Devices  The term “STYLE” originated from the Latin “stilus” which means a pen used by the Romans for writing on wax, tablets. In the course of time it developed several meanings, each one applied to a specific study of language elements and Style their use in speech. Prof. Galperin defines INDIVIDUAL STYLE as a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer’s works or even utterances easily recognizable. Approaches Style as Choice Choice is a very vital instrument of stylistics since it deals with the variations and the options that are available to an author. Since language provides its users with more than one choice in a given situation, there are different choices available to the writer in a given text. With the writer’s choice, there is a reflection of his ego and the social condition of his environment Style as the Man Based on the notion that every individual has his or her own unique way of doing things and that no two persons are of exactly the same character. A person’s style may also be shaped by his social and political background, religious inclination, culture, education, geographical location, etc.  Approaches Style as Deviation Based on the notion that there are rules, conventions and regulations that guide the different activities that must be executed. Deviation in stylistics is concerned with the use of different styles from the expected norm of language use in a given genre of writing. It is a departure from what is taken as the common practice Deviation may occur at any level of language description e.g. phonological, graphological, syntactic, lexico-semantic, etc. At the graphological level, for example, we may see capital letters where they are not supposed to be. At the syntactic level, subject and verb may not agree in number. Or the normal order of the clause elements may not be observed e.g. Adjunct may come before the subject. At the lexico-semantic level, words that should not go together may be deliberately brought together. e.g. “dangerous safety,” “open secret.  Approaches Style as Conformity Style as conformity can be seen as the first available option for a writer to express himself. In fact, it is on the notion of “style as conformity” that the idea of “style as choice” operates and then results in or brings out the possibility of style as deviation. Style as conformity is often “strictly enforced” in certain fields or circumstances. This is often in academic/educational field as regard students’ research projects. It is also found so in some professional writings, where a considerable conformity to the established format or diction is expected for a text to earn acceptability. One major weakness of conformity to the established style is that it clips creativity.  Approaches Style as Period or Time Style may also relate to time/period. This is so because language is dynamic – it is always changing. The style of any given period has recognizably predominant features that make such a period distinct. A period usually dictates the style employed by the writers. Style as Situation Usually, language is used according to situation or circumstance. It is the context that determines language choice in speaking or writing. Certain words are appropriate for certain occasions, while some are considered taboo, vulgar or abominable.  CONNOTATIVE AND DENOTATIVE MEANINGS  DENOTATION Represents the literal and dictionary-defined meaning of a word, free from the subjective influences that connotation brings. It is the bedrock of clarity in communication, providing a standardised interpretation that transcends individual perspectives. Connotation and Denotation: Meaning, Examples & Difference. (blueroseone.com)  CONNOTATION the intricate dance of language that transcends the mere dictionary definitions of words. It is the realm of emotions, cultural nuances, and subjective interpretations that add layers of meaning to a word, shaping the way it is perceived and the responses it elicits. Beyond the straightforward denotation, words accumulate connotative associations through societal, historical, or personal contexts. Connotation and Denotation: Meaning, Examples & Difference. (blueroseone.com) On the term “snake” Connotation: In literature, “snake” conveys cultural and symbolic associations, often suggesting betrayal, deceit, or danger. The connotation adds layers of meaning, contributing to the emotional impact of the word. Denotation: Denotatively, “snake” refers to a legless reptile. The denotation provides a straightforward, literal definition, stripping away emotional connotations. On the term “youthful” Connotation: “Youthful” holds positive connotations, evoking images of vibrancy, energy, and a positive outlook associated with youth. The connotation enriches the word with positive emotional nuances. Denotation: Denotatively, “youthful” strictly means having the characteristics of youth. It provides an objective, factual definition without emotional embellishments. LEXICAL AND STYLISTIC MEANINGS  LEXICAL MEANING defined as the meaning of a base or root word without considering any prefix or suffix which may be attached. refers to the sense (or meaning) of a word (or lexeme) as it appears in a dictionary. Also known as semantic meaning, denotative meaning, and central meaning Definition and Discussion (thoughtco.com)  STYLISTIC MEANING the formal features of texts for their own sake and in order to show their functional significance for the interpretation of a text. based on the secondary (additional) information. It denotes the features which are adherent (ascribed) to the object. Definition and Discussion (thoughtco.com) Example: He left for He passed He died. heavenly away. aboard.  Lexical meaning is given explicitly while stylistic meaning is always implied. Lexical meaning is relatively stable, and stylistic meaning is liable to change as it is affected by extralinguistic factors.  Secondary meaning supplemented Collocative to the conceptual meaning. Meaning Meaning depend on various factors such as: age, sex, time, and etc. (ColM) Stylistic Associative Meaning (SM) Meaning (AM) Affective Meaning (AfM) Lexical Meaning Connotative Meaning (ConM) Conceptual Denotative meaning. Meaning (CM) Meaning coming from the dictionary.  Comparison… Conceptual Meaning Associative Meaning Fundamental Secondary Stable Contextual Universal Changing/Open-ended/Indeterminate TYPES OF CONTEXT WHAT IS CONTEXT IN STYLISTICS? Refers to the circumstances surrounding language that shape its meaning. The text or other culture that provides additional information about a specific piece of language. Defined as the aggregate of linguistic, situational, social and cultural variables that surround linguistic units such as texts, discourses, utterances, words, morphemes, phonemes, sounds, and distinctive features. 1. Linguistic Context 2. Extralingual Context  Linguistic context or Co-text ✔ Is the encirclement of a language unit by other language units in speech. The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. The surrounding co-text has a strong effect on what we think the word probably means. Such encirclement makes the meaning of the unit clear and unambiguous. It is especially important in case with polysemantic words. Let’s take these examples: She has to get to the This bank is bank to withdraw overgrown. (“bank” some cash. (“bank” refers to a hill ) refers to an establishment)  Situational Context Textual Context TYPES Cultural Context Social Context Cognitive Context  SITUATIONAL CONTEXT TEXTUAL CONTEXT This involves the physical or social Refers to the words, sentences, or environment in which paragraphs around a given text. It communication takes place. helps in interpreting the meaning of ambiguous words or phrases. It involves factors such as the time, place, and specific situation where a It helps clarify the meaning of the conversation or interaction takes language by providing relevant place. These external conditions can background and making ambiguous shape how language is interpreted, expressions more understandable. as they provide important clues about what a speaker might mean, beyond just the words they use. Example: He wore a crown. In a story about a fantasy kingdom, this suggests that the character is a king Example: The phrase "It's cold in or royalty. In contrast, if the broader here" could imply a request to close a text discusses a costume party, the window, depending on the situation. same sentence might mean he is just dressed as a king for fun.  CULTURAL CONTEXT SOCIAL CONTEXT Involves the shared knowledge, Refers to the way the social beliefs, and assumptions of the environment, relationships, and people engaged in communication. norms of a particular society It's often related to the specific influence the language, style, and culture of the speaker or listener. meaning of a text. It provides a framework through This includes elements like class, which communication is interpreted, gender, power dynamics, social roles, as the meaning of words, gestures, and institutions, which affect how and references can vary widely language is used and interpreted in across different cultures. various social situations. Example: A reference to Example: A manager might say, "I "Thanksgiving" might be understood need this report by Friday," while an differently depending on the country employee might respond, "Of course, or cultural background of the I’ll get that done," reflecting their audience. hierarchical relationship.  COGNITIVE CONTEXT Involves how a listener's or reader's background knowledge, beliefs, and cognitive abilities influence their interpretation of words, phrases, and overall meaning in communication. Example: In the sentence, "It was a beautiful day for a picnic," a reader might infer that the speaker intends to suggest going outside, based on the positive connotation of a "beautiful day."  Extralingual Context ✔ This context is formed by extralingual conditions in which communication takes place : physical context or abstract context (setting), temporal or chronological context (date and duration), and psychological context (emotions and mood). It refers to the situation in which a word is used. In everyday life, word meaning is more often dependent on the actual situation in which a word is used.  A conversation in a formal meeting may necessitate a different tone and style than a casual chat among friends. A reference to a cultural event or tradition may hold different meanings depending on the audience's cultural familiarity. A poem written during a war may reflect the sentiments and experiences of that era, influencing its themes and language. A speaker's anxiety may influence their choice of words and tone, impacting how the message is received. A novel that alludes to Shakespeare may evoke themes of tragedy and fate, enriching the reader's understanding based on their knowledge of those texts.  Example: John is really quick. ✔ John is a runner. ✔ A teacher told a joke, and then all the students laughed but John did not laugh. Then John laughed. One of the students said: John is really quick. EXPRESSIVENESS and EMOTIVENESS  EXPRESSIVENESS refers to the way language is used to convey emotions, attitudes, or emphatic meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words. It deals with how language choices (lexical, grammatical, phonological, etc.) are manipulated to produce a particular effect or to evoke a certain response from the reader or listener. EMOTIVENESS refers to the use of language to evoke or express emotions, either in the speaker/writer or the audience. It involves selecting and arranging words, phrases, and structures in a way that heightens the emotional impact of a text.  Aspect Expressiveness Emotiveness Broad focus on enhancing Primarily on expressing or evoking communication, including Core Focus emotions (e.g., joy, sadness, emotion, creativity, clarity, and anger). impact. To make language more vivid, To provoke an emotional response Purpose impactful, or aesthetically from the audience. appealing. Emotionally charged words, Figurative language (metaphor, Techniques Used exclamations, hyperbole, simile), sound patterns, repetition, rhetorical questions. word choice. Can evoke emotions but also Elicits specific emotions like Effect on Audience stimulates thought or creates happiness, sadness, fear. aesthetic pleasure. Culler, J. (2001). Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.  Expressiveness Emotiveness 1. The autumn leaves, ablaze with fiery reds and 1. Her heart ached with unbearable grief as she oranges, crunched beneath my feet as the cool watched him walk away forever. breeze whispered through the trees. 2. The shimmering sea stretched silently, as the 2. What a terrible mistake! How could this sun sank slowly beneath the horizon happen to us? 3. The room was as silent as a grave, the tension 3. Her words cut through me like a knife, leaving thick enough to cut with a knife wounds that would never heal. 4. His voice was a river of calm, flowing through 4. The empty chair at the dinner table was a the chaos of the crowd constant reminder of his absence Kouadio, J.* (2022). “Language and Imagery in Literature.” Journal of Literary Studies EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES  Expressive means of a language are those linguistic forms and properties that have the potential to make the utterance emphatic or expressive. These can be EXPRESSIVE found on all levels - phonetic, graphical, morphological, lexical or syntactical. MEANS (EM) These are those phonetic, morphological, word building or lexical forms which they exist in language for logical or emotional intensification.  Examples I am angry--- I am very angry--- I am extremely angry I am sorry---- I am seriously sorry----I am dreadfully sorry He will do it----He shall do it. STYLISTIC DEVICES (SD) The stylistic device is a conscious and an intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative model. A SD is an abstract pattern, a mold into which any pattern can be poured. A stylistic device combines some general semantic meaning with a certain linguistic form resulting in stylistic effect. It is like an algorithm employed for an expressive purpose. For example, the interplay, interaction, or clash of the dictionary and contextual meanings of words will bring about such stylistic devices as metaphor, metonymy or irony. FIGURATIVE SOUND STRUCTURE IRONY WORD LANGUAGE TECHNIQUES CHOICE SYMBOLS IMAGERY