Study Guide: Ontologies & Epistemologies in Political Science PDF

Detailed Study of Ontologies and Epistemologies in Political Science In political science, understanding ontology and epistemology is essential because these philosophical concepts guide the way we approach research, interpret data, and understand political phenomena. The distinction between these two terms is fundamental to how scholars design their studies, choose their methods, and analyze results. Below, I’ll explain in detail the concepts of ontology and epistemology, their relationship, and how they influence research in political science. 1. Ontology in Political Science: What Exists? Ontology refers to the study of being or existence—it’s concerned with what exists in the world and how we categorize these entities. In political science, ontology asks questions such as: What are the fundamental entities or structures that make up the political world (e.g., states, individuals, parties, ideologies)? How do these entities relate to each other? What is the nature of these entities—do they exist independently of our knowledge of them, or are they constructed through social practices and human interactions? Key Ontological Positions: 1. Realism (Objectivism): a. What is real? Realism asserts that there is an objective reality that exists independent of human perception. Political entities such as states, political parties, institutions, and power structures exist regardless of how we think about them. b. Ontology in Realism: Reality is seen as external and unchanging, and political scientists aim to uncover truths about these entities by observing and measuring them. c. Example: A realist might argue that states are real entities that can be measured by their economic strength, military power, and territorial boundaries, independent of subjective human interpretation. 2. Anti-Realism (Constructivism): a. What is real? Anti-realism challenges the idea of an independent, objective reality. It suggests that what we consider "real" is, in fact, a social construct, influenced by human perception, language, and social interaction. b. Ontology in Anti-Realism: In this view, political phenomena are socially constructed. Institutions, power, and even concepts like "sovereignty" or "justice" exist only because society collectively agrees on them. Reality is subjective and shaped by human discourse and practices. c. Example: Anti-realists would argue that political concepts like democracy or sovereignty are not fixed entities but are shaped by social norms, values, and historical contexts. The nature of these concepts can change depending on how they are constructed and understood within different societies. 3. Critical Realism: a. What is real? Critical realism combines elements of both realism and anti-realism. It accepts that there is an external reality, but that our knowledge of it is always mediated by social, cultural, and historical contexts. b. Ontology in Critical Realism: It asserts that reality exists independently, but it can only be understood through interpretation. Critical realists argue that while we can observe objective facts, our understanding of them is shaped by the frameworks and theories we use. c. Example: Critical realists might argue that a state's economic or political behavior is influenced by objective factors (e.g., natural resources, geography) but that our understanding of those behaviors is also shaped by ideological and social factors. Key Questions in Ontology: What entities are central to political science research? (e.g., states, institutions, political behavior) Do political entities exist independently of our knowledge or are they socially constructed? What is the nature of political phenomena? Are they fixed or subject to change based on human actions and interpretations? 2. Epistemology in Political Science: How Do We Know? Epistemology deals with the nature of knowledge, or how we come to know what we know. In political science, epistemology questions: How can we understand political phenomena? What counts as valid knowledge or evidence? What are the appropriate methods for acquiring knowledge about political phenomena? Epistemology is often divided into different approaches based on how we approach truth and knowledge. Key Epistemological Positions: 1. Positivism: a. How do we know? Positivism is grounded in the belief that knowledge is based on observable, objective reality. Political phenomena can be measured and analyzed using empirical data, typically through quantitative methods like surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis. b. Epistemology in Positivism: Positivists believe that knowledge should be value- free and objective. Researchers can produce valid and reliable knowledge by using scientific methods to observe and quantify phenomena. The goal is to identify universal laws or patterns that can explain political behavior. c. Example: A positivist political scientist might study voting behavior by conducting large-scale surveys and analyzing statistical patterns to draw generalizable conclusions about how voters make decisions. 2. Interpretivism: a. How do we know? Interpretivism contrasts with positivism by focusing on the subjective nature of human experience. It posits that knowledge is not purely objective and that we must understand political phenomena through the meanings that people attach to their actions and beliefs. b. Epistemology in Interpretivism: Interpretivists argue that contextual understanding and empathy are essential for gaining knowledge. Researchers must immerse themselves in the context of the study, often through qualitative methods like interviews, ethnography, and case studies. c. Example: An interpretivist researcher might conduct in-depth interviews with political activists to understand their personal motivations and the meanings they attribute to political participation, rather than just observing measurable outcomes like election results. 3. Critical Epistemology: a. How do we know? Critical epistemology challenges the status quo and questions whose knowledge counts. It asserts that knowledge is not neutral but is shaped by power relations and ideological forces. b. Epistemology in Critical Epistemology: Critical epistemologists argue that traditional forms of knowledge often reinforce existing social hierarchies. Political science research should seek to reveal hidden power dynamics and challenge dominant narratives, often by prioritizing the voices of marginalized groups. c. Example: A critical epistemologist might examine how political institutions perpetuate inequalities by analyzing discourse and focusing on voices that are often silenced, such as marginalized communities or minority political actors. 4. Pragmatism: a. How do we know? Pragmatism focuses on the practical outcomes of knowledge. It asserts that the truth is what works in a given situation and that theories should be judged by their ability to solve real-world problems. b. Epistemology in Pragmatism: In political science, pragmatism emphasizes the utility of knowledge and encourages mixed-methods approaches, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methods to address political questions from multiple perspectives. c. Example: A pragmatist might combine surveys with ethnographic fieldwork to understand a political issue, using both numerical data and personal accounts to generate practical solutions to problems like voter disenfranchisement. Key Questions in Epistemology: How do we gain knowledge about political phenomena? (e.g., through objective measurement or subjective interpretation?) What methods should be used to study political behavior? (e.g., surveys, interviews, statistical models, ethnography) What counts as valid and reliable political knowledge? (e.g., generalizable patterns vs. contextual understanding) The Relationship Between Ontology and Epistemology Ontology and epistemology are closely linked in the research process: Ontology influences epistemology: The way researchers conceive of reality (ontologically) shapes how they approach knowledge (epistemologically). For example, if a researcher believes that political phenomena are socially constructed (anti-realism), they may adopt an interpretivist approach, focusing on subjective meaning-making. If they believe in an objective political reality (realism), they may favor positivist methods to measure that reality. Epistemology informs research methods: Researchers who adopt positivist epistemology will typically employ quantitative methods such as surveys or experiments. Researchers with an interpretivist epistemology will prefer qualitative methods like interviews or case studies, as they are interested in understanding the meanings and experiences behind political behavior rather than just measuring it. Summary of Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science: Ontology (What exists?) Epistemology (How do we know?) Positivism: Knowledge is objective and can be Realism: Objective reality exists measured scientifically through observation and independently of our knowledge. empirical data. Anti-Realism (Constructivism): Interpretivism: Knowledge is subjective, and we must Reality is socially constructed; it does understand the meanings and experiences of people not exist independently. involved in political phenomena. Critical Realism: There is an external Critical Epistemology: Knowledge is shaped by reality, but our knowledge of it is power relations and should reveal hidden inequalities. mediated by social context. Pragmatism: Truth is determined by what works in practice, and knowledge should be judged by its practical utility. Study Guide for Political Science Research Methods Exam This study guide covers key readings on ontology, epistemology, interpretive research design, and research methodology in political science, with an emphasis on the intersection between theory and data. It also includes important readings on case studies and the application of qualitative methods in political research. Below are the key concepts, arguments, and connections between the readings. 1. Marsh, David, Ercan, Selen A., and Furlong, Paul (2018). ‘A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science’ Key Concepts: Ontology: Refers to the study of what exists—what kinds of entities make up the world and how we categorize them (e.g., institutions, individuals, concepts). Epistemology: Concerns how we can know about the world, including the nature of knowledge and the methods through which we acquire it (e.g., observation, theory-building). Realism vs. Anti-Realism: The text contrasts realist ontologies (believing that a reality exists independently of our knowledge of it) with anti-realist ontologies (arguing that our knowledge constructs the reality we observe). Positivism vs. Interpretivism: The reading also addresses how different ontological assumptions shape our choice of research methods. Positivism relies on objective, measurable truths, while interpretivism emphasizes understanding meaning and social processes from participants’ perspectives. Key Takeaways: The relationship between ontology and epistemology shapes how political scientists approach research. For instance, ontological assumptions about the nature of political entities (e.g., states, political parties) determine whether researchers adopt a quantitative (positivist) or qualitative (interpretivist) epistemology. Ontology as the ‘Skin’ and Epistemology as the ‘Sweater’: This metaphor illustrates that ontology (what exists) is foundational and often "hidden," while epistemology (how we know) is more visible and shaped by the researcher’s theoretical approach. Questions for Review: How do ontological and epistemological assumptions influence the design of political science research? What is the significance of distinguishing between realism and anti-realism in political research? 2. Schwartz-Shea, P., and Yanow, D. (2012). Interpretive Research Design: Concepts and Processes (Chapters 1-4) Key Concepts: Interpretive Research: Focuses on understanding social phenomena from the perspectives of those involved. It emphasizes context, meaning, and subjectivity in research. Designing Interpretive Research: The chapters cover how to design research with an interpretivist orientation, stressing the importance of reflexivity and contextuality. Conceptualization: This involves defining the key concepts used in interpretive research. It’s an essential step in research design, requiring attention to both the theoretical grounding and how these concepts are operationalized. Interpretive Case Study: A method of deeply exploring a particular case to understand broader social or political phenomena through participants' lived experiences. Key Takeaways: Interpretive research design is not just about collecting data but about understanding how meaning is constructed in social contexts. Researchers must be conscious of the researcher’s role and how their own positionality influences the research process. Case Studies in interpretive research allow for in-depth, context-specific exploration of phenomena, making the research more meaningful within specific social or political contexts. Questions for Review: What is the role of reflexivity in interpretive research design, and why is it important? How does interpretive research differ from positivist approaches in political science? 3. Gschwend, Thomas and Schimmelfennig, Frank (2011). ‘Introduction: Designing Research in Political Science – A Dialogue between Theory and Data’ Key Concepts: Research Design: The process of planning and structuring a research study to ensure it is methodologically sound. This involves selecting appropriate methods, defining research questions, and ensuring that theory and data align. The Theory-Data Dialogue: The reading emphasizes that political science research should maintain a dialogue between theory and data. Theory guides the research process by informing hypotheses, while data allows for theory testing and refinement. Methodological Pluralism: Gschwend and Schimmelfennig argue for using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to understand political phenomena, as each has its strengths and limitations. Key Takeaways: Political research requires both theoretical grounding and empirical data. Theories are tested against data, and data collection should always be guided by the theoretical framework. The balance between deductive (theory-driven) and inductive (data-driven) approaches is crucial to good research design. Questions for Review: Why is maintaining a dialogue between theory and data important for political science research design? What are the challenges and benefits of methodological pluralism in political research? 4. Connolly, William E. (1993). The Terms of Political Discourse (pp. 22-35) Key Concepts: Political Discourse: Connolly explores how language and discourse shape political reality, emphasizing that political ideas are constructed through language and symbolic practices. Interpretive Politics: Connolly advocates for an interpretive approach to understanding political phenomena. Political discourse is seen as fluid, open to interpretation, and context-dependent. Relational Ontology: He argues for a view of politics where meanings and power are not fixed, but rather are shaped through interaction and discourse. Key Takeaways: Political discourse is not just a reflection of reality; it is an active construction that shapes political behavior, identities, and practices. Research on political discourse needs to be interpretive, considering the meanings and implications embedded in the language used by political actors. Questions for Review: How does Connolly’s interpretive politics challenge traditional understandings of political science? Why is language and discourse central to understanding political reality, according to Connolly? 5. Additional Required Readings Fujii, Lee Ann (2008). "The Power of Local Ties: Popular Participation in the Rwandan Genocide" Key Concepts: Local Ties: Fujii explores the role of local relationships in facilitating mass violence during the Rwandan Genocide, emphasizing how social networks and local politics were instrumental in mobilizing participants. Qualitative Case Study: The study is based on qualitative fieldwork involving interviews with survivors and perpetrators to understand local dynamics. Key Takeaways: Understanding mass violence requires an interpretive approach that considers the social context of local networks and power dynamics, rather than viewing it only through a top- down lens. Questions for Review: How do local social ties contribute to the spread of political violence, according to Fujii? Zetterberg, Pär (2008). “The Downside of Gender Quotas? Institutional Constraints on Women in Mexican State Legislatures” Key Concepts: Gender Quotas: Zetterberg investigates how institutional constraints limit the impact of gender quotas in Mexican state legislatures, showing that quotas alone are insufficient to empower women politically. Case Study: The article uses a qualitative case study to show how institutional barriers like party politics and bureaucratic structures impact the success of gender quotas. Key Takeaways: Gender quotas can be a double-edged sword: while they increase the representation of women, institutional barriers may limit their effectiveness in empowering women politically. Questions for Review: How do institutional constraints affect the effectiveness of gender quotas in Mexico, according to Zetterberg? Key Themes Across Readings: Ontology and Epistemology: The relationship between what we believe exists (ontology) and how we come to know it (epistemology) shapes our research methods, from quantitative surveys to qualitative case studies. Interpretive Research: Many of the readings emphasize the importance of understanding political phenomena through the lived experiences of individuals, discourse, and context. Research Design: Effective research design in political science requires a careful balance of theory and data, with clear consideration of methodological pluralism (mixing qualitative and quantitative methods) and reflexivity. Final Review Tips: Be sure to understand the ontological and epistemological distinctions between different approaches to political science (e.g., interpretivism vs. positivism). Reflect on how different research designs (case studies, ethnography, survey methods) are shaped by theory and data in the readings. Consider how concepts like discourse, social networks, and institutional constraints apply in specific political contexts, such as in gender quotas or the Rwandan genocide. Study Guide: Field Research in Political Science Overview This study guide covers key concepts and readings from the required materials for the course on field research in political science. The readings focus on methods such as ethnography, participant observation, case selection, interviews, and focus groups, which are essential for conducting field- based political science research. Lecture 3: Research Design and Case Selection Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Kapiszewski, - Research This chapter explores the - Case selection is Diana, Maclean, design - foundations of research crucial to valid Lauren M., and Case design in political science, research outcomes. - Read, Benjamin L. selection focusing on the importance Small-N studies are (2015): Field methods - of selecting cases for valuable for deep Research in Comparativ qualitative research. It analysis but require Political Science: e research discusses both large-N and careful case Practices and small-N research designs, selection. - Principles and strategies for choosing Comparative case (Chapter 3: cases that are meaningful studies help establish Research Design and manageable. causal relationships and Case in political research. Selection) Giri, Keshab. - Feminist Giri critiques the possibility - Reflexivity is critical (2022): Can Men fieldwork of men engaging in feminist in feminist research. - Do Feminist methodolo fieldwork without Researchers must Fieldwork and gy - compromising feminist consider their own Research? Reflexivity principles. The paper calls positionality and and for greater reflexivity, biases in their work. - positionalit acknowledging how gender Power dynamics y - Gender influences both the between researcher and power researcher and the and participant must researched. dynamics be actively in research addressed. Small, Mario Luis. - Case Small explores the - More cases (2009): How Many selection mathematical and generally increase Cases Do I Need? logic - theoretical reasoning external validity, but On Science and Trade-offs behind case selection in fewer cases can the Logic of Case between field-based research, provide richer, more Selection in Field- depth and emphasizing how the detailed insights. - Based Research breadth - number of cases influences Theoretical The role of generalizability and depth frameworks help theory in of analysis. guide case selection. case selection Lecture 4: Site-Intensive Methods Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Kapiszewski, Diana, - This chapter focuses on - Ethnography Maclean, Lauren M., Ethnography ethnography and requires long-term and Read, Benjamin in political participant observation engagement with a L. (2015): Field science - as essential methods community. - Research in Political Participant for understanding Participant Science: Practices observation political behavior and observation helps and Principles - Site- context. The authors understand political (Chapter 7: Site- intensive emphasize the behavior from within. Intensive Methods: research importance of gaining - Site-intensive Ethnography and methods deep insights into methods allow for Participant political processes rich, contextual Observation) through immersion. analysis. Wedeen, Lisa (2010): - Wedeen reflects on her - Ethnography is a Reflections on Ethnographi ethnographic work in powerful tool for Ethnographic Work c methods in Syria and discusses the understanding in Political Science political challenges and rewards political life in science - of using ethnography in repressive contexts. - Challenges political science, Challenges include in political especially in accessing information ethnography authoritarian regimes. and ensuring ethical - considerations. - Methodologi Reflexivity is essential cal in interpreting reflections findings. Lecture 5: Interviews, Oral Histories, and Focus Groups Reading Key Summary Key Takeaways Topics Björnehed, Emma. - Framing Björnehed examines - Framing theory is (2012): Ideas in theory - how political actors useful for Conflict: The Effect Interviews frame conflicts and understanding political of Frames in the as a peace processes in narratives. - Interviews Nepal Conflict and research Nepal, using interviews can uncover how Peace Process method - as a primary method of individuals perceive (Chapter 3: Contextua data collection. The and interpret political Interviews and l analysis chapter details the events. - Context is Methods) of political interview process and crucial for analyzing conflict how framing shapes interview data in political discourse. conflict settings. Kapiszewski, Diana, - This chapter discusses - Interviews provide in- Maclean, Lauren M., Conductin qualitative methods like depth perspectives on and Read, Benjamin g interviews, oral political phenomena. - L. (2015): Field interviews histories, and focus Oral histories capture Research in Political - Oral groups, providing personal narratives and Science: Practices histories practical advice on how collective memory. - and Principles as a tool - to conduct each method Focus groups are useful (Chapter 6: Focus effectively, and how they for exploring group Interviews, Oral groups in can complement other dynamics and Histories, and Focus political field research methods. collective opinions. Groups) science General Concepts and Takeaways 1. Ethnography and Participant Observation: a. Both are immersive methods that allow researchers to gain insider perspectives on political life. b. Reflexivity and positionality are key issues: researchers must be aware of how their own background and biases influence the research process. 2. Interviews and Focus Groups: a. These methods allow researchers to gather qualitative data on political opinions, behaviors, and perceptions. b. The success of these methods often depends on the rapport built between the researcher and the participants. 3. Case Selection: a. The process of selecting cases for study is foundational to ensuring that research is both valid and meaningful. Researchers must balance theoretical considerations with practical constraints like time and resources. 4. Reflexivity and Positionality: a. Researchers must acknowledge how their identity (gender, race, class, etc.) influences both the research process and their interpretations of data. 5. Power Dynamics: a. Fieldwork often involves navigating complex power dynamics between the researcher and the researched. Awareness of these dynamics is critical for ethical and effective research. Review Strategies 1. Understand the Core Methods: a. Focus on grasping the practical applications of ethnography, interviews, and focus groups. How do these methods differ? When and why would you use each one? 2. Reflect on the Challenges: a. Each method comes with its own challenges (e.g., access, power dynamics, ethical considerations). Think about potential solutions to these challenges in different research contexts. 3. Practice Case Selection Logic: a. Work through examples of case selection. How would you select cases for a study on political participation in authoritarian regimes? What trade-offs would you make? 4. Integrate Key Readings: a. Be sure to connect the insights from various readings. For example, how do the reflections on ethnographic work by Wedeen relate to the field research design principles discussed by Kapiszewski et al.? Study Guide: Interpretive and Process-Tracing Methods in Political Science Overview This guide focuses on key readings related to interpretive research design, process tracing, and qualitative methods of data analysis in political science. It covers topics such as generating evidence, framing, discourse analysis, and analytical frameworks. These readings emphasize qualitative methods that help researchers understand complex political phenomena through interpretive and case-based approaches. Lecture 6: Interpretive Research Design and Process-Tracing Methods Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Schwartz-Shea, - This chapter discusses - Evidence in interpretive Peregrine & Interpretive how interpretive research is not just data Yanow, Dvora research researchers engage but is also shaped by the (2012): methodolo with evidence and the researcher’s perspective. - Interpretive gy - rhythms of fieldwork. It The research process is Research Design: Generating emphasizes the dynamic and can evolve in Concepts and and iterative, flexible response to findings. - The Processes understand nature of qualitative rhythms of research (Chapter 5: The ing research, where involve both structured Rhythms of evidence - evidence generation is and unstructured Interpretive Rhythms of intertwined with moments of inquiry, Research II: the interpretation and observation, and Understanding research theory-building. reflection. and Generating process Evidence) Beach, Derek & - Process This book introduces - Process tracing focuses Pedersen, tracing process tracing as a on uncovering causal Rasmus (2013): methodolo method for identifyingmechanisms by examining Process-Tracing gy - Causal causal mechanisms the sequences and Methods: mechanism through detailed dynamics of specific Foundations and s in case analysis of cases. It cases. - The method Guidelines studies - provides a framework emphasizes close analysis (Chapters 1-3) Guidelines for using process of case details to make for using tracing to examine howcausal inferences. - process specific events or Careful documentation of tracing decisions lead to evidence is critical in effectively particular outcomes. process tracing to ensure robust conclusions. Bennett, Andrew - Principles This chapter outlines - Process tracing seeks to & Checkel, Jeffrey of process the theoretical understand how and why a T. (2015): Process tracing - underpinnings and particular political Tracing (Chapter Theoretical methodologies of outcome occurs by tracing 1) foundations process tracing, the causal pathways. - - Steps in offering concrete steps Researchers should focus process- for its application in on identifying and testing tracing political science. It causal mechanisms rather research argues for the than simple correlations. - method’s utility in The method is useful for uncovering detailed case studies that mechanisms that aim to establish causality. explain political outcomes. Additional Readings for Seminar Assignment Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Banack, Clark - Banack examines how - Political identity in rural (2020): Ethnograph rural residents in Alberta areas is deeply tied to a Ethnography and y and express political sense of alienation from Political Opinion: political alienation and anti- mainstream political Identity, opinion - establishment views institutions. - Alienation, and Rural through ethnographic Ethnographic methods Anti- politics and research. He emphasizes can help uncover establishmentari alienation - the role of identity and nuanced political anism in Rural Anti- community in shaping opinions that are often Alberta establishm political attitudes. overlooked in surveys or ent polls. sentiment Brast, Benjamin - Brast explores how - Statebuilding (2015): The Regionalis regional variations affect interventions are more Regional m and statebuilding effective when they Dimension of statebuildin interventions, arguing that account for local Statebuilding g - The role local political contexts regional differences. - Interventions of local shape the success of Understanding the local contexts in these efforts. The paper context is essential for internation uses case studies to designing successful al illustrate how statebuilding programs. intervention interventions work s differently in various regions. Module 3: Qualitative Methods of Data Analysis This module explores advanced qualitative methods for analyzing political data, such as frame analysis, discourse analysis, and methods in political theory. Lecture 7: Analytical Framework and Qualitative Text Analysis Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Boréus, Kristina - Qualitative This chapter introduces - Text analysis in & Bergström, text analysis - different qualitative political science Göran (2017): Analytical approaches for analyzing involves both close Analyzing Text frameworks political texts, focusing reading and contextual and Discourse: for political on how texts can be interpretation. - Eight texts - interpreted within Different frameworks Approaches for Approaches different analytical (e.g., thematic, Social Sciences to text frameworks. discourse) can be used (Chapter 1: pp. interpretation depending on the 1-22) research question. Braun, Virginia & - Thematic Braun and Clarke discuss - Thematic analysis is Clarke, Victoria analysis in thematic analysis, useful for identifying (2006): Using qualitative focusing on how to recurrent themes Thematic research - identify and interpret across qualitative data. Analysis in Identifying themes in qualitative - Researchers should Psychology patterns and data. Though originally remain flexible and themes in developed in psychology, allow themes to emerge data the method is widely inductively from the applicable in political data. science. Lecture 8: Analyzing Frames Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Björnehed, - Frame Björnehed and Erikson - Frame analysis helps Emma & Erikson, analysis - examine frame analysis to understand how Josefina (2018): How political as a method to political actors Making the Most actors frame understand how political construct meaning of the Frame: issues - issues are framed by around issues. - Developing the Analytical actors and institutions. Identifying frames Analytical potential of They focus on how reveals the underlying Potential of frames frames shape political values, beliefs, and Frame Analysis discourse and policy. assumptions driving political action. Erikson, Josefina - Gender and Erikson explores how - Gendered frames (2019): political gendered perceptions influence how political Institutions, decision- influence policy issues are perceived Gendered making - decisions, particularly in and addressed. - Frame Perceptions, and Frame Swedish prostitution analysis is a powerful Frames of analysis in policy, using frame tool for unpacking the Meaning policy-making analysis to identify the social and cultural - Women MPs role of gendered contexts that influence meaning-making. policy choices. and policy choices Lecture 9: Discourse Analysis in Theory and Practice Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Boréus, Kristina & - Discourse This chapter - Discourse analysis Bergström, Göran analysis - discusses the theory focuses on the language (2017): Analyzing Different and practice of used in political texts Text and approaches to discourse analysis, and speech. - Discourse: Eight analyzing detailing how to Understanding Approaches for discourse in interpret political discourse involves Social Sciences political discourse through exploring power (Chapter 8: pp. contexts various theoretical relations and ideologies 208-241) lenses. embedded in language. Jørgensen, - Foundations Jørgensen and - Discourse analysis Marianne W. & of discourse Phillips provide an examines how language Phillips, Louise J. analysis - Key introduction to the constructs social (2002): Discourse concepts in field of discourse realities. - It emphasizes Analysis as Theory discourse analysis, discussing the role of language in and Method theory - key concepts and shaping power dynamics (Chapter 1: The Approaches to theoretical and political realities. Field of Discourse analyzing underpinnings of the Analysis) political method. discourse Lecture 10: Methods in Political Theory Research Reading Key Topics Summary Key Takeaways Meckstroth, - Socratic Meckstroth discusses the - The Socratic method Christopher method in Socratic method as a tool encourages rigorous, (2012): political for political theory, philosophical questioning to Socratic science - highlighting its role in challenge assumptions and Method and Philosophica critical questioning and deepen understanding. - It is Political l approaches dialogue within political a key tool in the Science to political research. development of political theory theory. List, - List and Valentini explore - Political theory research Christian & Philosophica the various methodologies includes both normative and Valentini, l used in political theory, empirical approaches. - Laura methodology with a focus on the Understanding these (2017): The - debates surrounding methodologies requires Methodolog Approaches normative analysis, engaging with both y of Political to political empirical research, and philosophical arguments Theory theory their intersections. and real-world cases. research General Concepts and Takeaways 1. Interpretive Research Design: a. Research is a dynamic, iterative process where evidence and interpretation evolve together. Interpretive approaches emphasize the role of the researcher’s perspective in shaping the research process. 2. Process Tracing: a. This method uncovers causal mechanisms by tracing the sequence of events that lead to a particular outcome. It requires careful documentation and detailed case analysis. 3. Frame Analysis: a. Frames shape how issues are understood and acted upon. Frame analysis is crucial for understanding political discourse and the way political actors construct narratives around issues. 4. Discourse Analysis: a. Discourse analysis looks at how language constructs social realities and power relationships. It is especially useful for understanding how political ideologies and power structures are communicated. 5. Analytical Frameworks: a. Analyzing political texts requires choosing an appropriate analytical framework, such as thematic analysis or discourse analysis, depending on the nature of the research question. Review Strategies 1. Understand Methodological Differences: a. Focus on the key distinctions between interpretive research, process tracing, and discourse analysis. How do each of these methods approach evidence and analysis differently? 2. Practice Process Tracing: a. Work through case study examples, tracing causal mechanisms and identifying sequences of events that lead to political outcomes. 3. Apply Frame and Discourse Analysis: a. Practice identifying frames and discourses in political texts. Consider how they shape perceptions and policies, particularly in the context of gender, identity, and power. 4. Engage with Key Readings: a. Review key chapters and think critically about how the concepts apply to your own research interests. How might you use process tracing or discourse analysis in your own political science research? Detailed Study Guide: Key Takeaways and Definitions for Exam This detailed breakdown will help you define key concepts and understand the major takeaways from each reading. The goal is to ensure you are well-prepared to demonstrate an in-depth understanding of these qualitative research methods and concepts during your exam. Lecture 6: Interpretive Research Design and Process-Tracing Methods Schwartz-Shea, Peregrine & Yanow, Dvora (2012): Interpretive Research Design: Concepts and Processes (Chapter 5: The Rhythms of Interpretive Research II: Understanding and Generating Evidence) Key Takeaways: Interpretive Research: Interpretive research is a qualitative approach that emphasizes understanding how individuals make sense of their social world. The researcher aims to interpret meanings and actions within specific cultural or political contexts, rather than seeking generalizable laws or theories. Rhythms of Research: This concept refers to the iterative, cyclical nature of qualitative research. The process involves a back-and-forth rhythm between data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Researchers continuously refine their questions and methods as they interact with evidence, leading to evolving insights. Evidence in Interpretive Research: Evidence in interpretive research isn't just raw data— it's shaped by the researcher’s interpretations and the context in which it’s gathered. This highlights that evidence is both subjective and co-constructed, often influenced by the researcher's own perspectives, biases, and theoretical frameworks. Key Concept - "Evidence as Interpretation": Evidence isn’t purely objective. In interpretive research, the process of generating evidence is intertwined with the researcher’s efforts to make sense of the social world. This makes interpretive research both dynamic and reflexive. Key Definitions: Interpretive Research: A research methodology that focuses on understanding the meanings and context behind social phenomena, rather than just observing and categorizing them. Rhythms of Research: The cyclical and evolving process of moving between data collection, analysis, and interpretation. This iterative process allows the researcher to refine their understanding as new insights emerge. Beach, Derek & Pedersen, Rasmus (2013): Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines (Chapters 1-3) Key Takeaways: Process Tracing: A qualitative research method used to identify and trace the causal mechanisms that lead to specific outcomes. This method focuses on understanding the sequence of events and decisions that connect causes to effects, often through detailed case studies. Causal Mechanisms: Process tracing aims to uncover causal mechanisms—i.e., the specific processes through which an initial cause leads to an outcome. Unlike simple correlations, process tracing seeks to explain how and why something happened by identifying the steps involved. Steps in Process Tracing: The method typically involves: o Defining the causal theory: Establish the theoretical framework that predicts what causal mechanisms should be present. o Gathering evidence: Collect data that can confirm or disprove the hypothesized causal mechanisms. o Testing hypotheses: Evaluate whether the evidence supports or contradicts the theoretical mechanisms. o Explaining the mechanism: Based on the evidence, explain the process that led to the outcome. Key Definitions: Process Tracing: A method of qualitative research that traces the detailed steps between cause and effect in specific cases to understand causal mechanisms. Causal Mechanism: The process or pathway through which an initial cause leads to a specific outcome. Identifying the mechanism helps explain why an outcome occurred. Bennett, Andrew & Checkel, Jeffrey T. (2015): Process Tracing (Chapter 1) Key Takeaways: Process Tracing in Political Science: This chapter emphasizes the use of process tracing to uncover causal mechanisms in political science. By examining sequences of events or decisions, researchers can construct a narrative that explains political outcomes, moving beyond surface-level correlations to understand deeper causal processes. Theoretical Foundations of Process Tracing: Process tracing is grounded in the idea that understanding the how and why of political phenomena provides deeper insights than mere correlation analysis. It allows researchers to connect theory with empirical evidence in a rigorous, methodologically transparent way. Types of Process Tracing: Bennett and Checkel differentiate between two main types of process tracing: o Within-case process tracing: Focuses on a single case to track the causal chain in detail. o Cross-case process tracing: Compares different cases to identify similar causal mechanisms and determine their broader applicability. Key Definitions: Within-case Process Tracing: A focused analysis of a single case to explore in-depth causal mechanisms. Cross-case Process Tracing: A comparative approach that examines multiple cases to identify common causal mechanisms. Additional Readings for Seminar Assignment Banack, Clark (2020): Ethnography and Political Opinion: Identity, Alienation, and Anti- establishmentarianism in Rural Alberta Key Takeaways: Ethnography in Political Opinion: Banack uses ethnographic methods to explore how rural Canadians' political opinions are shaped by identity and alienation from mainstream political institutions. Ethnography is an immersive research method that involves studying a group or community from within, often through participant observation and in-depth interviews. Political Identity: The study examines how political identity in rural areas is influenced by a sense of disconnection from urban centers and government policies. This alienation often manifests in anti-establishment attitudes. Anti-establishmentarianism: This refers to a political stance that rejects the legitimacy of the current political system or elite. The study explores how this sentiment is strong in rural communities and how it shapes their political behavior. Key Definitions: Ethnography: A qualitative research method that involves the researcher embedding themselves in a community or group to observe, interact with, and document the experiences and meanings of participants. Political Identity: The set of political beliefs, values, and affiliations that individuals hold, often shaped by social, cultural, and personal experiences. Anti-establishmentarianism: A political stance characterized by rejection of or opposition to the existing political institutions, elites, or authorities. Brast, Benjamin (2015): The Regional Dimension of Statebuilding Interventions Key Takeaways: Regionalism in Statebuilding: Brast examines the regional dimension of statebuilding interventions, suggesting that local political contexts significantly affect the success or failure of statebuilding efforts. This highlights that the broader statebuilding process cannot be fully understood without considering regional variations in political, social, and economic conditions. Local Context: The study stresses that the success of statebuilding interventions is heavily dependent on understanding and adapting to the local conditions, cultures, and political landscapes of the region. Key Definitions: Statebuilding: Efforts to construct or strengthen state institutions, governance structures, and political stability, often in post-conflict or fragile states. Regionalism: The emphasis on geographic, cultural, and political factors that vary by region, influencing the way statebuilding and governance are carried out in different parts of a country. Module 3: Qualitative Methods of Data Analysis Lecture 7: Analytical Framework and Qualitative Text Analysis Key Takeaways: Analytical Framework: This concept refers to the structured approach researchers use to analyze qualitative data, such as text, interviews, or observations. Frameworks help organize and interpret data according to specific themes, categories, or concepts. Qualitative Text Analysis: A method for examining and interpreting the content of texts to uncover underlying patterns, themes, or meanings. This approach is useful in political science for analyzing speeches, policy documents, or political debates. Key Definitions: Analytical Framework: A structured set of criteria or concepts that guide the analysis of qualitative data. It helps researchers categorize and interpret data meaningfully. Qualitative Text Analysis: The process of systematically analyzing written or spoken content to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. Lecture 8: Analyzing Frames Key Takeaways: Frame Analysis: This method involves examining how political actors construct meaning around issues by framing them in specific ways. Frames shape the public’s understanding of political events, policies, and identities. Frames of Meaning: Frames of meaning are the interpretative lenses through which individuals or groups understand political issues. They shape political discourse and can affect policy outcomes. Key Definitions: Frame Analysis: A qualitative research method that focuses on how issues, events, or policies are framed by political actors to influence public opinion and behavior. Frames of Meaning: Cognitive structures that help individuals or groups interpret political events, issues, or policies, shaping their understanding and response. Lecture 9: Discourse Analysis in Theory and Practice Key Takeaways: Discourse Analysis: This method explores how language constructs reality, emphasizing the role of discourse in shaping social and political structures. Discourse analysis looks at how political actors use language to influence perceptions and exercise power. Power and Language: Discourse analysis highlights the connection between language and power. It shows how language can reinforce ideologies, legitimize power structures, and shape political reality. Key Definitions: Discourse Analysis: A method of analyzing language use in political contexts to reveal how power, ideology, and social structures are constructed and maintained. **Power and Language**: The idea that language is not neutral; it reflects and shapes power dynamics in society. Lecture 10: Methods in Political Theory Research Key Takeaways: Socratic Method: A philosophical method of inquiry that involves asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and draw out underlying assumptions. In political theory, it’s used to rigorously examine and challenge ideas. Political Theory Research: This involves the analysis of normative political concepts (like justice, equality, freedom) and how they apply to real-world political systems. It often requires a blend of philosophical reasoning and empirical analysis. Key Definitions: Socratic Method: A form of dialectical questioning used in philosophy to stimulate critical thinking and uncover the validity of ideas through systematic inquiry. Political Theory Research: Research focused on normative questions about politics, such as the nature of justice, the role of the state, and the rights of individuals. General Tips for Exam Preparation Understand Key Methodologies: Ensure you can clearly differentiate between interpretive research, process tracing, frame analysis, and discourse analysis, and understand the strengths and weaknesses of each. Be Prepared to Apply Concepts: Practice applying these methods to hypothetical political cases, identifying causal mechanisms, frames, or discourses. Critical Thinking: Be able to evaluate the methods and argue why one might be more appropriate than another for specific types of political research. Good luck with your studies! Differentiating Key Methodologies in Political Science In qualitative research within political science, different methodologies offer distinct ways of understanding and analyzing data. Here’s a breakdown of the key methodologies you mentioned— discourse analysis, frame analysis, and process tracing—along with the epistemological and ontological assumptions that underlie them, the different sampling methods they may use, and a comparison of interpretivism and positivism. 1. Discourse Analysis What It Is: Discourse analysis (DA) focuses on studying how language shapes, reflects, and constructs social realities, particularly in political contexts. It examines both the content (what is said) and the form (how it is said) of discourse, exploring how power, identity, ideology, and authority are communicated. Epistemology: Constructivist Epistemology: Discourse analysis is rooted in the belief that knowledge is constructed through language and social interaction. It rejects the idea of objective, context- independent truths, instead arguing that truths are shaped by discourse and social contexts. Interpretivist Approach: Discourse analysis aligns with an interpretivist epistemology because it seeks to understand meaning through subjective interpretation, focusing on the ways language constructs social and political realities. Ontology: Social Constructivism: In DA, the world is seen as socially constructed through language and communication. Social and political realities are not inherent or objective, but are created and negotiated through discourse. Key Focus: Power relations in language. The ways in which language constructs and reinforces political ideologies, identities, and norms. How different political actors use language to frame issues and legitimize power. Sampling Methods: Purposeful Sampling: DA often focuses on specific texts or types of discourse that are central to the research question (e.g., political speeches, media coverage, policy documents). Snowball Sampling: In some cases, researchers may start with a few key texts or actors and then expand to other discourses connected to those initial sources. 2. Frame Analysis What It Is: Frame analysis examines how political issues, events, or policies are presented (or "framed") by political actors and how these frames shape public perception and action. Frames are interpretative lenses or narratives that structure understanding of an issue. Epistemology: Constructivist Epistemology: Like discourse analysis, frame analysis is grounded in the idea that knowledge is socially constructed. It emphasizes how frames shape and influence perception by highlighting certain aspects of an issue while downplaying others. Interpretivist Approach: Frame analysis focuses on understanding how political actors construct meaning and influence others’ interpretations of events. It’s about interpreting the perspectives and intentions behind the frames. Ontology: Social Constructivism: The reality of political issues is shaped by the frames through which they are understood. There is no fixed or objective understanding of an issue; instead, its meaning is dependent on how it is framed. Key Focus: Political actors' strategic use of framing to shape political discourse. The role of frames in mobilizing support or opposition to policies. How frames can shift over time to influence public opinion or policy outcomes. Sampling Methods: Purposeful Sampling: Researchers might select key texts or speeches that are central to political debates or media coverage on a particular issue to identify the frames used. Thematic Analysis: Frames are often identified by analyzing recurring patterns or themes in the texts and understanding the frames’ intended effects on public opinion. 3. Process Tracing What It Is: Process tracing is a method used to uncover causal mechanisms by analyzing the sequence of events and decisions that lead to a particular outcome. It focuses on identifying the steps and processes through which a cause produces an effect, allowing researchers to map out the causal chain in detail. Epistemology: Positivist Epistemology: While process tracing can sometimes align with interpretivism, it is most closely associated with a positivist epistemology, particularly when used in a case study approach. It emphasizes the objective identification and testing of causal mechanisms based on evidence and clear criteria. Critical Realism: In some versions of process tracing, researchers assume that there are underlying causal mechanisms that can be discovered through rigorous analysis of case histories and data. Ontology: Realism: Process tracing assumes that there are real causal mechanisms at work that can be identified through careful empirical investigation. These mechanisms exist independent of the researcher’s perspective and are discoverable through systematic analysis. Key Focus: Identifying and tracing the causal mechanisms that connect events to outcomes. Understanding how specific political events or decisions lead to political outcomes, such as policy changes or regime transitions. Sampling Methods: Case Study Sampling: Process tracing often involves an intensive study of a small number of cases (usually a single case or a few cases) in order to trace the sequence of events in depth. Within-case Sampling: This focuses on detailed examination of specific points within a case where causal mechanisms are hypothesized to be active. Comparative Sampling: In cross-case process tracing, researchers compare different cases to identify similar causal mechanisms across cases. 4. Epistemologies and Ontologies: Positivism vs. Interpretivism Positivism Epistemology: Positivism holds that knowledge is derived from observable and measurable facts. Researchers should aim for objective, value-free observations and explanations. Positivism emphasizes the scientific method, seeking generalizable laws and causal relationships that can be empirically tested. Ontology: Positivism assumes that reality is objective and exists independently of the observer. Social phenomena are seen as external objects that can be studied using the same methods as natural sciences. Key Characteristics: o Objectivity and detachment. o Focus on causal relationships and generalizability. o Preference for quantitative methods (e.g., surveys, experiments). o The assumption that reality is stable, predictable, and independent of human interpretation. Interpretivism Epistemology: Interpretivism argues that knowledge is subjective and socially constructed. The goal is to understand the meanings that individuals or groups attach to social phenomena. Researchers focus on interpretation, context, and the social dynamics that shape human behavior and political outcomes. Ontology: Interpretivists believe that social reality is constructed through human interaction. Reality is not fixed or objective; it is contingent on the meanings and understandings people have in specific contexts. Key Characteristics: o Emphasis on context and subjective interpretation. o Focus on understanding rather than predicting. o Use of qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, ethnography). o The belief that social phenomena are dynamic and context-dependent. 5. Sampling Methods: Overview 1. Probability Sampling (Quantitative Approach) Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into strata (subgroups), and samples are drawn from each group to ensure representation. 2. Non-probability Sampling (Qualitative Approach) Purposeful Sampling: The researcher selects cases or participants that are especially relevant to the research question (e.g., choosing political leaders for a discourse analysis). Snowball Sampling: Participants help identify other participants in a chain-like fashion, often used in hard-to-reach populations. Convenience Sampling: Selecting samples that are easy to access, though this may introduce biases. Theoretical Sampling: In grounded theory or case study research, sampling is done to develop or refine a theory. 3. Case Study Sampling Within-case Sampling: Choosing specific units within a case (e.g., a particular decision or event in a political process). Cross-case Sampling: Comparing multiple cases to test the generalizability of findings or identify patterns. Summary Table: Methodologies, Epistemology, Ontology, and Sampling Methods Metho Epistemolo Ontology Key Focus Sampling Methods dology gy Disco Constructivi Social Language as a tool for Purposeful, urse st, Construc constructing political realities Snowball Sampling Analy Interpretivist tivism and power. sis Frame Constructivi Social How political issues are Purposeful, Analy st, Construc framed and interpreted. Thematic Analysis sis Interpretivist tivism Proce Positivist, Realism Identifying causal Case Study, Within- ss Critical mechanisms in political case, Comparative Tracin Realism events. Sampling g Interp Subjective, Socially Understanding meanings and Purposeful, retivis Social construct interpretations within a Snowball, m Constructivi ed specific context. Theoretical st Sampling Positi Objective, Objective Identifying generalizable laws Random, Stratified vism Empirical, , External and causal relationships. Sampling Scientific reality This breakdown will help you understand the key differences in methodology, the theoretical assumptions behind them, and how they can be applied to your political science research. You're right! I missed summarizing and explaining some of the required readings. I'll now go through each of the readings and provide a detailed summary and key concepts from every article you mentioned, so you'll be fully prepared for your exam. Here’s the full breakdown: Module 1: Philosophies of Science and (Qualitative) Research Designs 1. Marsh, David, Ercan, Selen A., and Furlong, Paul (2018) “A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science” Chapter 11 in Theory and Methods in Political Science Key Concepts: o Ontology: This concerns the nature of reality. In political science, it examines what exists in the political world—are political entities like states, institutions, and identities real and independent, or are they constructed through human interaction? ▪ Realism vs Constructivism: The debate over whether political entities exist independently or are constructed through discourse and human interaction. o Epistemology: Refers to how we know what we know. Do we derive knowledge through objective, observable facts (positivism), or do we understand it through subjective, interpretative meanings (interpretivism)? o Philosophical Frameworks in Political Science: ▪ Positivism: Asserts that the world is objective and measurable (typically quantitative methods). ▪ Interpretivism: Suggests that reality is socially constructed and can only be understood through subjective experience (qualitative methods). ▪ Critical Realism: A position that tries to reconcile these two views by arguing that the world exists independently, but our understanding of it is shaped by our perceptions and social structures. 2. Schwartz-Shea and Yanow (2012) “Interpretive Research Design: Concepts and Processes” Chapters 1-4 Key Concepts: o Interpretive Research Design: A research paradigm that emphasizes understanding political phenomena by interpreting meanings rather than seeking objective facts. It focuses on the subjective understanding and motivations of individuals in political contexts. o Contextuality: Interpretivism stresses the importance of context, recognizing that the meaning of political actions or phenomena can only be understood within the social, historical, and cultural context in which they occur. o The Role of the Researcher: The researcher’s position and identity are integral to the interpretive process. This method stresses researcher reflexivity, where the researcher must be aware of how their own biases and context influence the research. o The Rhythms of Research: Interpretive research is not linear. It’s iterative, where data collection and analysis happen simultaneously, and the focus is on understanding the emergent and complex processes behind political behaviors. 3. Gschwend, Thomas and Schimmelfennig, Frank (2011) “Introduction: Designing Research in Political Science – A Dialogue between Theory and Data” Chapter 1 in Research Design in Political Science Key Concepts: o Research Design: This chapter outlines how theory and data must be connected in research. A well-designed study must be aligned with the research question and the theoretical framework. o Causal Inference: The goal of political science research is often to infer causal relationships. For qualitative research, the design must carefully align data with causal mechanisms. o Theory-Data Dialogue: Emphasizes the interaction between theoretical concepts and empirical data. A good research design ensures that theory helps structure the data collection and that data can help refine or challenge theoretical assumptions. o Case Selection: Selecting the appropriate cases (countries, events, political actors) is a key decision in research design, affecting the depth and relevance of the findings. Module 2: Qualitative Methods of Data Generation 4. Kapiszewski, Diana, Maclean, Lauren M., and Read, Benjamin L. (2015) “Field Research in Political Science: Practices and Principles” Chapter 3: Hitting the Field and Research Ethics Key Concepts: o Field Research: Direct observation and engagement in the political environment being studied, using methods like ethnography, interviews, and surveys. Field research is important for capturing real-time political dynamics and understanding political actors. o Research Ethics: Ethical considerations include ensuring informed consent, protecting participants' privacy, maintaining confidentiality, and mitigating any harm to participants. Ethical issues are particularly challenging in sensitive political contexts. o Positionality: The researcher must be aware of how their identity and social position influence the research. Their experiences and worldview will affect how they interact with the participants and interpret the data. o Gaining Access: Fieldwork often requires gaining access to political settings or actors, which may involve negotiation and building trust. 5. Giri, Keshab. (2022) “Can Men Do Feminist Fieldwork and Research?” International Studies Review Key Concepts: o Feminist Fieldwork: Refers to research methods that focus on understanding gender power dynamics, particularly inequalities and marginalization. It involves a commitment to understanding the lived experiences of women and other marginalized groups in political contexts. o Researcher Reflexivity: Researchers must consider their own positionality in relation to their subjects, especially in feminist research. For instance, male researchers conducting feminist fieldwork need to reflect on how their gender impacts the research process and results. o Power and Gender in Research: Highlights how gender and power dynamics influence both the research process and the interpretation of data. Feminist fieldwork challenges traditional power relations in research. 6. Small, Mario Luis. (2009) “How Many Cases Do I Need? On Science and the Logic of Case Selection in Field-Based Research” Ethnography Key Concepts: o Case Selection: Focuses on the logic behind choosing cases in qualitative research. Unlike quantitative studies, which often use large, randomly selected samples, qualitative research focuses on a small number of cases that can provide deep, rich insights. o Small-N Studies: In qualitative research, particularly ethnography, researchers often choose a few cases to study in-depth, focusing on understanding processes and mechanisms rather than generalizing to larger populations. o Sampling Logic: In field-based qualitative research, purposive sampling is often used, where researchers select cases that are especially relevant or typical for understanding the research question. 7. Wedeen, Lisa (2010) “Reflections on Ethnographic Work in Political Science” Annual Review of Political Science Key Concepts: o Political Ethnography: A method where the researcher immerses themselves in the political environment being studied, observing and interacting with political actors and events in their natural setting. o Symbolic Interactionism: Emphasizes how symbols (e.g., language, rituals) are used in political contexts to create meanings and guide political behavior. Ethnographers study how these symbols are understood and used by political actors. o Contextualization: Understanding political actions requires a deep appreciation of the social, historical, and cultural contexts in which they occur. Ethnographers study the complexities of context that shape political behavior. o Reflexivity in Ethnography: Wedeen highlights the need for ethnographers to critically reflect on how their personal identity and the research process shape their findings. Module 3: Qualitative Methods of Data Analysis 8. Beach, Derek and Rasmus Pedersen (2013) “Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines” Chapters 1-3 Key Concepts: o Process Tracing: A method used to study causal mechanisms by tracing the sequence of events or actions that lead to an outcome. The goal is to uncover causal links rather than simply correlations. o Causal Mechanisms: These are the underlying processes that explain how a specific outcome is achieved. In process tracing, researchers aim to identify these mechanisms through detailed analysis of the case study. o Critical Junctures: Refers to key moments or decisions that significantly shape the outcome. Process tracing focuses on understanding the critical junctures and the decisions made at each step. o Evaluating Evidence: In process tracing, evidence is used to support or refute causal claims. The method emphasizes empirical evidence and qualitative data (such as interviews, historical documents). 9. Bennett, Andrew, and Jeffrey T. Checkel (2015) “Process Tracing” Chapter 1 in Process Tracing Key Concepts: o Process Tracing: The method is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships in a detailed, step-by-step manner. The focus is on the sequence of events, decisions, and actions that lead to a specific outcome. o Social Mechanisms: Understanding the mechanisms—the social processes or structures—that drive political outcomes. Process tracing helps uncover the causal pathways between variables and events. Contributions to Political Science: The chapter emphasizes that process tracing is an essential tool for political science research, providing detailed insights that quantitative methods cannot uncover. Conclusion: These readings cover a broad spectrum of qualitative research methodologies, from epistemological debates to practical fieldwork techniques. The key concepts across these readings include ontology, epistemology, research design, fieldwork ethics, ethnography, process tracing, and discourse/frame analysis. Understanding how to use these methods to generate and analyze data will be crucial for your exam preparation. You're right! I missed summarizing and explaining some of the required readings. I'll now go through each of the readings and provide a detailed summary and key concepts from every article you mentioned, so you'll be fully prepared for your exam. Here’s the full breakdown: Module 1: Philosophies of Science and (Qualitative) Research Designs 1. Marsh, David, Ercan, Selen A., and Furlong, Paul (2018) “A Skin not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science” Chapter 11 in Theory and Methods in Political Science Key Concepts: o Ontology: This concerns the nature of reality. In political science, it examines what exists in the political world—are political entities like states, institutions, and identities real and independent, or are they constructed through human interaction? ▪ Realism vs Constructivism: The debate over whether political entities exist independently or are constructed through discourse and human interaction. o Epistemology: Refers to how we know what we know. Do we derive knowledge through objective, observable facts (positivism), or do we understand it through subjective, interpretative meanings (interpretivism)? o Philosophical Frameworks in Political Science: ▪ Positivism: Asserts that the world is objective and measurable (typically quantitative methods). ▪ Interpretivism: Suggests that reality is socially constructed and can only be understood through subjective experience (qualitative methods). ▪ Critical Realism: A position that tries to reconcile these two views by arguing that the world exists independently, but our understanding of it is shaped by our perceptions and social structures. 2. Schwartz-Shea and Yanow (2012) “Interpretive Research Design: Concepts and Processes” Chapters 1-4 Key Concepts: o Interpretive Research Design: A research paradigm that emphasizes understanding political phenomena by interpreting meanings rather than seeking objective facts. It focuses on the subjective understanding and motivations of individuals in political contexts. o Contextuality: Interpretivism stresses the importance of context, recognizing that the meaning of political actions or phenomena can only be understood within the social, historical, and cultural context in which they occur. o The Role of the Researcher: The researcher’s position and identity are integral to the interpretive process. This method stresses researcher reflexivity, where the researcher must be aware of how their own biases and context influence the research. o The Rhythms of Research: Interpretive research is not linear. It’s iterative, where data collection and analysis happen simultaneously, and the focus is on understanding the emergent and complex processes behind political behaviors. 3. Gschwend, Thomas and Schimmelfennig, Frank (2011) “Introduction: Designing Research in Political Science – A Dialogue between Theory and Data” Chapter 1 in Research Design in Political Science Key Concepts: o Research Design: This chapter outlines how theory and data must be connected in research. A well-designed study must be aligned with the research question and the theoretical framework. o Causal Inference: The goal of political science research is often to infer causal relationships. For qualitative research, the design must carefully align data with causal mechanisms. o Theory-Data Dialogue: Emphasizes the interaction between theoretical concepts and empirical data. A good research design ensures that theory helps structure the data collection and that data can help refine or challenge theoretical assumptions. o Case Selection: Selecting the appropriate cases (countries, events, political actors) is a key decision in research design, affecting the depth and relevance of the findings. Module 2: Qualitative Methods of Data Generation 4. Kapiszewski, Diana, Maclean, Lauren M., and Read, Benjamin L. (2015) “Field Research in Political Science: Practices and Principles” Chapter 3: Hitting the Field and Research Ethics Key Concepts: o Field Research: Direct observation and engagement in the political environment being studied, using methods like ethnography, interviews, and surveys. Field research is important for capturing real-time political dynamics and understanding political actors. o Research Ethics: Ethical considerations include ensuring informed consent, protecting participants' privacy, maintaining confidentiality, and mitigating any harm to participants. Ethical issues are particularly challenging in sensitive political contexts. o Positionality: The researcher must be aware of how their identity and social position influence the research. Their experiences and worldview will affect how they interact with the participants and interpret the data. o Gaining Access: Fieldwork often requires gaining access to political settings or actors, which may involve negotiation and building trust. 5. Giri, Keshab. (2022) “Can Men Do Feminist Fieldwork and Research?” International Studies Review Key Concepts: o Feminist Fieldwork: Refers to research methods that focus on understanding gender power dynamics, particularly inequalities and marginalization. It involves a commitment to understanding the lived experiences of women and other marginalized groups in political contexts. o Researcher Reflexivity: Researchers must consider their own positionality in relation to their subjects, especially in feminist research. For instance, male researchers conducting feminist fieldwork need to reflect on how their gender impacts the research process and results. o Power and Gender in Research: Highlights how gender and power dynamics influence both the research process and the interpretation of data. Feminist fieldwork challenges traditional power relations in research. 6. Small, Mario Luis. (2009) “How Many Cases Do I Need? On Science and the Logic of Case Selection in Field-Based Research” Ethnography Key Concepts: o Case Selection: Focuses on the logic behind choosing cases in qualitative research. Unlike quantitative studies, which often use large, randomly selected samples, qualitative research focuses on a small number of cases that can provide deep, rich insights. o Small-N Studies: In qualitative research, particularly ethnography, researchers often choose a few cases to study in-depth, focusing on understanding processes and mechanisms rather than generalizing to larger populations. o Sampling Logic: In field-based qualitative research, purposive sampling is often used, where researchers select cases that are especially relevant or typical for understanding the research question. 7. Wedeen, Lisa (2010) “Reflections on Ethnographic Work in Political Science” Annual Review of Political Science Key Concepts: o Political Ethnography: A method where the researcher immerses themselves in the political environment being studied, observing and interacting with political actors and events in their natural setting. o Symbolic Interactionism: Emphasizes how symbols (e.g., language, rituals) are used in political contexts to create meanings and guide political behavior. Ethnographers study how these symbols are understood and used by political actors. o Contextualization: Understanding political actions requires a deep appreciation of the social, historical, and cultural contexts in which they occur. Ethnographers study the complexities of context that shape political behavior. o Reflexivity in Ethnography: Wedeen highlights the need for ethnographers to critically reflect on how their personal identity and the research process shape their findings. Module 3: Qualitative Methods of Data Analysis 8. Beach, Derek and Rasmus Pedersen (2013) “Process-Tracing Methods: Foundations and Guidelines” Chapters 1-3 Key Concepts: o Process Tracing: A method used to study causal mechanisms by tracing the sequence of events or actions that lead to an outcome. The goal is to uncover causal links rather than simply correlations. o Causal Mechanisms: These are the underlying processes that explain how a specific outcome is achieved. In process tracing, researchers aim to identify these mechanisms through detailed analysis of the case study. o Critical Junctures: Refers to key moments or decisions that significantly shape the outcome. Process tracing focuses on understanding the critical junctures and the decisions made at each step. o Evaluating Evidence: In process tracing, evidence is used to support or refute causal claims. The method emphasizes empirical evidence and qualitative data (such as interviews, historical documents). 9. Bennett, Andrew, and Jeffrey T. Checkel (2015) “Process Tracing” Chapter 1 in Process Tracing Key Concepts: o Process Tracing: The method is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships in a detailed, step-by-step manner. The focus is on the sequence of events, decisions, and actions that lead to a specific outcome. o Social Mechanisms: Understanding the mechanisms—the social processes or structures—that drive political outcomes. Process tracing helps uncover the causal pathways between variables and events. Contributions to Political Science: The chapter emphasizes that process tracing is an essential tool for political science research, providing detailed insights that quantitative methods cannot uncover. Conclusion: These readings cover a broad spectrum of qualitative research methodologies, from epistemological debates to practical fieldwork techniques. The key concepts across these readings include ontology, epistemology, research design, fieldwork ethics, ethnography, process tracing, and discourse/frame analysis. Understanding how to use these methods to generate and analyze data will be crucial for your exam preparation. Certainly! Let's break down the key concepts and terms from each of the readings you provided in more detail. I'll focus on extracting the main ideas and the concepts that are most important for understanding the readings. 1. Marsh, David, Ercan, Selen A., and Furlong, Paul (2018). "A Skin Not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science" This chapter examines the relationship between ontology and epistemology in political science, exploring how these philosophical concepts shape political research. Key Concepts and Terms: Ontology: Refers to the study of what exists in the social world, or the nature of social entities. In political science, this can refer to the nature of political phenomena (e.g., are political institutions "real" or are they social constructions?). Epistemology: Concerns the theory of knowledge—how we know what we know. It examines the relationship between the researcher and the world, and how knowledge about political phenomena is acquired. Relationship between Ontology and Epistemology: The chapter stresses that ontology and epistemology are intertwined. The way we understand the social world (ontology) influences how we approach knowledge and research (epistemology). For example, if you believe political institutions are real and independent of human interaction (realism), you might take a different approach to research than if you view them as constructed by discourse (social constructivism). Research Design Implications: Different ontological and epistemological assumptions lead to different research designs. For instance, positivist research (focused on observable facts) often aligns with a realist ontology, while interpretivist research (focused on understanding meanings and contexts) is more likely to adopt a constructivist ontology. "A Skin Not a Sweater" Metaphor: The authors use this metaphor to describe the inseparable relationship between ontology and epistemology. Just like the skin is integral to the body and cannot be detached from it, epistemological assumptions cannot be separated from ontological assumptions. 2. Schwartz-Shea and Yanow (2012). Interpretive Research Design: Concepts and Processes This book focuses on interpretive research, which is a qualitative methodology aimed at understanding the meanings and processes involved in political phenomena. Key Concepts and Terms: Interpretive Research: A research approach that emphasizes understanding the subjective meaning of political phenomena. It differs from positivist research, which often seeks to quantify and test hypotheses. Hermeneutics: The theory and methodology of interpretation, particularly used in the context of understanding human behavior and social practices. It focuses on interpreting the meanings people attach to their actions and the symbols they use. Generative Mechanisms: Underlying processes or forces that generate observable political events. These mechanisms may not always be directly observable but can be inferred through careful analysis. Contextuality: Interpretive research stresses that political phenomena must be understood in their specific social, historical, and cultural contexts. The context influences how political actions and meanings are constructed and understood. Methodological Relativism: A position that acknowledges that all research is shaped by the researcher's perspective. This view recognizes that knowledge is not neutral, but is shaped by the researcher's positionality and the social context in which research is conducted. Thick Description: A term borrowed from anthropology, emphasizing the need for detailed, context-rich descriptions of social phenomena. It involves both understanding the explicit actions of individuals and interpreting the underlying meanings and cultural frameworks that shape those actions. 3. Gschwend, Thomas and Schimmelfennig, Frank (2011). Research Design in Political Science: How to Practice What They Preach (Chapter 1) This chapter discusses the importance of research design in political science, with an emphasis on the interaction between theory and data. It provides guidance on how to design political science research that is methodologically sound and conceptually rigorous. Key Concepts and Terms: Research Design: The plan or strategy that guides how research will be conducted. It involves decisions on case selection, data collection methods, and the overall approach to answering research questions. Theory and Data Dialogue: This chapter emphasizes that good political science research involves a "dialogue" between theory and data. Theory provides hypotheses and conceptual frameworks, while data provides evidence that can confirm or challenge these theories. Deductive vs. Inductive Approaches: o Deductive Approach: Research that starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it against empirical data. o Inductive Approach: Research that begins with data collection and uses the data to generate theories or hypotheses. Case Selection: Gschwend and Schimmelfennig highlight the importance of case selection in research design. The way researchers choose cases (e.g., countries, regions, or political events) affects the conclusions drawn from the study. Case selection should be based on theoretical considerations to ensure that the research findings are generalizable and meaningful. 4. Connolly, William E. (1993). The Terms of Political Discourse (pp. 22-35) Connolly’s work focuses on the role of language in politics and how political discourse shapes our understanding of political events and identities. Key Concepts and Terms: Political Discourse: The language used in political contexts to construct meaning, shape identities, and influence actions. Connolly argues that political discourse is not neutral but shapes how we think about politics. Political Identity: How individuals and groups define themselves in relation to others through discourse. Language plays a key role in the formation and expression of political identities. The Role of Rhetoric: Rhetorical strategies—such as framing, metaphor, and narrative— are key in shaping political discourse. These tools are used to construct political meanings, to justify political decisions, and to influence public opinion.

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