Stuvia Criminology Introduction PDF

Samenvatting Criminology - Introduction into Criminology for Social Science Students (RGBUSTR007) geschreven door saradg www.stuvia.com Gedownload door: madelonregt...

Samenvatting Criminology - Introduction into Criminology for Social Science Students (RGBUSTR007) geschreven door saradg www.stuvia.com Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Introduction into Criminology for Social Science Students Summary of: Criminology, a contemporary introduction – Tony Murphy second edition (2022) 1 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Index Lecture 1 - Introduction: What is criminology, what is crime and who is the criminal?..........................3 Chapter 1 (introducing criminology)...................................................................................................3 Chapter 2 (Theory and its uses)..........................................................................................................3 Chapter 5 (counting crime).................................................................................................................4 Lecture 2 - Assumptions, biases and realities: Theoretical and methodological tenets of Criminology..5 Chapter 3 (Theory: the cause of crime)..............................................................................................5 Chapter 4 (criminological research)....................................................................................................7 Lecture 3 - Philosophies of punishment.................................................................................................8 Chapter 9 (punishment)......................................................................................................................8 Lecture 4 - Culture of fear: Crime in the era of media..........................................................................10 Chapter 6 (politics of law and order)................................................................................................10 Chapter 8 (media and crime)............................................................................................................10 Lecture 5 - Crimes of the powerful.......................................................................................................12 Chapter 11 (global justice)................................................................................................................12 Chapter 12 (harm-based approach)..................................................................................................14 Lecture 6 - Villains vs. Victims: Mobility, gender and the stigmatization of ‘Others’.............................14 Chapter 7 (victims and offenders).....................................................................................................14 Chapter 10 (social policy of crime)...................................................................................................16 2 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Lecture 1 - Introduction: What is criminology, what is crime and who is the criminal? Chapter 1 (introducing criminology) Criminology: the study of crime, justice and law and order issues, and the broader dynamics of societies in terms of informing how those things exist and are experienced. Social, political, cultural, and economical climate play a part, as well as processes like globalisation, technological progress etc. Criminology is:  Interdisciplinary  An object science  Originally an applied science (governmental concerns) A good criminologist needs to  Be a critical enquirer. Gaps? Alternative explanations? Who defines/describes crime? Who lacks a voice?  Be reflective. how am I biased? What group(s) do I belong to? Prejudice?  Be pragmatic. Thorough, digitally competent, appropriate materials.  Frank Furedi: curiosity, openness, ask, criticize, don’t succumb to academic cynicism! Origins  Classical criminologist (18th century): crime is result of free will and cost benefit analysis (Beccaria, Bentham)  First criminologists (19th century): positivists. Researching what factors explain crime and/or what makes a criminal and a regular civilian? Criminal seen as ‘different’.  20th century: different fields (criminography (measuring), aetiology (cause of crime), response to crime (prevention, penology), victimology. Focus on criminal justice inequalities. What is crime?  Legal definition: act in violation against some sort of law (criminal, international etc.)  Sociological definition: Sellin wanted a scientific definition. Searched for universalities in norms and rule transgression (what things do societies generally believe to be wrong?) Sees crime as a sociological problem. ‘Deviant behaviour’ topic of study. - Social constructivist looks at why social norms exist and why they are there.  Harm based approach: anything that causes harm is criminal. Thinks crime is a legal construct an anthropocentric (to focused on humans, doe does not take into account crimes against animals, planet etc.)  Human rights definition: non respect of these rights is crime. Nowadays: social justice. Politically loaden definition, recognizes discrimination and crimes of the powerful.  Crime must be fluid because laws change. Who makes these laws? Are some needless? Who is affected? Some things are needlessly criminalized (homosexuality does no harm, still punishable in some counties), some damaging behaviours are not criminal.  Crime is situational: dependent on your position and context. Chapter 2 (Theory and its uses) Theory: an explanation, model, or framework for understanding particular events or processes. Ex. Policy makers are interested in theories to create law, strategies etc. Theories as a heuristic tool to understand crime, criminals etc. Different viewpoint, accepting one theory does not equal rejecting the rest. 3 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Aetiological theory of crime is limited to researching causes of crime. They take legal definitions a base. Something to be critical of. Blocks of theory 1. Choice and decision-making Classist school. People choose to commit crime because of the expected outcome. Rational decision-making process. Responding to crime: make offending difficult, pain/pleasure principle. Ex. Deterrence (afschrikken) through harsh punishment. 2. Individual pathologies (individual) positivism. Biological and psychological abnormalities cause offending. Should be dealt with trough treating or rehabilitating. Removing those abnormalities. Ex. Drug addict receives treatment. 3. Social pathologies (social/sociological) positivism. Same as 2, but pathologies of a community, culture of social structures. Individuals are influenced by their environments. Responding to crime: address broader influences. Ex. Crime result of poverty: redistribute wealth, create jobs etc. 4. Critical approaches Often influenced by Marxism, very popular. Wide social processes like class, marginalisation and inequality of some groups. Process of criminalisation is highlighted (who is targeted by CJS?). Social control element: criminalisation and responses to crime serve to control elements of the population. 5. Integrated accounts All combined! Theory comes from: broad issues and concerns of criminology > specific questions > concepts > research activities > evidence > evaluation > policy. This is a web of knowledge and does not always occur in this order. Chapter 5 (counting crime) Counting crime numbers is subjective because crime is subjective. How we define crime, impacts how/what we count. This can include all ‘harms’ or not. Not all crime can be sufficiently counted, because of underreporting crime (manual labour incidents, due to negligence). Crime mapping: locating who, when, where a criminal/crime has taken place. This helps police, who can locate crime hotspots, which means they can direct resources directly to the place that needs it. Different measures of counting crime 1. Official crime data (official statistics) Incidents reported. 2. Police recorded data (also victimisation surveys) Survey asks if someone had been a victim of a crime in the past year. Representative sample of society. (limitations: time lag between occurrence of crime an data collection means no good measure of emerging trend, recalling issues, crimes who have no victim anymore (homicides)) 3. Self report surveys (have you committed a crime in the past year?) Different measure from the rest, this includes victimless crimes and crimes not recognized by the victim. 4. Data from nongovernmental organisations and investigative journalism. Different measure: includes crimes difficult to count, like underground crime, transnational, and international crime. Data can be published by entities such as: BBC, Amnesty, United Nations etc. 4 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Crime has not necessarily increased over time (since WW2), but we count it more and consider more/different things crimes compared to before. Watch graphs with caution. Proven reoffence (recidivism): defined as any offence committed in a one-year follow-up period, that resulted in a court conviction, or caution in the one-year follow-up or a further six-month waiting period (to allow time for cases to progress through the courts. Critique on official data. For a crime to end up in data it must be recognized, reported, and recorded (3 R’s). This can go wrong in all three stages and not end up in data. We speak of attrition. Culture plays a part in this as well. Ex. Japan’s shame culture toward sexually assaulted women. Iceberg analogy  Above sea level - Recorded crime.  Below sea level - Reported but not recorded. - Recognized but not reported. - Not recognised. Self report surveys recognize more different types of crime, otherwise lost in de the 3 R process. Limitations: social desirability, people not recognizing their crimes, recalling issues, exaggerations etc. Lecture 2 - Assumptions, biases and realities: Theoretical and methodological tenets of Criminology Chapter 3 (Theory: the cause of crime) Different forms of crime  Acquisitive crime: desired result of this crime is to gain something (for the offender). Could be money, object, value, status etc.  Expressive crime: the crime itself is the desire. Often violent in nature.  They don’t necessarily rule each other out. Different reasons to commit crime (social sciences)  People have agency, choice, and freedom to choose to do crime. People exercise choice and power.  People are shaped by structures. People’s lives are constrained. The five blocks of thinking 1. Choice and decision making 2. Individual pathologies 3. Social pathologies 4. Critical accounts 5. Integrated accounts Block 1 – Choice and decision making  Classism (late 18th and 19th century): crime is consequence of individuals 5 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen making decisions and choosing to commit crime (free will). Offenders viewed as evil/immoral, punishments were severe and disproportionate.  Hedonistic calculation and utilitarianism  Beccaria and Bentham - Beccaria wanted deterrence without being overly brutal. Wanted the following principles: 1) certainty (punishment follows a crime), 2) celerity (once guilty, swiftly punish) and 3) severity (should be proportionate) - Bentham (hedonistic): people are fundamentally selfish. Pain/pleasure principle. - Both authors: deterrence is key. Rather prevent crime than punish.  Neo-classical school (late 19th and 20th century): rational choice. Crime is a consequence of an active decision-making process. Focus pivoting to liability and those who are not liable.  Critique: largely ignorant of social processes and inequality. Block 2 – Individual pathologies  Late 19th and early 20th century. Positivism (hard science), more a method than a theory about crime. Focus on the criminal. Something is wrong with the people who commit crime, pathological. Researching what makes them different from the rest. They are influenced by characteristics beyond their own control that are biological and psychological in nature.  Deterministic view. Presenting criminals different from non criminals  Focus on treatment and rehabilitation. If that doesn’t work, isolation (sometimes even death)  Cesare Lombroso and Sigmund Freud - Lombroso: atavism (evolutionary throwbacks) and biological traits of a criminal  Critique: dangerously deterministic, could lead to dangerous policies targeting certain people who are ‘pre-determined’. Block 3 – Social pathologies  20th century. Social/sociological positivism. Societal structures and community dynamics influence individuals and shape their offending behaviours.  Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton and David Matza - Durkheim: anomie - Merton: strain theory. Innovations, rebellion and retreatism all produce criminal behaviour. - Matza. Subcultures don’t reject mainstream values; they drift in and out of them. Techniques of neutralisation (justifying their offending).  Chicago school, zonal hypothesis. Zone with a lot of crime in a city. Poor, lacks formal/informal social controls etc. First crime comes from processes of social disorganisation, then it becomes a learnt behaviour (people grow up in criminogenic neighbourhoods).  Critique: also suggests some way of determinism, certain groups of people more prone to offend. But they are not always criminal. Block 4 – Critical approaches  20th century. Influenced by Marxism. Questions fundamentals like class, CJS, criminalization. Capitalism and power focused. Crime can be both a survival strategy and an act of individual greed.  Problematizing: inequality, power, feminism etc. politicizing the study of crime. Schools of thought: conflict/radical, critical, Left Realism, feminist, post-colonial etc.  Labelling perspective. Self fulfilling prophecy, where an individual takes on the label and lives up to this. (Social constructivism? Not sure it belongs to labelling or the entire block)  Critique: can be too focused on economy and class (economic reductionist) 6 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Block 5 – Integrated approaches  Wants to combine all the blocks.  Cultural criminology: crime and its control cannot be separated from the structural and cultural contexts in which it produced, and it cannot lose sight of human agents’ contribution to those contexts. Concerns how crime and justice issues are mediated.  Many important theories like integrated cognitive antisocial potential (ICAP) theory and Moffit’s life-course persistent/adolescent-limited theory Chapter 4 (criminological research) Broad objectives of criminological research  Patterns of behaviours/events  Observation and categorization of events/individuals/groups  Evaluation of policies/laws/institutions/developments  Exploration of public perceptions and attitudes How/what/why  Topic of interest  Explore literature (gaps in knowledge?)  Specific aims and forming research questions.  Methodological approach and design (triangulation, sampling, ethics etc.)  Collect data.  Analysis and writing Reiterative process: once you have collected data/analyse data, you may need to go back to re-sample, collect more data, adjust method, revisit literature etc. Research process is not linear and complicated. Ethical research has many parts and things to consider:  Be aware and reflective of your positionality, privilege, and role (giving back to participants and the reputation of your institution and field of study)  Attend to your competencies and development (professionalism, integrity, respect and ) noncriminal behaviours)  Do not harm or endanger participants (informed consent, right to withdrawal, confidentiality and anonymity, storage and management of data, care for participants (before, during and after) Types of research  Quantitative. Ontology (what can we know, what can be observed, one reality), positivist in nature, deductive research design.  Qualitative. Epistemology (how can we access knowledge, multiple realities), interpretivist, critical and/or constructivist in nature, inductive research design.  Combination of both indicates a methodological approach. You want a sample to be representative so that results can be generalised as much as possible.  Probability based sample - Stratified - Cluster  Nonprobability sample (systematic) - Quota - Purposive - Convenience (asking people in the street) 7 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen - Snowball Also be aware of the research validity and reliability of your work. Lecture 3 - Philosophies of punishment Chapter 9 (punishment) Penology: subdiscipline within criminology which studies punishment. Related to power and authority (who can punish) and legitimacy (why can they punish). The state has the authority and legitimacy to punish (Social contract and Hobbes)  Democratic state: chosen by the people who can.  Autocratic state: ruler has supreme power.  Theocratic state: religion has power. Issue of privatisation: private companies receive power and authority to deliver processes of punishment form their contract issued by the state, but do they have legitimacy according to people, to deliver justice? Relates to: Issue of marginalisation: everything needs to be as efficient and cost benefitting as possible. Aims of punishment  Retribution. Moral justification without looking at the future consequences. Criticized by the classical school, brutal and ineffective.  Deterrence. Both individual who commits crime and a warning to society. Classical school.  Rehabilitation. In line with positivism. Treatment.  Incapacitation (both temporary and permanent). Preventing offenders from reoffending. Ex. Prison sentences (long and short) and death penalty. Both classist (deterrence form spending time in prison/death penalty) and positivist (rehabilitation proves ineffective)  Restorative justice and reparations. Involving communities affected by war and state atrocities in CJS. Critical approach fits here. Punishment (more critical approach)  Social control and warehousing the poor. Exercising control over populations who might form a threat to social hierarchy.  Disciplining populations to the demands of the economy. Ex. Having to follow rules in the place you work that are subservient to the demand of the economy.  Affirming moral standards and societal bounds. More functionalist approach Types of punishment  Punitive. Tough on offenders (imprisonment, fines, sanctions, rehabilitation, corporal (physical punishment) and capital (death penalty) punishment)  Welfarist. Concerned with wellbeing of offenders and communities (probation, welfare system policies and social policy interventions)  Radical. Challenges current situation. (restorative justice, decriminalization, abolitionism etc.) Recidivism: reoffending levels of those who complete a sentence of punishment. Short sentences for lower-level offending are linked with more recidivists (habitual offending). Maybe due to too little time for proper rehabilitation and/or issues like overcrowded/short staffed prisons. Five pains of imprisonment (The Society of Captives, Gresham Skyes): deprivation of liberty, goods and services, heterosexual relations, autonomy, and security. Penal-philosophical approaches 8 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen  Retributive justice (disinterested, proportional, consistent) vs. Revenge (passionate, disproportional, sadistic). But can retributive justice be domesticated, something we have gotten used to? Desire for collective emotional satisfaction.  Punishment can be installed either concerned with the moral reckoning of an offender, crime in the past (retribution) and/or can be related to the future in terms of preventing crime (reductionism)  The Classical School: calculating and utilitarianism. Crime is result of free will, punishment is rational, certain, and severe. Aim reductionism. Rationality implemented in every step of the criminal process. Sociological approaches  Durkheim view on punishment - Punishment: a ritualized moral process. Functioning to preserve shared values. - Accounting emotions, wider population feels involved. - Punishing crime transformed to a triumph of social solidarity and cohesion. - Limitation: too ritualistic and functionalist. Do punishments embody society’s values?  Marx view on punishment - Serves to maintain state power and ruling class. - Source of state income (fines) - Social phenomenon beyond a technical response to crime - Life in prison less pleasant than constant labour. - Too structural. No other punishments involved besides imprisonment and fines.  Foucault view on punishment - Subtle political tactic. Produces ‘normal’ obedient and productive individuals. - Regulating the body. Routine intervention, gentle correction, constant supervision - Shifting aim of punishment. Inflicting pain to transform soul.  Elias view on punishment - About violence, very vague in power point (Dia 20) - Shifting behavioural norms and cultural rituals - Privatization of disturbing events - Ruling out barbaric practices - Violence moves behind the scenes. Handled in enclaves by professionals. - Forms of violence still escape those sensibilities and the resurgence of violence as spectacle.  Panopticon (Bentham) - Individualize bodies, easier to control. - Surveillance society - Discipline - Penological failure of prisons = political success to create a delinquent class (division among working class) - Not al punishments intend to discipline and not all individuals share goal of discipline. Capital punishment: death as punishment. Ultimate form of deterrence, incapacitation, retribution and suppressing populations. Classicists and critical approach critical of this type. Positivist as well, but what if rehabilitation is not possible? Beware: punishment is only a reactive process, not a pro active one. Deals with outcomes rather than causes of crime. 9 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen Lecture 4 - Culture of fear: Crime in the era of media Chapter 6 (politics of law and order) Crime and criminal justice issues become increasingly politicised. That is, policymaking, law-making, practice and political discussion around crime, and indeed other aspects of law and order, have become increasingly determined by public opinion and reaction, media, political positioning, and the need for policymakers/government to be seen to be doing something and be on the side of the people, which generally means being though. This may, or often may not, be linked to what experts think will ‘work’ in terms of dealing with the law-and-order issues themselves. Crime figures, numbers and politics  As currency: crime policy has impact on crime figures and vice versa. Actively tackling crime creates public trust and approval. Even if it causes further problems. - Though on crime policies and justification of penal populism  As baggage: finding a balance between meaningful change and pleasing public. Difficult  As deflection: a political strategy of convenient re-orientation of public focus Penal populism  Political parties compete to be ‘tough on crime’.  Feeding (off) the public perception that crime is out of control. Satisfying punitive urges of the public.  Idea that criminals are favoured at the expense of victims and the ‘normal’ public.  Feeds on division and dissent  Media capitalize on the concerns > increase attention to crime > political topic  Populism: ideology that separates society in two homogenous and antagonistic groups (pure people and the corrupt elite) (ex. Donald Trump used penal populism al lot during campaign and presidency) Political influence on law-and-order processes  Policing priorities. Allocation of resources.  Policing practices (ex. Heightened stop and search of specific areas/groups)  Law making (neo liberal/conservative tendencies)  Sentencing practices. To appease the public  The role of the victim. More important  Fixation with statistics. To use for their own arguments.  Crime governance. Ex. Privatization of CJS Policies also depend on the socially constructed nature of crime. One harmful behaviour is criminalised in one country, but not in another. All that while an even more harmful behaviour is not criminalised (ex. Cannabis and alcohol consumption). This landscape can shift overtime. David Garland in Culture of Control: welfarist outlook on offenders is shifting to a punitive one. A punitive shift towards a culture of control. Chapter 8 (media and crime) Media: diverse set of institutions, processes, and mediums. News media, books, music, social media, gaming, tv, film etc. Ties in with public criminology: criminology accessible to public, not only a science. Media coverage of crime tend to focus on (serious) crime (making people think it happens more than it does) and exaggerate victimisation. Also, a monetary gain aspect to this as well. Police and CJS is often portrayed positively and views on demographics of offenders and victims are distorted. 10 Gedownload door: madelonregts2810 | [email protected] € 912 per jaar Dit document is auteursrechtelijk beschermd, het verspreiden van dit document is strafbaar. extra verdienen?  Stuvia - Koop en Verkoop de Beste Samenvattingen - Newsworthiness is important here, what captures public interest? (dramatic (visuals), celebrities, violence, children, sex, predictability, proximity, quoting experts/authorities, stereotypes, generalizing etc.) Frames: basis cognitive structure which guide the perception and representation of reality. Not consciously manufactured. Ex. Echo chambers, algorithms. Stereotypes (formulaic, oversimplified, essential) vs. tropes (recurring themes or patterns, motifs) Media is criminogenic (can create crime)  Copycat crimes  Process of desensitisation. Heavy exposure to images of crime and violence minimizes the shock factor and creates sense that behaviours are acceptable. Ex. GTA  Perceptions of injustice. People (from certain groups) feel that they are treated unfairly, media feed this feeling and people commit crimes (riots etc.).  Facilitate crime. Digital dealers, people who deal drugs on social media. But also: harassment, hate speech etc. Moral panic - Interaction between the public (including their anxieties and concerns), the media (wanting to sell stories and newsworthiness), the political dimensions of law and order issues and other elites. - Demonising deviant behaviour in media. Existing order is confirmed. - This interaction makes for a disproportionate reaction to a perceived or actual threat posed by a group of phenomenon in society. Threat to values. There must be a public reaction (policy responses, media coverage etc.) - Moral entrepreneurs make social issues into political issues. - Folk devils: certain group is disproportionately and suddenly represented as a threat. Deviancy amplification: focus on deviant behaviours even if they are not representative of the entire group (folk devils). (Ex. Welfare benefit claimants, focus on the people who ‘play the system’).