NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 1 PDF

CoNTE j\:\PORA.R'f  Contents Foreword iii Preface v Chapter 1 The Cold War Era 1 Chapter 2 The End of Bipolarity 17 Chapter 3 US Hegemony in World P...

CoNTE j\:\PORA.R'f  Contents Foreword iii Preface v Chapter 1 The Cold War Era 1 Chapter 2 The End of Bipolarity 17 Chapter 3 US Hegemony in World Politics 31 Chapter 4 Alternative Centres of Power 51 Chapter 5 Contemporary South Asia 65 Chapter 6 International Organisations 81 Chapter 7 Security in the Contemporary World 99 Chapter 8 Environment and Natural Resources 117 Chapter 9 Globalisation 135  Chapter 1 The Cold War Era OVERVIEW This chapter provides a backdrop to the entire book. The end of the Cold War is usually seen as the beginning of the contemporary era in world politics which is the subject matter of this book. It is, therefore, appropriate that we begin the story with a discussion of the Cold War. The chapter shows how the dominance of two superpowers, the United States of America and the Soviet Union, was central to the Cold War. It tracks the various arenas of the Cold War in different parts of the world. The chapter views the Non- Aligned Movement (NAM) as a challenge to the dominance of the two superpowers and describes the attempts by the non-aligned countries to establish a New International Economic Order (NIEO) as a means of attaining The end of the Second World War led to the rise of two major economic development and centres of power. The two pictures above symbolise the victory of the US and the USSR in the Second World War. political independence. It 1. American soldiers raising the US flag during the Battle of concludes with an assessment of Iwo Jima, Japan, on 23 February 1945 India’s role in NAM and asks how Credit: Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, successful the policy of non- Photograph by Joe Rosenthal/The Associated Press 2. Soviet soldiers raising the USSR flag on the Reichstag alignment has been in protecting building in Berlin, Germany, in May 1945 India’s interests. Credit: Reichstag flag, Photograph by Yevgeny Khaldei/TASS  2 Contemporary World Politics CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS In April 1961, the leaders of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) were worried that the United States of America (USA) would invade communist-ruled Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro, the president of the small island nation off the coast of the United States. Cuba was an ally of the Soviet Union and received both We are on a world tour! Will meet you in different countries. Feels good diplomatic and financial aid from to be around where events have happened. it. Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, decided to convert Cuba into a Russian base. In 1962, he placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The installation of these weapons put the US, for the first time, under fire from close range and nearly doubled the number of bases or cities in the American mainland which could be threatened by the USSR. Three weeks after the Soviet Union had placed the nuclear weapons in Cuba, the Americans became aware of it. The US President, John F. Kennedy, and his advisers were reluctant to do anything that might lead to full-scale nuclear war between the two countries, but they were determined to get Khrushchev to remove the missiles and nuclear weapons from Cuba. Kennedy ordered American warships to intercept any Soviet ships heading to Cuba as a way of warning the USSR of his seriousness. A clash seemed Map showing the range of the nuclear missiles under construction imminent in what came to be in Cuba, used during the secret meetings on the Cuban missile crisis known as the Cuban Missile Source: John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum Crisis. The prospects of this The Cold War Era 3 clash made the whole world WHAT IS THE COLD WAR? nervous, for it would have been no ordinary war. Eventually, to The end of the Second World War the world’s great relief, both is a landmark in contemporary sides decided to avoid war. The world politics. In 1945, the Allied Soviet ships slowed down and Forces, led by the US, Soviet turned back. Union, Britain and France The Cuban Missile Crisis was defeated the Axis Powers led by a high point of what came to be Germany, Italy and Japan, ending known as the Cold War. The Cold the Second World War (1939- War referred to the competition, 1945). The war had involved the tensions and a series of almost all the major powers of the confrontations between the world and spread out to regions United States and Soviet Union, outside Europe including backed by their respective allies. Southeast Asia, China, Burma Fortunately, however, it never (now Myanmar) and parts of escalated into a ‘hot war’, that is, India’s northeast. The war a full-scale war between these two devastated the world in terms of powers. There were wars in loss of human lives and civilian various regions, with the two property. The First World War had powers and their allies involved earlier shaken the world between in warfare and in supporting 1914 and 1918. regional allies, but at least the The end of the Second World world avoided another global war. War was also the beginning of the T h e C o l d Wa r w a s n o t Cold War. The world war ended simply a matter of power when the United States dropped rivalries, of military alliances, two atomic bombs on the and of the balance of power. Japanese cities of Hiroshima and These were accompanied by a Nagasaki in August 1945, causing real ideological conflict as well, Japan to surrender. Critics of the a difference over the best and US decision to drop the bombs the most appropriate way of have argued that the US knew that organising political, economic, Japan was about to surrender and and social life all over the world. that it was unnecessary to drop The western alliance, headed by the bombs. They suggest that the the US, represented the US action was intended to stop the ideology of liberal democracy Soviet Union from making military and political gains in Asia and So near yet so far! and capitalism while the I can't believe that eastern alliance, headed by the elsewhere and to show Moscow Cuba survived as a Soviet Union, was committed to that the United States was communist country the ideology of socialism and supreme. US supporters have for so long despite communism. You have already argued that the dropping of the being located so studied these ideologies in atomic bombs was necessary to close to the US. Just end the war quickly and to stop look at the map. Class XI. 4 Contemporary World Politics further loss of American and Allied weapons capable of inflicting death lives. Whatever the motives, the and destruction unacceptable to consequence of the end of the each other, a full-fledged war is Second World War was the rise of unlikely. In spite of provocations, two new powers on the global stage. neither side would want to risk war With the defeat of Germany and since no political gains would Japan, the devastation of Europe justify the destruction of their and in many other parts of the societies. world, the United States and the In the event of a nuclear war, Soviet Union became the greatest both sides will be so badly harmed powers in the world with the ability that it will be impossible to declare to influence events anywhere on one side or the other as the winner. earth. Even if one of them tries to attack While the Cold War was an and disable the nuclear weapons outcome of the emergence of the of its rival, the other would still be US and the USSR as two left with enough nuclear weapons superpowers rival to each other, to inflict unacceptable destruction. it was also rooted in the This is called the logic of understanding that the destruction ‘deterrence’: both sides have the caused by the use of atom bombs capacity to retaliate against an is too costly for any country to attack and to cause so much bear. The logic is simple yet destruction that neither can afford powerful. When two rival powers to initiate war. Thus, the Cold War are in possession of nuclear — in spite of being an intense form of rivalry between great powers — These pictures depict the destruction remained a ‘cold’ and not hot or caused by the bombs dropped by the shooting war. The deterrence US on Hiroshima (the bomb was code- named ‘Little Boy’) and Nagasaki relationship prevents war but not (code-named ‘Fat Man’). Yet, these the rivalry between powers. bombs were very small in their destructive capacity (measured in Note the main military terms of kiloton yield) as compared to features of the Cold War. The two the nuclear bombs that were to be superpowers and the countries in available in the stockpiles assembled by the rival blocs led by the the superpowers. The yield of Little Boy and Fat Man were 15 and 21 kilotons superpowers were expected to respectively. By the early 1950s the US behave as rational and and the USSR were already making responsible actors. They were to thermonuclear weapons that had a be rational and responsible in the yield between 10 and 15 thousand kilotons. In other words, these bombs sense that they understood the were a thousand times more destructive risks in fighting wars that might than the bombs used in Hiroshima and involve the two superpowers. Nagasaki. During much of the Cold War, When two superpowers and the both the superpowers possessed blocs led by them are in a thousands of such weapons. Just imagine the extent of destruction that deterrence relationship, fighting these could cause all over the globe. wars will be massively destructive. The Cold War Era 5 Responsibility, therefore, meant The smaller states in the being restrained and avoiding the alliances used the link to the 1. Identify three risk of another world war. In this superpowers for their own countries from each sense the Cold War managed to purposes. They got the promise of of the rival blocs. ensure human survival. protection, weapons, and 2. Look at the map economic aid against their local of the European rivals, mostly regional neighbours Union in Chapter 4 THE EMERGENCE OF with whom they had rivalries. The and identify four countries that were TWO POWER BLOCS alliance systems led by the part of the Warsaw two superpowers, therefore, Pact and now The two superpowers were keen threatened to divide the entire belong to the EU. on expanding their spheres of world into two camps. This 3. By comparing this influence in different parts of the division happened first in Europe. map with that of the European Union world. In a world sharply divided Most countries of western Europe map, identify three between the two alliance systems, sided with the US and those of new countries that a state was supposed to remain eastern Europe joined the Soviet came up in the tied to its protective superpower camp. That is why these were also post-Cold War period. to limit the influence of the other called the ‘wester n’ and the superpower and its allies. ‘eastern’ alliances. NATO Members NORWAY FINLAND Warsaw Pact Members Helsinki Other Communist Nations Oslo Stockholm Others SWEDEN North Sea IRELAND DENMARK Dublin Moscow Copenhagen BRITAIN NETH. USSR ATLANTIC London Berlin The Hague Warsaw OCEAN Brussels EAST BELG. Bonn GERMANY POLAND LUX. Paris Prague CZEC WEST HOS LOV Bern GERMANY AKIA FRANCE Vienna SWITZ. AUSTRIA Budapest HUNGARY ROMANIA PORTUGAL Bucharest Yalta Belgrade SPAIN Black Sea Lisbon ITALY YUGOSLAVIA BULGARIA Madrid Rome Sofia ALBANIA Ankara Tirana TURKEY GREECE Map showing the way Europe was divided into rival alliances during the Cold War 6 Contemporary World Politics FIRST WORLD SECOND WORLD THIRD WORLD The western alliance was respective alliances. Soviet formalised into an organisation, intervention in east Europe the North Atlantic T reaty provides an example. The Soviet Organisation (NATO), which came Union used its influence in into existence in April 1949. It was eastern Europe, backed by the In the following an association of twelve states very large presence of its armies column, write which declared that armed attack in the countries of the region, to the names of on any one of them in Europe or ensure that the eastern half of three countries, which belong to: North America would be regarded Europe remained within its as an attack on all of them. Each sphere of influence. In East and Capitalist Bloc of these states would be obliged Southeast Asia and in West Asia ________________ to help the other. The eastern (Middle East), the United States ________________ alliance, known as the Warsaw built an alliance system called — ________________ Pact, was led by the Soviet Union. the Southeast Asian T reaty It was created in 1955 and its Organisation (SEATO) and the principal function was to counter Central T reaty Organisation Communist Bloc NATO’s forces in Europe. (CENTO). The Soviet Union and ________________ communist China responded by ________________ International alliances during having close relations with ________________ the Cold War era were determined regional countries such as North by the requirements of the Vietnam, North Korea and Iraq. superpowers and the calculations Non-Aligned of the smaller states. As noted The Cold War threatened to Movement above, Europe became the main divide the world into two alliances. ________________ arena of conflict between the Under these circumstances, many ________________ superpowers. In some cases, the of the newly independent ________________ superpowers used their military countries, after gaining their power to bring countries into their independence from the colonial The Cold War Era 7 powers such as Britain and democracy and capitalism were France, were worried that they better than socialism and would lose their freedom as soon communism, or vice versa. as they gained for mal independence. Cracks and splits within the alliances were quick to ARENAS OF THE COLD WAR appear. Communist China The Cuban Missile Crisis that we quarrelled with the USSR towards began this chapter with was only the late 1950s, and, in 1969, they one of the several crises that fought a brief war over a territorial occurred during the Cold War. dispute. The other important The Cold War also led to several development was the Non-Aligned shooting wars, but it is important Movement (NAM), which gave the to note that these crises and wars newly independent countries a did not lead to another world war. way of staying out of the alliances. How come there are The two superpowers were poised still two Koreas while You may ask why the for direct confrontations in Korea the other divisions superpowers needed any allies at (1950 - 53), Berlin (1958 - 62), the created by the Cold all. After all, with their nuclear Congo (the early 1960s), and in War have ended? weapons and regular armies, they several other places. Crises Do the people of deepened, as neither of the parties Korea want the were so powerful that the combined division to continue? power of most of the smaller states involved was willing to back down. in Asia and Africa, and even in When we talk about arenas of the Europe, was no match to that of Cold War, we refer, therefore, to the superpowers. Yet, the smaller areas where crisis and war states were helpful for the occurred or threatened to occur superpowers in gaining access to between the alliance systems but did not cross certain limits. A (i) vital resources, such as oil great many lives were lost in some and minerals, of these arenas like Korea, (ii) territory, from where the Vietnam and Afghanistan, but the superpowers could launch world was spared a nuclear war their weapons and troops, and global hostilities. In some cases, huge military build-ups (iii) locations from where they were reported. In many cases, could spy on each other, and diplomatic communication (iv) economic support, in that between the superpowers could many small allies together not be sustained and contributed could help pay for military to the misunderstandings. expenses. Locate the Sometimes, countries outside flashpoints They were also important for the two blocs, for example, the of the Cold ideological reasons. The loyalty of non-aligned countries, played a War on a allies suggested that the role in reducing Cold War conflicts world map. superpowers were winning the and averting some grave crises. war of ideas as well, that liberal Jawaharlal Nehru — one of the key 8 Contemporary World Politics leaders of the NAM — played a THE COLD WAR TIMELINE crucial role in mediating between the two Koreas. In the Congo crisis, the UN Secretary-General 1947 American President Harry Truman’s Doctrine played a key mediatory role. By about the containment of communism and large, it was the realisation 1947 - 52 Marshall Plan: US aid for the reconstruction of on a superpower’s part that war the Western Europe by all means should be avoided that made them exercise restraint 1948 - 49 Berlin blockade by the Soviet Union and the airlift of supplies to the citizens of West Berlin and behave more responsibly in by the US and its allies international affairs. As the Cold War rolled from one arena to 1950 - 53 Korean War; division of Korea along the 38th another, the logic of restraint was Parallel increasingly evident. 1954 Defeat of the French by the Vietnamese at However, since the Cold War Dien Bien Phu Signing of the Geneva Accords did not eliminate rivalries between Division of Vietnam along the 17th Parallel the two alliances, mutual Formation of SEATO suspicions led them to ar m themselves to the teeth and to 1954 - 75 American intervention in Vietnam constantly prepare for war. Huge 1955 Signing of the Baghdad Pact, later CENTO stocks of arms were considered necessary to prevent wars from 1956 Soviet intervention in Hungary taking place. 1961 US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba The two sides understood that Construction of the Berlin Wall war might occur in spite of 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis restraint. Either side might miscalculate the number of 1965 American intervention in the Dominican Republic weapons in the possession of the other side. They might 1968 Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia misunderstand the intentions of 1972 US President Richard Nixon’s visit to China the other side. Besides, what if there was a nuclear accident? 1978 - 89 Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia What would happen if someone fired off a nuclear weapon by 1979 - 89 Soviet intervention in Afghanistan mistake or if a soldier 1985 Gorbachev becomes the President of the mischievously shot off a weapon USSR; begins the reform process deliberately to start a war? What 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall; mass protests against if an accident occurred with a governments in eastern Europe nuclear weapon? How would the leaders of that country know it 1990 Unification of Germany was an accident and not an act of 1991 Disintegration of the Soviet Union sabotage by the enemy or that a End of the Cold War era missile had not landed from the other side? The Cold War Era 9 Drawn by well- known Indian cartoonist Kutty, these two cartoons depict an Indian view of the Cold War. The first cartoon was drawn when the US entered into a secret understanding with China, keeping the USSR in the dark. Find out more about the characters in the cartoon. The second cartoon depicts the American misadventure in Vietnam. Find out more about the Vietnam War. POLITICAL SPRING China makes overtures to the USA. FOOD FOR THOUGHT President Johnson is in more troubles over Vietnam. 10 Contemporary World Politics In time, therefore, the US and (i) cooperation among these five USSR decided to collaborate in countries, limiting or eliminating certain (ii) growing Cold War tensions FOUNDER kinds of nuclear and non-nuclear and its widening arenas, and FIGURES weapons. A stable balance of weapons, they decided, could be (iii) the dramatic entry of many OF NAM maintained through ‘arms newly decolonised African control’. Starting in the 1960s, the countries into the inter - two sides signed three national arena. By 1960, significant agreements within a there were 16 new African decade. These were the Limited members in the UN. Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Non- The first summit was attended Proliferation Treaty and the by 25 member states. Over the Josip Broz Tito Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. years, the membership of NAM (1892-1980) Thereafter, the superpowers held has expanded. The latest meeting, President of several rounds of arms limitation the 14th summit, was held in Yugoslavia (1945- talks and signed several more Havana in 2006. It included 116 80); fought against treaties to limit their arms. Germany in World member states and 15 observer War II; communist; countries. maintained some distance from the CHALLENGE TO BIPOLARITY As non-alignment grew into a Soviet Union; popular international movement, forged unity in We have already seen how the countries of various different Yugoslavia. Cold War tended to divide the political systems and interests world into two rival alliances. It joined it. This made the movement was in this context that non- less homogeneous and also made alignment of fered the newly it more difficult to define in very decolonised countries of Asia, neat and precise terms: what did Africa and Latin America a third it really stand for? Increasingly, option—not to join either alliance. NAM was easier to define in terms The roots of NAM went back of what it was not. It was not about to the friendship between three being a member of an alliance. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) leaders — Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz The policy of staying away First Prime Minister Tito, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru, from alliances should not of India (1947-64); and Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel be considered isolationism or made efforts for Nasser — who held a meeting in neutrality. Non-alignment is not Asian unity, 1956. Indonesia’s Sukarno and decolonisation, isolationism since isolationism Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah means remaining aloof from world nuclear disarmament; strongly supported them. These affairs. Isolationism sums up the advocated five leaders came to be known as foreign policy of the US from the peaceful the five founders of NAM. The first American War of Independence in coexistence for non-aligned summit was held in 1787 up to the beginning of the securing world Belgrade in 1961. This was the peace. First World War. In comparison, culmination of at least three the non-aligned countries, factors: including India, played an active The Cold War Era 11 role in mediating between the two The idea of a New Inter - rival alliances in the cause of national Economic Order (NIEO) peace and stability. Their strength originated with this realisation. was based on their unity and their The United Nations Conference FOUNDER resolve to remain non-aligned on T rade and Development FIGURES despite the attempt by the two (UNCTAD) brought out a report OF NAM superpowers to bring them into in 1972 entitled Towards a New their alliances. T rade Policy for Development. The report proposed a reform of Non-alignment is also not the global trading system so neutrality. Neutrality refers as to: principally to a policy of staying out of war. States practising (i) give the LDCs control over neutrality are not required to help their natural resources end a war. They do not get exploited by the developed Gamal Abdel Western countries, Nasser (1918-70) involved in wars and do not Ruled Egypt from take any position on the (ii) obtain access to Western 1952 to 1970; appropriateness or morality of a markets so that the LDCs espoused the war. Non-aligned states, including could sell their products and, causes of Arab India, were actually involved in therefore, make trade more nationalism, wars for various reasons. They socialism and beneficial for the poorer anti-imperialism; also worked to prevent war countries, nationalised the between others and tried to end Suez Canal, (iii) reduce the cost of technology wars that had broken out. leading to an from the Western countries, and international (iv) provide the LDCs with a conflict in 1956. NEW INTERNATIONAL greater role in international ECONOMIC ORDER economic institutions. Gradually, the nature of non- The non-aligned countries were alignment changed to give greater more than merely mediators during importance to economic issues. the Cold War. The challenge for most In 1961, at the first summit in of the non-aligned countries — a Belgrade, economic issues had majority of them were categorised not been very important. By the Sukarno (1901-70) as the Least Developed Countries mid-1970s, they had become the First President of (LDCs) — was to be more developed most important issues. As a Indonesia (1945- economically and to lift their people 65); led the result, NAM became an economic freedom struggle; out of poverty. Economic pressure group. By the late espoused the development was also vital for the 1980s, however, the NIEO causes of independence of the new countries. initiative had faded, mainly socialism and Without sustained development, a because of the stiff opposition anti-imperialism; country could not be truly free. It organised the from the developed countries who Bandung would remain dependent on the acted as a united group while the Conference; richer countries including the non-aligned countries struggled overthrown in a colonial powers from which political to maintain their unity in the face military coup. freedom had been achieved. of this opposition. 12 Contemporary World Politics INDIA AND THE COLD WAR cause which had little to do with India’s real interests. A non-aligned As a leader of NAM, India’s posture also served India’s interests FOUNDER response to the ongoing Cold War very directly, in at least two ways: FIGURES was two-fold: At one level, it took First, non-alignment allowed OF NAM particular care in staying away India to take international from the two alliances. Second, it decisions and stances that raised its voice against the newly served its interests rather than decolonised countries becoming the interests of the super- part of these alliances. powers and their allies. India’s policy was neither Second, India was often able negative nor passive. As Nehru to balance one superpower reminded the world, non- against the other. If India felt alignment was not a policy of ignored or unduly pressurised Kwame Nkrumah ‘fleeing away’. On the contrary, (1909-72) by one superpower, it could tilt First Prime Minister India was in favour of actively towards the other. Neither of Ghana (1952- intervening in world affairs to alliance system could take 66); led the soften Cold War rivalries. India India for granted or bully it. freedom tried to reduce the differences movement; between the alliances and thereby India’s policy of non-alignment advocated the was criticised on a number of prevent dif ferences from causes of escalating into a full-scale war. counts. Here we may refer to only socialism and African unity; Indian diplomats and leaders were two criticisms: opposed neo- often used to communicate and First, India’s non-alignment colonialism; mediate between Cold War rivals was said to be ‘unprincipled’. removed in a such as in the Korea War in the military coup. In the name of pursuing its early 1950s. national interest, India, it was It is important to remember said, often refused to take a that India chose to involve other firm stand on crucial members of the non-aligned group international issues. in this mission. During the Cold Second, it is suggested that So, NIEO was just an War, India repeatedly tried to India was inconsistent and idea that never activate those regional and took contradictory postures. became an order. international organisations, which Having criticised others for Right? were not a part of the alliances led joining alliances, India signed by the US and USSR. Nehru Name any five reposed great faith in ‘a genuine the Treaty of Friendship in countries, August 1971 with the USSR commonwealth of free and which were for 20 years. This was cooperating nations’ that would decolonised regarded, particularly by play a positive role in softening, if following the outside observers, as not ending, the Cold War. end of the virtually joining the Soviet Second World Non-alignment was not, as alliance system. The Indian War. some suggest, a noble international government’s view was that The Cold War Era 13 India needed diplomatic and possibly military support during the Bangladesh crisis and that in any case the treaty did not stop India from having good relations with other countries including the US. Non-alignment as a strategy evolved in the Cold War context. As we will see in Chapter 2, with the disintegration of the USSR and the end of the Cold War in 1991, non-alignment, both as an international movement and as the core of India’s foreign policy, STEPS lost some of its earlier relevance ‹ Divide the classroom into three groups of even and effectiveness. However, non- number. Each group is to represent three alignment contained some core different worlds - first world/capitalist world, values and enduring ideas. It was second world/communist world and the third based on a recognition that world/non-aligned world. decolonised states share a historical affiliation and can ‹ The teacher is to select any two critical issues become a powerful force if they which posed a threat to world peace and come together. It meant that the security during the Cold War days. ( The Korean poor and often very small and Vietnam Wars would be good examples). countries of the world need not ‹ Assign each group to work on developing an become followers of any of the big ‘event profile’. They have to develop, from the powers, that they could pursue an vantage point of the bloc they represent, a independent foreign policy. It was presentation that contains a timeline of the also based on a resolve to event, its causes, their preferred course of action democratise the international to solve the problem. system by thinking about an ‹ Each group is to present their event profile alternative world order to redress before the class. existing inequities. These core Ideas for the Teacher ideas remain relevant even after Draw students’ attention to the repercussions these crises had the Cold War has ended. on the rest of the world and on the respective countries. Connect to the present situation in these countries. Highlight the role played by the leaders of the Third World (India’s stand and contribution in Korea and Vietnam could be taken up for reference) and the UN to bring back peace in these regions. Open a debate on ‘how we could avert these kind of crises’ in the post-Cold War world. 14 Contemporary World Politics ARMS CONTROL TREATIES LIMITED TEST BAN TREATY (LTBT) Banned nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water. Signed by the US, UK and USSR in Moscow on 5 August 1963. Entered into force on 10 October 1963. NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY (NPT) Allows only the nuclear weapon states to have nuclear weapons and stops others from aquiring them. For the purposes of the NPT, a nuclear weapon state is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967. So there are five nuclear weapon states: US, USSR (later Russia), Britain, France and China. Signed in Washington, London, and Moscow on 1 July 1968. Entered into force on 5 March 1970. Extended indefinitely in 1995. STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TALKS I (SALT-I) The first round of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969. The Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and the US President Richard Nixon signed the following in Moscow on 26 May 1972 – a) Treaty on the limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems (ABM Treaty); and b) Interim Agreement on the limitation of strategic offensive arms. Entered into force on 3 October 1972. STRATEGIC ARMS LIMITATION TALKS II (SALT-II) The second round started in November 1972. The US President Jimmy Carter and the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev signed the Treaty on the limitation of strategic offensive arms in Vienna on 18 June 1979. STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY I (START-I) Treaty signed by the USSR President Mikhail Gorbachev and the US President George Bush (Senior) on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms in Moscow on 31 July 1991. STRATEGIC ARMS REDUCTION TREATY II (START-II) Treaty signed by the Russian President Boris Yeltsin and the US President George Bush (Senior) on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms in Moscow on 3 January 1993. The Cold War Era 15 1. Which among the following statements about the Cold War is wrong? a) It was a competition between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. E x e r c i s e s b) It was an ideological war between the superpowers. c) It triggered off an arms race. d) the US and USSR were engaged in direct wars. 2. Which among the following statements does not reflect the objectives of NAM a) Enabling newly decolonised countries to pursue independent policies b) No to joining any military alliances c) Following a policy of ‘neutrality’ on global issues d) Focus on elimination of global economic inequalities 3. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements that describe the features of the military alliances formed by the superpowers. a) Member countries of the alliance are to provide bases in their respective lands for the superpowers. b) Member countries to support the superpower both in terms of ideology and military strategy. c) When a nation attacks any member country, it is considered as an attack on all the member countries. d) Superpowers assist all the member countries to develop their own nuclear weapons. 4. Here is a list of countries. Write against each of these the bloc they belonged to during the Cold War. a) Poland b) France c) Japan d) Nigeria e) North Korea f) Sri Lanka 5. The Cold War produced an arms race as well as arms control. What were the reasons for both these developments? 6. Why did the superpowers have military alliances with smaller countries? Give three reasons. 16 Contemporary World Politics 7. Sometimes it is said that the Cold War was a simple struggle for power and that ideology had nothing to do with it. Do you agree with this? Give one example to support your position. E x e r c i s e s 8. What was India’s foreign policy towards the US and USSR during the Cold War era? Do you think that this policy helped India’s interests? 9. NAM was considered a ‘third option’ by Third World countries. How did this option benefit their growth during the peak of the Cold War? 10. What do you think about the statement that NAM has become irrelevant today. Give reasons to support your opinion.  Chapter 2 The End of Bipolarity OVERVIEW The Berlin Wall, which had been built at the height of the Cold War and was its greatest symbol, was toppled by the people in 1989. This dramatic event was followed by an equally dramatic and historic chain of events that led to the collapse of the ‘second world’ and the end of the Cold War. Germany, divided after the Second World War, was unified. One after another, the eight East European countries that were part of the Soviet bloc replaced their communist gover nments in response to mass demonstrations. The Soviet Union stood by as the Cold War began to end, not by The Berlin Wall military means but as a result of symbolised the division mass actions by ordinary men and between the capitalist and the communist women. Eventually the Soviet world. Built in 1961 to Union itself disintegrated. In this separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than 150 chapter, we discuss the meaning, kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally broken the causes and the consequences by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of the disintegration of the ‘second of the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict: world’. We also discuss what 1. People making a tiny hole in the wall happened to that part of the world 2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement after the collapse of communist 3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989 Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm, regimes and how India relates to www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin these countries now. 3. www.cs.utah.edu 18 Contemporary World Politics WHAT WAS THE SOVIET machinery production, and a transport sector that connected its SYSTEM? remotest areas with efficiency. It had a domestic consumer LEADERS OF THE The Union of Soviet Socialist industry that produced everything SOVIET UNION Republics (USSR) came into being from pins to cars, though their after the socialist revolution in quality did not match that of the Russia in 1917. The revolution was Western capitalist countries. The inspired by the ideals of socialism, Soviet state ensured a minimum as opposed to capitalism, and the standard of living for all citizens, need for an egalitarian society. This and the government subsidised was perhaps the biggest attempt basic necessities including health, in human history to abolish the education, childcare and other institution of private property and welfare schemes. There was no Vladimir Lenin consciously design a society based unemployment. State ownership (1870-1924) Founder of the on principles of equality. In doing was the dominant for m of Bolshevik so, the makers of the Soviet system ownership: land and productive Communist party; gave primacy to the state and the assets were owned and controlled leader of the institution of the party. The Soviet by the Soviet state. Russian Revolution political system centred around of 1917 and the the communist party, and no other The Soviet system, however, founder-head of became very bureaucratic and political party or opposition was the USSR during allowed. The economy was planned authoritarian, making life very the most difficult period following and controlled by the state. difficult for its citizens. Lack of the revolution democracy and the absence of After the Second World War, (1917-1924); an freedom of speech stifled people who outstanding the east European countries that often expressed their dissent in theoretician and the Soviet army had liberated from jokes and cartoons. Most of the practitioner of the fascist forces came under the institutions of the Soviet state Marxism and a control of the USSR. The political source of needed reform: the one-party and the economic systems of all inspiration for system represented by the these countries were modelled communists all Communist Party of the Soviet after the USSR. This group of over the world. Union had tight control over all countries was called the Second institutions and was unaccountable World or the ‘socialist bloc’. The to the people. The party refused to Warsaw Pact, a military alliance, recognise the urge of people in the held them together. The USSR was fifteen different republics that formed the leader of the bloc. the Soviet Union to manage their The Soviet Union became a own affairs including their cultural great power after the Second affairs. Although, on paper, Russia World War. The Soviet economy was only one of the fifteen republics was then more developed than the that together constituted the USSR, rest of the world except for the US. in reality Russia dominated It had a complex communications everything, and people from other network, vast energy resources regions felt neglected and often including oil, iron and steel, suppressed. The End of Bipolarity 19 In the arms race, the Soviet Gorbachev, did not intervene Union managed to match the US when the disturbances occurred, from time to time, but at great and the communist regimes cost. The Soviet Union lagged collapsed one after another. behind the West in technology, LEADERS OF THE These developments were SOVIET UNION infrastructure (e.g. transport, accompanied by a rapidly power), and most importantly, in escalating crisis within the USSR fulfilling the political or economic that hastened its disintegration. aspirations of citizens. The Soviet Gorbachev initiated the policies of invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 economic and political reform and weakened the system even democratisation within the further. Though wages continued country. The refor ms were to grow, productivity and opposed by leaders within the technology fell considerably Joseph Stalin Communist Party. behind that of the West. This led (1879-1953) to shortages in all consumer A coup took place in 1991 that Successor to Lenin goods. Food imports increased was encouraged by Communist and led the Soviet every year. The Soviet economy Party hardliners. The people had Union during its tasted freedom by then and did not consolidation was faltering in the late 1970s and (1924-53); began became stagnant. want the old-style rule of the rapid Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin industrialisation GORBACHEV AND THE emerged as a national hero in opposing this coup. The Russian and forcible collectivisation of DISINTEGRATION Republic, where Yeltsin won a agriculture; credited with popular election, began to shake Mikhail Gorbachev, who had Soviet victory in off centralised control. Power the Second World become General Secretary of the began to shift from the Soviet War; held Communist Party of the Soviet centre to the republics, especially responsible for the Union in 1985, sought to reform in the more Europeanised part of Great Terror of the this system. Refor ms were 1930s, the Soviet Union, which saw necessary to keep the USSR authoritarian themselves as sovereign states. abreast of the information and functioning and The Central Asian republics did elimination of technological revolutions taking not ask for independence and rivals within the place in the West. However, wanted to remain with the Soviet party. Gorbachev’s decision to normalise Federation. In December 1991, relations with the West and under the leadership of Yeltsin, democratise and reform the Soviet Russia, Ukraine and Belarus, Union had some other effects that three major republics of the neither he nor anyone else USSR, declared that the Soviet intended or anticipated. The Union was disbanded. The people in the East European Communist Party of the Soviet countries which were part of the Union was banned. Capitalism Soviet bloc started to protest and democracy were adopted as against their own governments the bases for the post-Soviet and Soviet control. Unlike in the republics. past, the Soviet Union, under 20 Contemporary World Politics A Communist Party bureaucrat drives down from Moscow to a collective farm to register a potato harvest. “Comrade farmer, how has the harvest been this year?” the official asks. LEADERS OF THE “Oh, by the grace of God, we had mountains of potatoes,” answers the SOVIET UNION farmer. “But there is no God,” counters the official. “Huh”, says the farmer, “And there are no mountains of potatoes either.” The declaration on the there may be more general lessons disintegration of the USSR and the to be drawn from this very formation of the Commonwealth important case. of Independent States (CIS) came There is no doubt that the as a surprise to the other Nikita Khrushchev internal weaknesses of Soviet (1894-1971) republics, especially to the Central political and economic institutions, Leader of the Asian ones. The exclusion of these which failed to meet the Soviet Union republics was an issue that was aspirations of the people, were (1953-64); quickly solved by making them denounced responsible for the collapse of the founding members of the CIS. system. Economic stagnation for Stalin’s leadership Russia was now accepted as the many years led to severe style and introduced some successor state of the Soviet consumer shortages and a large reforms in 1956; Union. It inherited the Soviet seat section of Soviet society began to suggested in the UN Security Council. Russia doubt and question the system “peaceful accepted all the international and to do so openly. coexistence” with treaties and commitments of the the West; Why did the system become so Soviet Union. It took over as the involved in weak and why did the economy suppressing only nuclear state of the post- stagnate? The answer is partially popular rebellion Soviet space and carried out some in Hungary and in clear. The Soviet economy used nuclear disarmament measures the Cuban missile much of its resources in with the US. The old Soviet Union crisis. maintaining a nuclear and was thus dead and buried. military arsenal and the development of its satellite states WHY DID THE SOVIET UNION in Eastern Europe and within the DISINTEGRATE? Soviet system (the five Central Asian Republics in particular). How did the second most powerful This led to a huge economic country in the world suddenly burden that the system could not disintegrate? This is a question cope with. At the same time, worth asking not just to ordinary citizens became more I am amazed! How understand the Soviet Union and knowledgeable about the could so many the end of communism but also economic advance of the West. sensitive people all because it is not the first and may They could see the disparities over the world not be the last political system to between their system and the admire a system like collapse. While there are unique systems of the West. After years this? features of the Soviet collapse, of being told that the Soviet The End of Bipolarity 21 system was better than Western impossible to control. There were capitalism, the reality of its sections of Soviet society which felt backwardness came as a political that Gorbachev should have and psychological shock. moved much faster and were disappointed and impatient with LEADERS OF THE The Soviet Union had become SOVIET UNION stagnant in an administrative and his methods. They did not benefit political sense as well. The in the way they had hoped, or they Communist Party that had ruled benefited too slowly. Others, the Soviet Union for over 70 years especially members of the was not accountable to the people. Communist Party and those who Ordinary people were alienated by were served by the system, took slow and stifling administration, exactly the opposite view. They felt rampant corruption, the inability that their power and privileges of the system to correct mistakes were eroding and Gorbachev was Leonid Brezhnev it had made, the unwillingness to moving too quickly. In this ‘tug of (1906-82) war’, Gorbachev lost support on all Leader of the allow more openness in sides and divided public opinion. Soviet Union (1964- government, and the centralisation 82); proposed of authority in a vast land. Worse Even those who were with him Asian Collective still, the party bureaucrats gained became disillusioned as they felt Security system; more privileges than ordinary that he did not adequately defend associated with citizens. People did not identify his own policies. the détente phase in relations with with the system and with the All this might not have led to the US; involved in rulers, and the government the collapse of the Soviet Union but suppressing a increasingly lost popular backing. for another development that popular rebellion surprised most observers and in Czechoslovakia Gorbachev’s reforms promised and in invading to deal with theseproblems. indeed many insiders. The rise of Afghanistan. Gorbachev promised to reform the nationalism and the desire for economy, catch up with the West, sovereignty within various and loosen the administrative republics including Russia and the system. You may wonder why the Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia Soviet Union collapsed in spite of and Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia, Gorbachev’s accurate diagnosis of and others proved to be the final the problem and his attempt to and most immediate cause for the implement reforms. Here is where disintegration of the USSR. Here the answers become more again there are differing views. controversial, and we have to One view is that nationalist depend on future historians to urges and feelings were very much guide us better. at work throughout the history of The most basic answer seems the Soviet Union and that whether to be that when Gorbachev carried or not the reforms had occurred out his reforms and loosened the there would have been an internal system, he set in motion forces and struggle within the Soviet Union. expectations that few could have This is a ‘what-if’ of history, but predicted and became virtually surely it is not an unreasonable 22 Contemporary World Politics view given the size and diversity of Ironically, during the Cold War the Soviet Union and its growing many thought that nationalist internal problems. Others think unrest would be strongest in the that Gorbachev’s reforms speeded Central Asian republics given their LEADERS OF THE up and increased nationalist ethnic and religious differences with SOVIET UNION dissatisfaction to the point that the rest of the Soviet Union and their the government and rulers could economic backwardness. However, not control it. as things turned out, nationalist TIMELINE OF DISINTEGRATION OF THE SOVIET UNION 1985 March: Mikhail Gorbachev elected as the General Secretary of the Mikhail Communist Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the Gorbachev Communist Party in Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in the Soviet Union (Born 1931) Last leader of the 1988: Independence movement begins in Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia Soviet Union and Latvia (1985-91); introduced 1989 October: Soviet Union declares that the Warsaw Pact members are free economic and to decide their own futures; Berlin Wall falls in November political reform policies of 1990 February: Gorbachev strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year-long perestroika monopoly on power by calling on the Soviet parliament (Duma) to permit multi- (restructuring) party politics and glasnost (openness); 1990 March: Lithuania becomes the first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare its stopped the arms independence race with the US; withdrew Soviet 1990 June: Russian parliament declares its independence from the Soviet Union troops from Afghanistan and 1991 June: Yeltsin, no longer in the Communist Party, becomes the President of eastern Europe; Russia helped in the unification of 1991 August: The Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against Germany; ended Gorbachev the Cold War; blamed for the 1991 September: Three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania become disintegration of UN members (later join NATO in March 2004) the Soviet Union. 1991 December: Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decide to annul the 1922 Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan join the CIS (Georgia joins later in 1993); Russia takes over the USSR seat in the United Nations 1991 December 25: Gorbachev resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the end of the Soviet Union The End of Bipolarity 23 dissatisfaction with the Soviet Union changed. The end of the Cold War was strongest in the more left open only two possibilities: “European” and prosperous part – either the remaining superpower in Russia and the Baltic areas as would dominate and create a well as Ukraine and Georgia. unipolar system, or different LEADERS OF THE Ordinary people here felt alienated countries or groups of countries SOVIET UNION from the Central Asians and from could become important players in each other and concluded also that the international system, thereby they were paying too high an bringing in a multipolar system economic price to keep the more where no one power could backward areas within the Soviet dominate. As it turned out, the US Union. became the sole superpower. Backed by the power and prestige CONSEQUENCES of the US, the capitalist economy OF was now the dominant economic Boris Yeltsin (Born DISINTEGRATION system internationally. Institutions 1931) like the World Bank and The first elected The collapse of the second world International Monetary Fund President of of the Soviet Union and the became powerful advisors to all Russia (1991- 1999); rose to socialist systems in eastern Europe these countries since they gave power in the had profound consequences for them loans for their transitions to Communist Party world politics. Let us note here capitalism. Politically, the notion of and was made three broad kinds of enduring liberal democracy emerged as the the Mayor of changes that resulted from it. best way to organise political life. Moscow by Each of these had a number of Gorbachev; later Third, the end of the Soviet bloc joined the critics effects that we cannot list here. meant the emergence of many new of Gorbachev First of all, it meant the end of countries. All these countries had and left the their own independent aspirations Communist Party; Cold War confrontations. The led the protests ideological dispute over whether and choices. Some of them, against the Soviet the socialist system would beat the especially the Baltic and east regime in 1991; capitalist system was not an issue European states, wanted to join the played a key role any more. Since this dispute had European Union and become part in dissolving the of the North Atlantic Treaty Soviet Union; engaged the military of the two Organisation (NATO). The Central blamed for blocs, had triggered a massive hardships arms race and accumulation of Asian countries wanted to take suffered by nuclear weapons, and had led to advantage of their geographical Russians in their the existence of military blocs, the location and continue their close ties transition from end of the confrontation demanded with Russia and also to establish ties communism to with the West, the US, China and capitalism. an end to this arms race and a possible new peace. others. Thus, the international system saw many new players Second, power relations in emerge, each with its own identity, world politics changed and, interests, and economic and political therefore, the relative influence of difficulties. It is to these issues that ideas and institutions also we now turn. 24 Contemporary World Politics SHOCK THERAPY IN Each of these countries was required to make a total shift to POST-COMMUNIST REGIMES a capitalist economy, which meant rooting out completely The collapse of communism was any structures evolved during followed in most of these the Soviet period. Above all, it countries by a painful process of meant that private ownership transition from an authoritarian was to be the dominant pattern socialist system to a democratic of ownership of property. I heard someone say capitalist system. The model of Privatisation of state assets and “The end of the transition in Russia, Central Asia corporate ownership patterns Soviet Union does not mean the end of and east Eur ope that was were to be immediately brought socialism.” Is that influenced by the World Bank in. Collective farms were to be possible? and the IMF came to be known replaced by private farming and as ‘shock therapy’. Shock therapy capitalism in agriculture. This varied in intensity and speed transition ruled out any amongst the former second world alternate or ‘third way’, other countries, but its direction and than state-controlled socialism features were quite similar. or capitalism. POLITICAL MAP OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES, 1997 Locate the Central Asian Republics on the map. “Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin” The End of Bipolarity 25 Shock therapy also involved a about 90 per cent of its industries drastic change in the external were put up for sale to private orientation of these economies. individuals and companies. Since Development was now envisaged the restructuring was carried out through more trade, and thus a through market forces and not by sudden and complete switch to government-directed industrial free trade was considered policies, it led to the virtual essential. The free trade regime disappearance of entire industries. and foreign direct investment This was called ‘the largest garage (FDI) were to be the main engines sale in history’, as valuable of change. This also involved industries were undervalued and openness to foreign investment, sold at throwaway prices. Though financial opening up or all citizens were given vouchers to deregulation, and currency participate in the sales, most convertibility. citizens sold their vouchers in the black market because they needed Finally, the transition also the money. involved a break up of the existing trade alliances among the The value of the ruble, the countries of the Soviet bloc. Each Russian currency, declined state from this bloc was now dramatically. The rate of inflation linked directly to the West and not was so high that people lost all to each other in the region. These their savings. The collective farm states were thus to be gradually system disintegrated leaving absorbed into the Wester n people without food security, and economic system. The Western Russia started to import food. The capitalist states now became the real GDP of Russia in 1999 was leaders and thus guided and below what it was in 1989. The old controled the development of the trading structure broke down with region through various agencies no alternative in its place. and organisations. The old system of social welfare was systematically destroyed. The CONSEQUENCES OF SHOCK withdrawal of gover nment subsidies pushed large sections of THERAPY the people into poverty. The middle classes were pushed to the The shock therapy administered in periphery of society, and the the 1990s did not lead the people academic and intellectual into the promised utopia of mass manpower disintegrated or consumption. Generally, it migrated. A mafia emerged in most brought ruin to the economies and of these countries and started I can see the shock. disaster upon the people of the controlling many economic But where is the entire region. In Russia, the large activities. Privatisation led to new therapy? Why do we state-controlled industrial disparities. Post-Soviet states, talk in such complex almost collapsed, as especially Russia, were divided euphemisms? 26 Contemporary World Politics between rich and poor regions. TENSIONS AND CONFLICTS Unlike the earlier system, there Most of the former Soviet was now great economic inequality Republics are prone to conflicts, between people. and many have had civil wars and The construction of democratic insurgencies. Complicating the As a result of institutions was not given the picture is the growing involvement ‘shock therapy’ of outside powers. same attention and priority as about half of the demands of economic In Russia, two republics, Russia’s 1,500 banks and other transformation. The constitutions Chechnya and Dagestan, have finacial institutions of all these countries were drafted had violent secessionist went bankrupt. in a hurry and most, including movements. Moscow’s method of This image is that Russia, had a strong executive dealing with the Chechen rebels of Inkombank, and indiscriminate military president with the widest possible Russia’s second powers that rendered elected bombings have led to many largest bank, that parliaments relatively weak. In human rights violations but failed went bankrupt in 1998. As a result, Central Asia, the presidents had to deter the aspirations for the money of great powers, and several of them independence. 10,000 corporate became very authoritarian. For In Central Asia, Tajikistan and private example, the presidents of witnessed a civil war that went on shareholders was lost, along with the Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan for ten years till 2001. The region money kept in the appointed themselves to power as a whole has many sectarian bank by first for ten years and then conflicts. In Azerbaijan’s province customers. extended it for another ten years. of Nagorno-Karabakh, some local They allowed no dissent or Armenians want to secede and opposition. A judicial culture and join Armenia. In Georgia, the independence of the judiciary was demand for independence has yet to be established in most of come from two provinces, these countries. resulting in a civil war. There are movements against the existing Most of these economies, regimes in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan especially Russia, started and Georgia. Countries and reviving in 2000, ten years after provinces are fighting over river their independence. The reason waters. All this has led to for the revival for most of their instability, making life difficult for economies was the export of the ordinary citizen. natural resources like oil, natural gas and minerals. Azerbaijan, The Central Asian Republics are What is the difference areas with vast hydrocarbon Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan between nationalism and Uzbekistan are major oil and gas resources, which have brought and secessionism? If you succeed, you are producers. Other countries have them economic benefit. Central celebrated as a gained because of the oil Asia has also become a zone of nationalist hero, and if pipelines that cr oss their competition between outside you fail you are territories for which they get rent. powers and oil companies. The condemned for crimes Some amount of manufacturing region is next to Russia, China, of secessionism. Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and has restarted. The End of Bipolarity 27 close to West Asia. After 11 embedded in a history of trust and Make a list of September 2001, the US wanted common interests and are the similarities military bases in the region and matched by popular perceptions. between paid the governments of all Central Indian heroes from Raj Kapoor to India and the Asian states to hire bases and to Amitabh Bachhan are household USSR in their allow airplanes to fly over their names in Russia and many post- political and territory during the wars in Soviet countries. One can hear economic Afghanistan and Iraq. However, Hindi film songs all over the ideologies. Russia perceives these states as its region, and India is part of the ‘Near Abroad’ and believes that they popular memory. should be under Russian influence. Russia and India share a vision China has interests here because of a multipolar world order. What of the oil resources, and the Chinese they mean by a multipolar world have begun to settle around the borders and conduct trade. BOLLYWOOD STIRS UZBEK In easter n Europe, PASSIONS Czechoslovakia split peacefully into two, with the Czechs and the Seven years after the Soviet Union collapsed, the Uzbek Slovaks forming independent passion for Indian films continues. Within months of the countries. But the most severe release of the latest film in India, pirate copies were already conflict took place in the Balkan on sale in the Uzbek capital, Tashkent. republics of Yugoslavia. After Mohammed Sharif Pat runs a shop selling Indian films near 1991, it broke apart with several one of Tashkent’s biggest markets. He is an Afghan who provinces like Croatia, Slovenia brings videos from the Pakistani frontier town Peshawar. and Bosnia and Herzegovina “There are many people who love Indian films here. I’d say declaring independence. Ethnic at least 70% of the people in Tashkent buy them. We sell Serbs opposed this, and a about 100 videos a day. I’ve just had to put in an order for a thousand more,” he says. “The Uzbeks are Central Asians, massacre of non-Serb Bosnians they are part of Asia. They have a common culture. That’s followed. The NATO intervention